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Background: Atakora mountains in Benin are a unique but fragile ecosystem, harboring many endemic plant species. The ecosystem is undergoing degradation, and the woody vegetation is dramatically declining due to high anthropogenic actions and recurrent drought. This study aimed to (i) assess the diversity of threatened woody species and (ii) identify their potential substitutes in the three regions of the Atakora mountains namely East Atakora, Central Atakora, and West Atakora.
Methods: The data were collected during expeditions on surveyed localities through semi-structured individual interviews. Free-listing was used to record threatened woody species and which were important and why. Alpha-diversity indices were used to assess diversity of threatened and important threatened woody species. A correspondence analysis was used to determine the reason supporting their importance. Differences in species composition were assessed using analysis of similarities. A number of potential substitutes were compared among species using generalized linear models.
Results: A total of 117 woody species (37 families and 92 genera) were identified. The most prominent families were Fabaceae (19.66%), Combretaceae (12.82%), and Moraceae (10.26%), and the richest genera were Ficus (10 species), Combretum (6), and Terminalia (5). Most threatened species differed across regions (East Atakora, Central Atakora, and West Atakora) and included Afzelia africana, Anogeissus leiocarpa, Borassus aethiopum, Diospyros mespiliformis, Khaya senegalensis, Milicia excelsa, and Pterocarpus erinaceus. Most socio-economically important species (K. senegalensis, Parkia biglobosa, Vitellaria paradoxa, and V. doniana) were used mainly for food, timber, and fuelwood purposes. Old and adult people, and Dendi and Fulfulde sociolinguistic groups had greater knowledge of threatened woody plant species. High intercultural differentiations in species composition were detected between Bariba-Berba and Bariba-Natimba. Knowledge of substitutes also differed across regions with P. erinaceus, Isoberlinia spp., and A. africana being the most cited substitutes.
Conclusion: Basic data was provided here to inform decision and guide efficient management of woody resources. There was evidence that immediate conservation measures are required for some high economic value woody taxa which were critically threatened. Ex-situ conservation of these species while promoting their integration into agroforestry-based systems were recommended. Besides, community-based management programs and community-led initiatives involving knowledgeable people from different horizons will lead to a long-lasting conservation of these threatened resources.
Crescentic rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis (RPGN) represents the most aggressive form of acquired glomerular disease. While most therapeutic approaches involve potentially toxic immunosuppressive strategies, the pathophysiology remains incompletely understood. Podocytes are glomerular epithelial cells that are normally growth-arrested because of the expression of cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitors. An exception is in RPGN where podocytes undergo a deregulation of their differentiated phenotype and proliferate. Here we demonstrate that microRNA-92a (miR-92a) is enriched in podocytes of patients and mice with RPGN. The CDK inhibitor p57Kip2 is a major target of miR-92a that constitutively safeguards podocyte cell cycle quiescence. Podocyte-specific deletion of miR-92a in mice de-repressed the expression of p57Kip2 and prevented glomerular injury in RPGN. Administration of an anti-miR-92a after disease initiation prevented albuminuria and kidney failure, indicating miR-92a inhibition as a potential therapeutic strategy for RPGN. We demonstrate that miRNA induction in epithelial cells can break glomerular tolerance to immune injury.
The mitophagy receptor Nix interacts with LC3/GABARAP proteins, targeting mitochondria into autophagosomes for degradation. Here we present evidence for phosphorylation-driven regulation of the Nix:LC3B interaction. Isothermal titration calorimetry and NMR indicate a ~100 fold enhanced affinity of the serine 34/35-phosphorylated Nix LC3-interacting region (LIR) to LC3B and formation of a very rigid complex compared to the non-phosphorylated sequence. Moreover, the crystal structure of LC3B in complex with the Nix LIR peptide containing glutamic acids as phosphomimetic residues and NMR experiments revealed that LIR phosphorylation stabilizes the Nix:LC3B complex via formation of two additional hydrogen bonds between phosphorylated serines of Nix LIR and Arg11, Lys49 and Lys51 in LC3B. Substitution of Lys51 to Ala in LC3B abrogates binding of a phosphomimetic Nix mutant. Functionally, serine 34/35 phosphorylation enhances autophagosome recruitment to mitochondria in HeLa cells. Together, this study provides cellular, biochemical and biophysical evidence that phosphorylation of the LIR domain of Nix enhances mitophagy receptor engagement.
