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Refoel Bal-Mashgiekh
(2008)
Reforming the African Public Sector: Retrospect and Prospectsis an in-depth and wide-ranging review of the available literature on African public sector reforms. It illustrates several differing country experiences to buttress the main observations and conclusions. It adopts a structural/institutional approach which underpins most of the reform efforts on the continent. To contextualize reform of the public sector and understand its processes, dynamics and intricacies, the book examines the state and state capacity building in Africa, especially when there can be no state without an efficient public sector. In addition, the book addresses a number of theories such as the new institutional economics, public choice and new public management, which have in one way or another influenced most of the initiatives implemented under public sector reform in Africa. There is also a survey of the three phases of public sector reform which have emerged and the balance sheet of reform strategies, namely, decentralization, privatization, deregulation, agencification, co-production and public-private partnerships. It concludes by identifying possible alternative approaches such as developing a vigorous public sector ethos and sustained capacity building to promote and enhance the renewal and reconstruction of the African public sector within the context of the New Partnerships for Africa's Development (NEPAD), good governance and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
Reggie-1 (flotillin-2) and reggie-2 (flotillin-1) are membrane microdomain proteins which are associated with the membrane by means of acylation. They influence different cellular signaling processes, such as neuronal, T-cell and insulin signaling. Upon stimulation of the EGF receptor, reggie-1 becomes phosphorylated and undergoes tyrosine 163 dependent translocation from the plasma membrane to endosomal compartments. In addition, reggie-1 was shown to influence actindependent processes. Reggie-2 has been demonstrated to affect caveolin- and clathrin-independent endocytosis. Both proteins form homo- and hetero-oligomers, but the function of these oligomers has remained elusive. Moreover, it has not been clarified if functions of reggie-1 are also influenced by reggie-2 and vice versa. The first aim of the study was to further investigate the interplay and the heterooligomerization of reggie proteins and their functional effects. Both reggie proteins were individually depleted by means of siRNA. In different siRNA systems and various cell lines, reggie-1 depleted cells showed reduced protein amounts of reggie-1 and reggie-2, but reggie-2 knock down cells still expressed reggie-1 protein. The decrease of reggie-2 in reggie-1 depleted cells was only detected at protein but not at mRNA level. Furthermore, reggie-2 expression could be rescued by expression of siRNA resistant wild type reggie-1-EGFP constructs, but not by the soluble myristoylation mutant G2A. This mutant was also not able to associate with endogenous reggie-1 or reggie-2, which demonstrates that membrane association of reggie-1 is necessary for hetero-oligomerization. In addition, fluorescence microscopy studies and membrane fractionations showed that correct localization of overexpressed reggie-2 was dependent on co-overexpressed reggie-1. Thus, hetero-oligomerization is crucial for membrane association of reggie-2 and for its protein stability or protein expression. Moreover, the binding of reggie-2 to reggie-1 required tyrosine 163 of reggie-1 which was previously shown to be important for endosomal translocation of reggie-1. Since reggie-2 was implicated to function in clathrin- and caveolin-independent endocytosis pathways, the effect of reggie-2 depletion on reggie-1 endocytosis was investigated. Indeed, reggie-1 was dependent on reggie-2 for endosomal localization and EGF-induced endocytosis. By FRET-FLIM analysis it could be shown that reggie heterooligomers are dynamic in size or conformation upon EGF stimulation. Thus, it can be concluded that reggie proteins are interdependent in different aspects, such as protein stability or expression, membrane association and subcellular localization. In addition, these results demonstrate that the hetero-oligomers are dynamic and reggie proteins influence each other in terms of function. A further aim was the characterization of reggie-1 and reggie-2 function in actindependent processes, where so far only reggie-1 was known to play a role. Depletion of either of the proteins reduced cell migration, cell spreading and the number of focal adhesions in steady state cells. Thus, also reggie-2 affects actin-dependent processes. Further investigation of the focal adhesions during cell spreading revealed that depletion of reggie-1 displayed different effects as compared to reggie-2 knock down. Reggie-1 depleted cells had elongated cell-matrix-adhesions and showed reduced activation of FAK and ERK2. On the other hand, depletion of reggie-2 resulted in a restricted localization of focal adhesion at the periphery of the cell and decreased ERK2 phosphorylation, but it did not affect FAK autophosphorylation. Hence, reggie proteins influence the regulation of cell-matrix-adhesions differently. A link between reggie proteins and focal adhesions is the actin cross-linking protein -actinin. The interaction of -actinin with reggie-1 could be verified by means of co-immunoprecipitations and FRET-FLIM analysis. Reggie-1 binds -actinin especially in membrane ruffles and in other locations where actin remodeling takes place. Moreover, -actinin showed a different localization pattern during cell spreading in reggie-1 depleted cells, as compared to the control cells. These results provide further insights into the function of both reggie proteins. Their interplay and hetero-oligomerization was shown to be crucial for their role in endocytosis. In addition, both reggie proteins influence actin-dependent processes and differentially affect focal adhesion regulation.
