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"The whole is more than the sum of its parts." This idea has been brought forward by psychologists such as Max Wertheimer who formulated Gestalt laws that describe our perception. One law is that of collinearity: elements that correspond in their local orientation to their global axis of alignment form a collinear line, compared to a noncollinear line where local and global orientations are orthogonal. Psychophysical studies revealed a perceptual advantage for collinear over non-collinear stimulus context. It was suggested that this behavioral finding could be related to underlying neuronal mechanisms already in the primary visual cortex (V1). Studies have shown that neurons in V1 are linked according to a common fate: cells responding to collinearly aligned contours are predominantly interconnected by anisotropic long-range lateral connections. In the cat, the same holds true for visual interhemispheric connections. In the present study we aimed to test how the perceptual advantage of a collinear line is reflected in the anatomical properties within or between the two primary visual cortices. We applied two neurophysiological methods, electrode and optical recording, and reversibly deactivated the topographically corresponding contralateral region by cooling in eight anesthetized cats. In electrophysiology experiments our results revealed that influences by stimulus context significantly depend on a unit’s orientation preference. Vertical preferring units had on average a higher spike rate for collinear over non-collinear context. Horizontal preferring units showed the opposite result. Optical imaging experiments confirmed these findings for cortical areas assigned to vertical orientation preference. Further, when deactivating the contralateral region the spike rate for horizontal preferring units in the intact hemisphere significantly decreased in response to a collinear stimulus context. Most of the optical imaging experiments revealed a decrease in cortical activity in response to either stimulus context crossing the vertical midline. In conclusion, our results support the notion that modulating influences from stimulus context can be quite variable. We suggest that the kind of influence may depend on a cell’s orientation preference. The perceptual advantage of a collinear line as one of the Gestalt laws proposes is not uniformly represented in the activity of individual cells in V1. However, it is likely that the combined activity of many V1 neurons serves to activate neurons further up the processing stream which eventually leads to the perceptual phenomenon.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden die 5´- und 3´-Enden 23 ausgewählter Transkripte des halophilen Archaeons Halobacterium salinarum bestimmt. Die Daten wurden dazu verwendet, die Längen der untranslatierten Bereiche zu ermitteln, Konsensussequenzen für die Transkriptionsinitiation und -termination abzuleiten und die Rolle haloarchaealer UTRs bei der Translationsinitiation und -regulation zu untersuchen. Der experimentelle Ansatz wurde mit einer bioinformatischen Analyse des Genoms von H. salinarum vervollständigt. Dabei konnten die Konsensussequenzen der basalen Promotorelemente genauer definiert werden und ein neues Promotorelement konnte entdeckt werden. Weiterhin wurde ein Konsensusmotiv gefunden, welches wahrscheinlich für die Termination der Transkription wichtig ist. Alle 23 analysierten Transkripte hatten eine 3´-UTR mit einer durchschnittlichen Länge von 48 Nukleotiden und ihre 3´-Enden waren nicht posttranskriptionell modifiziert. Die experimentellen Ergebnisse und bioinformatischen Daten ergaben, dass die Mehrheit der haloarchaealen Transkripte keine 5´-UTR besitzt. Die meisten Transkripte mit 5´-UTRs enthielten unerwarteterweise keine Shine-Dalgarno (SD)-Sequenz. Die Analyse des H. salinarum Genoms machte deutlich, dass weniger als 10% aller Gene eine SD Sequenz vorrausgeht und dass sogar bei Genen, die distal im Operon liegen, meistens keine SD-Sequenz zu finden ist. Weiterhin wurde der Einfluss einer ausgewählten 5´-UTR ohne SD-Sequenz und einer 3´-UTR auf die Transkriptstabilität und die Translationseffizienz untersucht. Das Transkript mit 5´ UTR ohne SD-Sequenz wurde in H. salinarum effizient translatiert. In einer Studie an H. volcanii konnte das Gleiche für verschiedene 5´ UTRs ohne SD-Sequenz in Verbindung mit einem Reportergen gezeigt werden (Brenneis et al., 2007). An diesen Transkripten kann die Translation also nicht über den „bakteriellen“ Mechansimus durch Basenpaarung mit dem 3´-Ende der 16S rRNA initiiert werden. Im weiteren Verlauf der Arbeit wurde untersucht, ob es sich bei dem Mechanismus der Translationsinitiation an Transkripten mit 5´-UTR ohne SD-Sequenz um einen Scanning-Mechanismus wie bei Eukaryonten oder um einen neuen Mechanismus handelt. Für die Experimente wurde das zuvor erwähnte Reportergensystem aus H. volcanii verwendet. Neben AUG wurden GUG und UUG effizient als