Background: Recently, public and political interest has focused on people living with rare diseases and their health concerns. Due to the large number of different types of rare diseases and the sizable number of patients, taking action to improve the life of those affected is gaining importance. In 2013, the federal government of Germany adopted a national action plan for rare diseases, including the call to establish a central information portal on rare diseases (Zentrales Informationsportal über seltene Erkrankungen, ZIPSE).
Objective: The objective of this study, therefore, was to conduct scientific research on how such a portal must be designed to meet the needs of patients, their families, and medical professionals, and to provide high-quality information for information seekers.
Methods: We chose a 3-step procedure to develop a needs-based prototype of a central information portal. In the first step, we determined the information needs of patients with rare diseases, their relatives, and health care professionals by means of qualitative interviews and their content-analytical evaluation. On the basis of this, we developed the basic structure of the portal. In the second step, we identified quality criteria for websites on rare diseases to ensure that the information linked with ZIPSE meets the quality demands. Therefore, we gathered existing criteria catalogs and discussed them in an expert workshop. In the third step, we implemented and tested the developed prototypical information portal.
Results: A portal page was configured and made accessible on the Web. The structure of ZIPSE was based on the findings from 108 qualitative interviews with patients, their relatives, and health care professionals, through which numerous information needs were identified. We placed particularly important areas of information, such as symptoms, therapy, research, and advisory services, on the start page. Moreover, we defined 13 quality criteria, referring to factors such as author information, creation date, and privacy, enabling links with high-quality information. Moreover, 19 users tested all the developed routines based on usability and comprehensibility. Subsequently, we improved the visual presentation of search results and other important search functions.
Conclusions: The implemented information portal, ZIPSE, provides high-quality information on rare diseases from a central point of access. By integrating the targeted groups as well as different experts on medical information during the construction, the website can assure an improved search for information for users. ZIPSE can also serve as a model for other Web-based information systems in the field of rare diseases.
Registered Report Identifier: RR1-10.2196/7425.
Objective: To conduct subset analyses of SPIRIT-P2 (Standard Protocol Items: Recommendations for Interventional Trials, NCT02349295) to investigate the efficacy and safety of ixekizumab versus placebo in three subgroups of patients with active psoriatic arthritis (PsA) according to the concomitant conventional synthetic disease-modifying antirheumatic drug (cDMARD) received: any background cDMARDs (including methotrexate), background methotrexate only
Methods: Patients were randomised to receive placebo, ixekizumab 80 mg every 4 weeks (IXEQ4W) or every 2 weeks (IXEQ2W). Efficacy and safety were assessed when patients were subdivided according to cDMARD use at baseline. Efficacy was evaluated versus placebo at week 24 by the American College of Rheumatology criteria (ACR20/50), achievement of minimal disease activity (MDA) state, DiseaseActivityIndex for PsA (DAPSA), 28-joint DiseaseActivityScore using C reactive protein (DAS28-CRP), HealthAssessmentQuestionnaire-Disability Index and the 36-item Short-Form health survey physical functioning domain.
Results: Regardless of background cDMARD status, ACR20, ACR50 and MDA response rates were significantly higher than placebo with IXEQ4W or IXEQ2W treatment. Similarly, significant improvements were observed relative to placebo for DAS28-CRP and DAPSA across subgroups. Physical function also significantly improved relative to placebo with IXEQ4W treatment regardless of background cDMARD status and with IXEQ2W alone. Percentages of reported treatment emergent adverse events (AEs), serious AEs (including serious infections) and discontinuations due to AEs in each subgroup were comparable to the overall SPIRIT-P2 population.
Conclusion: Ixekizumab was efficacious in patients with active PsA and previous tumour necrosis factor inhibitor (TNFi)inadequate response or TNFi intolerance treated with ixekizumab alone or when added to cDMARDswith subgroup safety profiles that were consistent with that observed in the overall SPIRIT-P2 population.