The reggie protein family consists of two homologous members, reggie-1 and reggie-2, also termed flotillin-2 and flotillin-1, respectively, that are ubiquitously expressed and evolutionarily well conserved, suggesting an important but so far ill-defined function. In various cell types, both reggies have been found to be constitutively associated with lipid rafts by means of acylation modifications and oligomerization. Lipid rafts are glycosphingolipid- and cholesterol-rich membrane microdomains which have been implicated in several cellular processes including membrane transport and signal transduction through growth factor receptors. However, the molecular details of these processes are still poorly understood. With the observation that reggies colocalize with activated glycosylphosphatidylinositolanchored proteins (GPI-APs) and Fyn kinase in rafts, a role for these proteins in signaling events has been suggested. In agreement with that, we have previously shown that reggie-1 becomes multiply tyrosine phosphorylated by Src kinases in response to epidermal growth factor (EGF) stimulation, pointing to a function for reggie-1 in growth factor signaling. Furthermore, overexpression of reggie-1 enhances spreading on fibronectin substrate in a tyrosine-dependent manner, thus revealing a role for reggie-1 in regulation of actin cytoskeleton through growth factor receptors. Due to the similarity shared by reggie proteins at amino acid level and to their ability to form hetero-oligomeric complexes, the first aim of this study was to analyze the putative tyrosine phosphorylation of reggie-2 in growth factor stimulated cells. Similarly to reggie-1, reggie-2 was found to be multiply tyrosine phosphorylated by Src kinase and to exist in a molecular complex with Src, with the degree of co-immunoprecipitation dependent on the activity of Src. Recent studies from us have also shown that administration of EGF results in the endocytosis of reggie-1 from the plasma membrane into endosomes, which is in line with a proposed role for reggies in membrane trafficking processes. In order to characterize in detail the endocytic mechanism that mediates the uptake of reggie-1, the dependency of reggie-1 endocytosis on clathrin and dynamin was investigated by means of overexpressing a variant form of Eps15 or a dominant negative form of dynamin-2. In either case the translocation of reggie-1 into endosomes in response to EGF was not affected, and this, together with the results that reggie-1 colocalized with cholera toxin (CTX) but not with transferrin receptor (TfnR) during EGF signaling, indicates that reggie-1 is taken up by means of a dynaminindependent, raft-mediated pathway. These findings are very well in line with recent data showing the pathway of entry into cells of reggie-2 as a raft-mediated endocytic pathway. The endocytosis of reggie-2 in response to EGF was also analyzed in this study. Similarly to reggie-1, in growth factor stimulated cells reggie-2 underwent a translocation from the plasma membrane to endosomes where the two reggies were found to colocalize with each other, suggesting that epidermal growth factor signaling might trigger the endocytosis of reggie oligomers. In addition, colocalization with both the late endosomal marker LAMP3/CD63 and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) was detected, again indicating a function for reggies in signal transduction through growth factor receptors. EGFR has been reported to localize in rafts but, although this association is thought to be functional during EGF stimulation, how segregation of EGFR into rafts modulates its endocytosis and signaling is still under debate. Since reggie oligomers have recently been suggested to define a raft subtype, a further aim of this study was to investigate whether the depletion of reggies by means of small interfering RNA could interfere with the signaling and the trafficking through EGFR. Knockdown of reggie-2 resulted in an altered tyrosine phosphorylation of EGFR in response to EGF, while the degree of ubiquitination was not affected. Less efficient phosphorylation of tyrosine residues, especially of those which are docking sites for Grb2 and Shc, led in turn to an impaired activation of p38 and ERK1/2 MAPKs. Depletion of reggie-2 did not affect the early trafficking of activated EGFRs, with receptors being endocytosed and delivered to late endosomes as efficiently as in control cells. This would be in line with the normal degree of ubiquitination observed for EGFR, as ubiquitin moieties have been proposed to represent sorting tags that ensure receptor endocytosis into early endosomes and its proper intracellular trafficking. On the contrary, after prolonged EGF stimulation, depletion of reggie-2 resulted in a decreased downregulation of both receptor-bound ligand and EGFR, and in their accumulation in intracellular vesicles, thus pointing to a role for reggie-2 in the degradative pathway. Taken all together, these data ndicate that the association of EGFR with reggie-microdomains is likely to be important for proper receptor trafficking and signaling.