80'li ve 90'lı yıllarda çeviribilim çalışmaları yaşanan kültürel dönemeç (Cultural turn) ile yeni ve bütüncül yaklaşımlarla ele alınmaya başlanmıştır. O tarihe kadar geliştirilmiş yaklaşımlardaki yapısalcı tutum, çeviriyi anlamak ve tanımlamak açısından yetersiz kaldığı nedeniyle çeviride işlev odaklı yaklaşımlara ağırlıklı olarak yer verilmeye başlanmıştır. Reiβ / Vermeer’in (1984) "Skopos Kuramı" yaklaşımı, dil ve kültürbilimin bir parçası olarak kabul etmektedirler. Bu kuram çerçevesinde çeviri örnekleri irdelenecek ve işlev odaklı çeviri yaklaşımının kültürel öğelerin çevirisi için ne gibi açılımlar sağladığı incelenecektir. Bu bağlamda işlev odaklı çeviri sürecinin birbirinden farklı dilsel ve kültürel edince sahip olan çevirmen adaylarının çeviri yaklaşımlarına nasıl yansıdığı gözlemlenecektir. Bu amaçla farklı dilsel ve kültürel edince sahip çevirmen adayların çeviri sürecinde hangi çeviri yaklaşımını benimsedikleri ve bu çevimen adaylarının işlev odaklı çeviriye ne ölçüde yaklaşabildikleri üzerinde durulacaktır. Ayrıca bu süreç içerisinde bu iki farklı grubun uyguladığı çeviri stratejilerinde fark ve benzerliklerin niteliği incelenecektir. Bu bağlamda çevirmen adaylarının çeviri örnekleri incelenmiş, işlev odaklı çeviriye ne ölçüde yaklaşıldığı ortaya konmaya çalışılmıştır. Elde edilen sonuçlar birbirinden farklı dilsel ve kültürel edince sahip iki grubun farklı çevirmen tutumlarını beraberinde getirdiğini ve işlev odaklı çeviride de farklı sonuçlara götürdüğünü ortaya koymuştur. Bu inceleme işlev odaklı çevirinin süreçleri hakkında yeni açılımlara varmayı amaçlamaktadır.
Cardiovascular disease remains a leading cause of morbidity and mortality globally. Changing natural history of the disease due to improved care of acute conditions and ageing population necessitates new strategies to tackle conditions which have more chronic and indolent course. These include an increased deployment of safe screening methods, life-long surveillance, and monitoring of both disease activity and tailored-treatment, by way of increasingly personalized medical care. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) is a non-invasive, ionising radiation-free method, which can support a significant number of clinically relevant measurements and offers new opportunities to advance the state of art of diagnosis, prognosis and treatment. The objective of the SCMR Clinical Trial Taskforce was to summarizes the evidence to emphasize where currently CMR-guided clinical care can indeed translate into meaningful use and efficient deployment of resources results in meaningful and efficient use. The objective of the present initiative was to provide an appraisal of evidence on analytical validation, including the accuracy and precision, and clinical qualification of parameters in disease context, clarifying the strengths and weaknesses of the state of art, as well as the gaps in the current evidence This paper is complementary to the existing position papers on standardized acquisition and post-processing ensuring robustness and transferability for widespread use. Themed imaging-endpoint guidance on trial design to support drug-discovery or change in clinical practice (part II), will be presented in a follow-up paper in due course. As CMR continues to undergo rapid development, regular updates of the present recommendations are foreseen.
Introduction Current: evidence suggests that the loss of mechanoreceptors after anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tears might be compensated by increased cortical motor planning. This occupation of cerebral resources may limit the potential to quickly adapt movements to unforeseen external stimuli in the athletic environment. To date, studies investigating such neural alterations during movement focused on simple, anticipated tasks with low ecological validity. This trial, therefore, aims to investigate the cortical and biomechanical processes associated with more sport-related and injury-related movements in ACL-reconstructed individuals.
Methods and analysis: ACL-reconstructed participants and uninjured controls will perform repetitive countermovement jumps with single leg landings. Two different conditions are to be completed: anticipated (n=35) versus unanticipated (n=35) successful landings. Under the anticipated condition, participants receive the visual information depicting the requested landing leg prior to the jump. In the unanticipated condition, this information will be provided only about 400 msec prior to landing. Neural correlates of motor planning will be measured using electroencephalography. In detail, movement-related cortical potentials, frequency spectral power and functional connectivity will be assessed. Biomechanical landing quality will be captured via a capacitive force plate. Calculated parameters encompass time to stabilisation, vertical peak ground reaction force, and centre of pressure path length. Potential systematic differences between ACL-reconstructed individuals and controls will be identified in dependence of jumping condition (anticipated/ unanticipated, injured/uninjured leg and controls) by using interference statistics. Potential associations between the cortical and biomechanical measures will be calculated by means of correlation analysis. In case of statistical significance (α<0.05.) further confounders (cofactors) will be considered.
Ethics and dissemination: The independent Ethics Committee of the University of Frankfurt (Faculty of Psychology and Sports Sciences) approved the study. Publications in peer-reviewed journals are planned. The findings will be presented at scientific conferences.
Trial status: At the time of submission of this manuscript, recruitment is ongoing.
Trial registration number: NCT03336060; Pre-results.
Background: Conversion from calcineurin inhibitor (CNI) therapy to a mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitor following kidney transplantation may help to preserve graft function. Data are sparse, however, concerning the impact of conversion on posttransplant diabetes mellitus (PTDM) or the progression of pre-existing diabetes.
Methods: PTDM and other diabetes-related parameters were assessed post hoc in two large open-label multicenter trials. Kidney transplant recipients were randomized (i) at month 4.5 to switch to everolimus or remain on a standard cyclosporine (CsA)-based regimen (ZEUS, n = 300), or (ii) at month 3 to switch to everolimus, remain on standard CNI therapy or convert to everolimus with reduced-exposure CsA (HERAKLES, n = 497).
Results: There were no significant differences in the incidence of PTDM between treatment groups (log rank p = 0.97 [ZEUS], p = 0.90 [HERAKLES]). The mean change in random blood glucose from randomization to month 12 was also similar between treatment groups in both trials for patients with or without PTDM, and with or without pre-existing diabetes. The change in eGFR from randomization to month 12 showed a benefit for everolimus versus comparator groups in all subpopulations, but only reached significance in larger subgroups (no PTDM or no pre-existing diabetes).
Conclusions: Within the restrictions of this post hoc analysis, including non-standardized diagnostic criteria and limited glycemia laboratory parameters, these data do not indicate any difference in the incidence or severity of PTDM with early conversion from a CsA-based regimen to everolimus, or in the progression of pre-existing diabetes.
Trial registration: clinicaltrials.gov, NCT00154310 (registered September 2005) and NCT00514514 (registered August 2007); EudraCT (2006-007021-32 and 2004-004346-40).
Gout is the most common arthritic disease in human but was long neglected and therapeutic options are not satisfying. However, with the recent approval of the urate transporter inhibitor lesinurad, gout treatment has experienced a major innovation. Here we show that lesinurad possesses considerable modulatory potency on peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ). Since gout has a strong association with metabolic diseases such as type 2 diabetes, this side-activity appears as very valuable contributing factor to the clinical efficacy profile of lesinurad. Importantly, despite robustly activating PPARγ in vitro, lesinurad lacked adipogenic activity, which seems due to differential coactivator recruitment and is characterized as selective PPARγ modulator (sPPARγM).
Kidney injury is a common complication of severe disease. Here, we report that injuries of the zebrafish embryonal kidney are rapidly repaired by a migratory response in 2-, but not in 1-day-old embryos. Gene expression profiles between these two developmental stages identify cxcl12a and myca as candidates involved in the repair process. Zebrafish embryos with cxcl12a, cxcr4b, or myca deficiency display repair abnormalities, confirming their role in response to injury. In mice with a kidney-specific knockout, Cxcl12 and Myc gene deletions suppress mitochondrial metabolism and glycolysis, and delay the recovery after ischemia/reperfusion injury. Probing these observations in zebrafish reveal that inhibition of glycolysis slows fast migrating cells and delays the repair after injury, but does not affect the slow cell movements during kidney development. Our findings demonstrate that Cxcl12 and Myc facilitate glycolysis to promote fast migratory responses during development and repair, and potentially also during tumor invasion and metastasis.