Das proinflammatorische Zytokin Interleukin (IL)-18 scheint an einer Vielzahl von Entstehungsprozessen pathologischer Erkrankungen, darunter rheumatoide Arthrits und Artherosklerose, sowie Tumorwachstum und Metastasierungsfähigkeit von Tumoren, beteiligt zu sein. Da die biologische Aktivität der Matrix-Metallo-Proteinase-9 (MMP-9) ebenfalls entscheidenden Einfluss auf die Pathologie dieser Erkrankungen hat, wurden die Auswirkungen von IL-18 auf die MMP-9-Produktion in peripheren Blutmonozyten (PBMC) untersucht. Darüber hinaus richtete sich unser Augenmerk auf die Möglichkeiten einer immunopharmakologischen Intervention mittels anti-Tumor-Nekrose-Faktorα (anti-TNFα) oder IL-10. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, daß die MMP-9-Produktion in PBMC durch IL-18 gesteigert wird. Dabei ist die Potenz von IL-18 bei der Freisetzung von MMP-9 vergleichbar mit derjenigen von TNFα. Durch die Verwendung neutralisierender monoklonaler Antikörper konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Freisetzung von MMP-9 von einer endogenen TNFα-Produktion abhängig ist. Während IL-18 und TNFα die Protease induzieren, ergibt eine Inkubation mit IFNγ keine Effekte auf die Freisetzung von MMP-9 in den PBMC. Die hier beschriebene Induktion von MMP-9 durch IL-18 ließ sich ebenfalls in humanen Vollblutkulturen nachweisen. Das antientzündliche Zytokin IL-10 ist in der Lage, die Sekretion von MMP-9 sowohl aus unstimulierten als auch aus PBMC, die zuvor mit IL-18 inkubiert wurden, konsequent zu unterdrücken. Die Produktion des tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) bleibt von einer Stimulation mit IL-18 unberührt, wohingegen eine Zugabe von IL-10 die Sekretion von TIMP-1 aus PBMC steigert. Die vorliegende Arbeit erweitert somit die proentzündlichen Wirkungsweisen von IL-18 auf PBMC, betont die herausragende Rolle einer intermediären TNFα-Produktion und stellt einen Zusammenhang her zwischen den biologischen Funktionen von IL-18 und der pathologischen Potenz von MMP-9.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden ausgewählte 5’- und 3’-untranslatierte Regionen (UTRs) von mRNAs aus H. volcanii bestimmt. Dieses Datenset wurde verwendet um (1) haloarchaeale UTRs zu charakterisieren, (2) Konsensuselemente für die Transkrikptionsinitiation und -termination zu verifizieren und (3) den Einfluss haloarchaealer UTRs auf die Initiation und Regulation der Translation zu untersuchen. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass alle untersuchten Transkripte nichtprozessierte 3’-UTRs mit einer durchschnittlichen Länge von 45 Nukleotiden besitzen. Darüber hinaus konnte ein putatives Transkriptionsterminationssignal bestehend aus einem pentaU-Motiv mit vorausgehender Haarnadelstruktur identifiziert werden. Die Analysen der Regionen stromaufwärts der experimentell bestimmten Transkriptionsstarts führten zur Identifizierung dreier konservierter Promotor Elemente: Der TATA-Box, dem BRE-Element und einem neuen Element an Position -10/-11. Überraschenderweise bestand die TATA-Box nur aus vier konservierten Nukleotiden. Die Untersuchung der UTRs ergab, dass die größte Anteil der haloarchaealen