This study was designed to investigate whether epigenetic modulation by histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibition might circumvent resistance towards the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitor temsirolimus in a prostate cancer cell model. Parental (par) and temsirolimus-resistant (res) PC3 prostate cancer cells were exposed to the HDAC inhibitor valproic acid (VPA), and tumor cell adhesion, chemotaxis, migration, and invasion were evaluated. Temsirolimus resistance was characterized by reduced binding of PC3res cells to endothelium, immobilized collagen, and fibronectin, but increased adhesion to laminin, as compared to the parental cells. Chemotaxis, migration, and invasion of PC3res cells were enhanced following temsirolimus re-treatment. Integrin α and β receptors were significantly altered in PC3res compared to PC3par cells. VPA significantly counteracted temsirolimus resistance by down-regulating tumor cell–matrix interaction, chemotaxis, and migration. Evaluation of integrin expression in the presence of VPA revealed a significant down-regulation of integrin α5 in PC3res cells. Blocking studies demonstrated a close association between α5 expression on PC3res and chemotaxis. In this in vitro model, temsirolimus resistance drove prostate cancer cells to become highly motile, while HDAC inhibition reversed the metastatic activity. The VPA-induced inhibition of metastatic activity was accompanied by a lowered integrin α5 surface level on the tumor cells.
Der vorliegende Beitrag setzt sich Zweifaches zum Ziel: erstens, Karl Dedecius' Weg zum renommierten Übersetzer der polnischen Lyrik in Deutschland sowie sein Konzept der Übersetzungskunst zu skizzieren, und daran anschließend – an zwei Gedichten von Wisława Szymborska in der Übersetzung von Dedecius ('Das erste Foto' und 'Katze in der leeren Wohnung') – aufzuzeigen, wie selbst eine große Meisterschaft an bestimmte Grenzen stößt, die dem Übertragen der Lyrik in eine andere Sprache innewohnen.
Wie keine andere kulturelle Handlung spiegelt das Tätowieren eine intentionale Ästhetisierung des menschlichen Körpers, zwischen individueller (und damit hoch-persönlicher) Schönheitsvorstellung auf der einen und öffentlicher (Selbst-)Inszenierung auf der anderen Seite schwankend. Die Haut wird dabei – quasi lebenslang beschrieben – zum Medium der Erinnerung. Zwar wurde bereits in der Antike 'tätowiert', der heutige Begriff sowie die 'Wiederentdeckung' dieser Praxis geht allerdings auf die Forschungs- und Entdeckungsreisen des 18. Jahrhunderts zurück, in denen Europäer mit fremden Kulturen in Kontakt kamen, die solche Verfahren mit einem ästhetischen oder rituellen Hintergrund praktizierten. So übernahm James Cook in seinen Aufzeichnungen den samoanischen Begriff "tatau", etymologisch die Grundlage für "to tattoo" und das deutsche "tätowieren". Inzwischen gilt die Modifikation des eigenen Körpers durch eine Tätowierung längst nicht mehr als 'verrucht' und stellt ebenso auch keine Ausnahmeerscheinung mehr dar, was sich vor allem an der explosionsartig gestiegenen Zahl von Tattoo-Studios in der Bundesrepublik ablesen lässt – und so trägt in Deutschland heute (konservativ geschätzt) etwa zehn Prozent der Gesamtbevölkerung und 23 Prozent der 16- bis 29-Jährigen mindestens ein Tattoo auf der Haut. Aber längst nicht jede Tätowierung ist auch der Ausdruck des eigenen Schönheitsempfindens oder eine vom Träger intentional auf dem Körper eingeschriebene Botschaft. Denn bereits in der griechischen Antike wurde das Verfahren auch dazu benutzt, Sklaven zu markieren, Besitzverhältnisse und damit ihre Unfreiheit auf der Haut einzuritzen; diese entpersonalisierende Markierung setzt sich mit der Häftlingstätowierung in Gefängnissen und schließlich den nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslagern fort, die vor allem in literarischen Texten des Shoah-Diskures aufgegriffen und verhandelt wird.
Die Hauptquelle für die romantische Wiederentdeckung der Renaissance ist zweifellos Vasaris 'Vite', welche im Cinquecento, in der gottesgesegneten 'aetas aurea' (durch die Werke des Trifoliums Raffael-Leonardo-Michelangelo verkörpert) die vollbrachte "Rinascita delle arti" erreicht sah. Das Wort "Rinascimento" wird von Vasari nie verwendet, dafür aber synonymische Wörter wie "Rinascita", "Resurrezione" und "Risorgimento". 1795 hatte aber der von den Romantikern so hoch geschätzte Revolutionsmann Condorcet in seiner "Esquisse d’un tableau historique des progrès de l’esprit humain" (von Friedrich Schlegel prompt enthusiastisch rezensiert) die Renaissance reartikuliert – als vorletzte 'huitième époque' in jener langen Progression, die in die Französische Revolution münden sollte. Der in den frühromantischen Werken latente Bezug zwischen Renaissance und Revolution war den Romantikern wohl präsent, sodass F. Schlegels berühmtes Athenäums-Fragment, nach welchem die Französische Revolution, Fichtes Wissenschaftslehre und Goethes 'Meister' die drei großen Tendenzen des Zeitalters darstellen, durch eine vierte integriert werden könnte, die auf die Wiederentdeckung der Renaissance als wiedergewonnene "aetas aurea" hinweist.
Die deutschsprachige ästhetische und kulturtheoretisch-anthropologische Debatte des ausgehenden 18. Jahrhunderts thematisiert in unterschiedlichsten Kontexten immer wieder den Umgang mit Fremdheitserfahrung. Sie umfasst in diesem Zusammenhang unterschiedlichste theoretische Modelle der prekären Vermittlung zwischen gegensätzlichen Polen wie besonderer Einzelerfahrung und allgemeinem Erfahrungsganzem, zwischen Einzelphänomen und Kontext, zwischen Fragment und Totalität oder zwischen Singularität und Universalität. Entsprechende Fragestellungen rücken in der Zeit der Spätaufklärung vor allem mit Blick auf die Vermittlung (inter)kultureller Fremdheit in den Fokus des theoretischen und literarischen Interesses: Dies gilt vor allem für die Kulturpraxis inner- und außereuropäischer Reisen, die im Rahmen der zeitgenössischen 'Reisemode' zu Debatten über die Möglichkeit kosmopolitischen Weltbürgertums, über Modi interkultureller Begegnung oder die Legitimität kolonialer Expansion ebenso wie zur Entwicklung einer konkreten ethnopoetischen Reise- und Reisedarstellungspoetik Anlass gibt. Dieser philosophisch-theoretischen und literarischen Konjunktur von Reisediskursen korrespondieren gleichzeitig unterschiedliche Entwürfe einer transnationalen vergleichenden Kulturgeschichte, die immer wieder in kulturelle Hierarchisierungsmodelle münden, in denen europäischen Kulturen erwartungsgemäß eine wenn nicht qualitative oder normative, so doch immerhin strategische Überlegenheit zuerkannt wird. Hiermit verbinden sich drittens frühe Ansätze zur Theorie und Praxis 'weltliterarischer' Bildung sowie Appelle für eine grenzüberschreitende Beschäftigung mit literarischen und kulturellen Artefakten als Vorläufermodelle komparatistischer Literatur- und Kulturwissenschaft.
Im Jahr 1926 erschien in der 'Revista de Occidente', einer von José Ortega y Gasset in Madrid herausgegebenen Zeitschrift mit kulturpolitischer und philosophischer Ausrichtung, eine merkwürdige Publikation unter dem rätselhaften Titel "Cancionero apócrifo de Abel Martín. Recopilación y estudio de Juan de Mairena." Auf den ersten Blick scheint es so, als fungiere Antonio Machado hier lediglich als Herausgeber einer von Juan de Mairena kompilierten Sammlung, welche wiederum der Autorschaft eines Abel Martín zugeschrieben wird. Trotz der rätselhaften doppelten Herausgeberfiktion hatte das damalige Lesepublikum offenbar keine Probleme damit, Antonio Machado als den eigentlichen Autor der genannten "apokryphen" Prosa- und Gedichttexte zu identifizieren. Denn die Namen Juan de Mairena und Abel Martín bezeichnen nicht etwa reale Dichterpersönlichkeiten der damaligen Epoche oder der spanischen Literatur- geschichte, sondern sie sind – wie die damaligen Leser durch Ausschlussverfahren selbst erraten konnten – Konstrukte von Machados Phantasie, fiktive Autorprojektionen, deren Erfindung und Gestaltung er mit erstaunlichem gedanklichen Aufwand und Akribie betrieben hatte. Abel Martín und sein 'Schüler' Mairena gehören zu einem ganzen Spektrum von imaginierten Dichtern und Philosophen, deren fingierte Werke ihr Erfinder Machado als "apokryph" bezeichnete. Die bemerkenswerte Praktik, eigene Hervorbringungen, Lyrik und Prosa, nicht unter dem eigenen Namen zu publizieren, sondern einem Kreis fingierter Autorpersönlichkeiten zuzuordnen, hebt sich von dem gewöhnlichen Gebrauch von Pseudonymen, von künstlerischen Decknamen, deutlich ab. Zumal der Autor in jenem Zeitraum in den 1910er und 1920er Jahren keineswegs mehr ein Unbekannter war.