Transkripte keine 5’-UTR besitzt. Falls eine 5’-UTR vorhanden ist, besitzen unerwarteterweise nur 15% der 5’-UTRs aus H. volcanii eine Shine-Dalgarno-Sequenz (SD-Sequenz). Es konnte jedoch gezeigt werden, dass verschiedene native und artifizielle 5’-UTRs ohne SD-Sequenz sehr effizient in vivo translatiert werden. Außerdem hat die Sekundärstruktur der 5’-UTR und die Position struktureller Elemente offenbar einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf die Translatierbarkeit von Transkripten. Die Insertion von Strukturelementen nahe des Startkodons führte zu einer vollkommenen Repression der Translation, während die proximale Insertion des Motivs an das 5’-Ende der 5’-UTR keinen Einfluss auf die Translationsseffizienz hatte. Zusammenfassend kann sowohl der eukaryotische Scanning-Mechanismus als auch die bakterielle Initiation der Translation über die SD-Sequenz für haloarchaeale Transkripte mit 5’-UTR ohne SD-Sequenz ausgeschlossen werden. Die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit durchgeführten Untersuchungen bilden die Grundlage für weitere Untersuchungen zur Identifizierung eines entsprechenden dritten Mechanismus zur Initiation der Translation in H. volcanii. Eine aktuelle Studie zur globalen Analyse der Translationsregulation zeigte, dass der Anteil translational regulierter Gene in H. volcanii genauso hoch ist wie bei Eukaryoten (Lange et al., 2007). Um die Rolle haloarchaealer UTRs bei der Regulation der Translation zu charakterisieren, wurden die UTRs zweier ausgewählter translationsregulierter Gene untersucht. Es stellte sich heraus, dass nur die Anwesenheit beider UTRs, 5’- und 3’-UTR, zu einer Wachstumsphasen-abhängigen Regulation der Translation führt. Dabei hat die 3’-UTR allein keinen Einfluss auf die Translationseffizienz, während die 5’-UTR die Translationseffizienz in beiden Wachstumsphasen reduziert. Es zeigte sich außerdem, dass die 3’-UTR für die „Richtung“ der Regulation auf Translationsebene verantwortlich ist und putative Strukturelemente möglicherweise in den Regulationsmechanismus involviert sind. Zusammengefasst ergibt sich folgendes Modell der Translationsregulation in H. volcanii: Strukturierte 5’-UTRs führen zu einer Herabsetzung der konstitutiven Translationseffizienz. Dies kann differentiell durch regulatorische Faktoren kompensiert werden, welche spezifische Elemente der 3’-UTR binden. Sowohl natürliche als auch artifizielle Aptamere und allosterische Ribozyme stellen effektive Werkzeuge zur exogen kontrollierten Genexpression dar. Daher wurde die Anwendbarkeit eines Tetracyclin-induzierbaren Aptamers und eines konstitutiven Hammerhead-Ribozyms in H. volcanii untersucht. Es stellte sich allerdings heraus, dass das Aptamer bereits ohne Tetracyclin starke inhibitorische Sekundärstrukturen ausbildet. Als Alternative wurden Reportergenfusionen mit einem selbstspaltenden Hammerhead-Ribozym konstruiert. Die selbstspaltende Aktivität des Hammerhead-Ribozyms in H. volcanii konnte erfolgreich in vivo demonstriert werden, was die Grundlage zur Entwicklung konditionaler Expressionssysteme basierend auf dem Hammerhead-Ribozym in H. volcanii bildet.