Der Begriff 'apokryph' taucht bei Johann Georg Hamann (1730-1788), dem 'Magus in Norden', seltener auf als man es vielleicht erwarten würde, jedenfalls so man Hamann noch immer nach dem gängigen Klischee für 'dunkel', einen 'Mystiker' oder einen 'Obskurantisten' oder gar für den Ursprung des modernen und spezifisch deutschen Irrationalismus und extremsten Feind der Aufklärung hält, gegenüber dessen "gewollter und künstlicher Dunkelheit", die er wie eine "Nebelwand um sich zog", sogar Hegels Phänomenologie des Geistes "eine wahre Ferienlektüre" sei. Ein schöpferischer Kopf also, "der manche tiefsinnigen Einfälle hatte, aber in welch geheimnisvolle Gewänder pflegte er sie zu verkleiden!" Entsprechend ist Hamanns Ruf: "Dunkelheit ist das traditionelle Prädicat, das jedem deutschen Primaner über ihn geläufig ist." Mit seiner Dunkelheit, so die unausgesprochene Annahme, möchte Hamann willentlich und wissentlich etwas verbergen, vielleicht nicht nur bei sich, sondern letztlich sogar das Licht der Aufklärung überhaupt; ein Umstand, der auf das Schönste zum griechischen apokryptein: 'verbergen, verdunkeln' (so die Übersetzung in Josef Nadlers Schlüssel zu Hamanns Werken) zu passen scheint. Entsprechend ist es, um eine weitere Bedeutung des Begriffes "apokryph" als des 'Gegen-Kanonischen' heranzuziehen, kaum verwunderlich, dass Texte Hamanns es nicht in den akademisch etablierten Kanon philosophischer Werke geschafft haben, ja sogar gegen entsprechende kanonische Texte (etwa die Metakritik über den Purismum der Vernunft gegen die Kritik der reinen Vernunft oder Golgatha und Scheblimini gegen Mendelssohns Jerusalem) gerichtet zu sein scheinen.
Diskursive Praktiken, insbesondere Texte, bewegen sich in einem kulturellen Feld, das in raumtheoretischer Metaphorisierung als von der Trias Zentrum- Peripherie-Außenraum konstituiertes chronotopisches Feld bezeichnet werden kann, mindestens bi-, wahrscheinlich multidirektional und in unterschiedlichen Geschwindigkeiten zwischen seinen beiden Polen verlaufend. Der in den Theologien etablierte Begriff des 'Apokryphen' ist demgegenüber kaum zufällig schon in seiner Semantik statisch und vermag nur die Situierung einer Schrift oder einer Wissenstradition 'im Verborgenen', nicht hingegen ihre Bewegung in Richtung dieses Bereichs, zu thematisieren. Dahinter steht bekanntlich das Anliegen einer Strukturierung epistemischer Bestände mit dem Ziel der Kanonisierung und Gewinnung von Autorität in der (im weitesten Sinne) gesellschaftlichen Kommunikation. Tatsächlich bildet das Konzept von kanonischer und apokrypher Literatur, nimmt man die Kategorie verbotener, indizierter Bücher im Sinne eines diskursiven Außenraums hinzu, auch die oben genannte Trias ab. Denn als 'Apokryphen' lassen sich dann Texte bezeichnen, die nicht kanonisch geworden sind, obwohl ihre inhaltlichen Potentiale das nicht a priori ausgeschlossen hätten. Apokryphe Texte stehen demnach in der diskursiven Peripherie. Grundsätzlich haben sie die Chance, zu einem ferneren Zeitpunkt kanonisch zu werden, sie könnten aber auch zu einer Existenz im Verbotenen verdammt werden.