Startkodons an einem Transkript mit 5´-UTR genutzt, wohingegen AUG das einzige funktionierende Startkodon bei einem Transkript ohne 5´-UTR war. Verschiedene Deletionsversionen der 20 Nukleotide langen 5´-UTR wurden im Gegensatz zur kompletten 5´-UTR nur sehr ineffizient translatiert. Das Einfügen zusätzlicher AUGs stromaufwärts des natürlichen Startkodons hatte keinen Einfluss auf die Translationseffizienz am internen AUG. Ein zusätzliches AUG am 5´-Ende im gleichen Leseraster des natürlichen AUGs führte zur gleichzeitigen Nutzung beider Startkodons auf derselben mRNA. Eine stabile Haarnadelstruktur am 5´-Ende inhibierte die Translation nur am ersten AUG und hatte keinen Einfluss auf die Translationseffizienz am internen AUG. Zusammenfassend konnte durch die erhaltenen Ergebnisse ausgeschlossen werden, dass der Mechanismus der Translationsinitiation an Transkripten mit 5´-UTR ohne SD-Sequenz ein Scanning-Mechansimus wie bei Eukaryonten ist. Neben der Translationsinitiation an Transkripten ohne 5´-UTR und an Transkripten mit SD-Sequenz existiert also noch ein dritter, bis jetzt unbekannter Mechansimus zur Translationsinitiation in Haloarchaea. In initialen Versuchen zur genaueren Charakterisierung der drei verschiedenen Translationsinitiationsmechanismen, wurden Konstrukte hergestellt, bei denen alle drei verschiedenen Startkodons auf einer mRNA vorhanden sind. Es wurden erste Hinweise darauf gefunden, dass Stressbedingungen einen Einfluss auf die unterschiedlichen Initiationsmechansimen haben. Anders als erwartet führte die Mutation einer natürlichen SD-Sequenz nicht zu einer verminderten Translationseffizienz am entsprechenden Startkodon. Die Bestimmung des 5´-Endes eines Transkripts mit in silico vorhergesagter SD-Sequenz offenbarte, dass das Transkript keine 5´-UTR und somit auch keine SD-Sequenz besaß. Beide Ergebnisse machen deutlich, dass SD-Sequenzen eine noch viel geringere Rolle bei der haloarchaealen Translationsinitiation spielen, als anhand der Sequenz und UTR Analysen angenommen werden konnte.
Photosystem (PS) I is a huge membrane protein complex which coordinates around 200 co-factors. Upon light excitation a charge separation at the PS I reaction centre is induced which leads to an electron transport across the thylakoid membrane and the generation of redox equivalents needed for several biochemical reactions, e.g. the synthesis of sugars. For higher plants and cyanobacteria the crystal structure of PS I complexes were resolved to resolutions of 4.4 Å and 2.5 Å. Furthermore, supramolecular structures of PS I of eukaryotic algae, mainly of the green line, were obtained recently. However, up to now, no structure of diatoms is available yet. Diatoms are key players in global primary production and derived from a secondary endosymbiosis event. Their chloroplasts are surrounded by four envelope membranes and their thylakoids are evenly arranged in bands of three, i.e. no separation in grana and stroma regions is apparent. In this thesis a protocol was developed to isolate a functional PS I complex of diatoms which can be used for structural analysis by transmissional electron microscopy (TEM). A photosystem I-fucoxanthin chlorophyll protein (PS I-FCP) complex was isolated from the pennate diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum by ion exchange chromatography. Spectroscopic analysis proved that bound Fcp polypeptides function as a light-harvesting complex. An active light energy transfer from Fcp associated pigments, Chl c and fucoxanthin, towards the PS I core was proven by fluorescence spectroscopy. Oxidised minus reduced difference spectroscopy evidenced the activity of the PS I reaction centre P700 and yielded a chlorophyll a/P700 ratio of approximately 200:1. These data indicate that the isolated PS I-FCP complex exceeds the PS I cores from cyanobacteria and higher plants in the numbers of chlorophyll a molecules. Because of the strict conservation of PS I cores among organisms the additional 100 chlorophyll a molecules must either be coordinated by Fcps or function as linker molecules between the Fcp antenna and the PS I core as shown for the PS I-LHC I complex of higher plants. To tell something about the structural organisation, the PS I-FCP complex was compared with its cyanobacterial and higher plant counterparts. Whereas cyanobacterial PS I cores aggregate to trimers, usually without associated antennae, higher plant PS I is a monomer and binds additionally two LHC I heterodimers. BN-PAGE and gel filtration experiments showed that also diatoms contain PS I monomers associated with Fcps as light-harvesting antenna. First TEM studies evidenced these observations. Negatively stained PS I-FCP particles had an increased size compared to PS I cores of other organisms. No PS I trimers or higher oligomers have been found. The calculated diameter and shape of the particles correspond to PS I-LHC I particles obtained from green algae, which also comprise of a higher number of LHC I polypeptides compared to the higher plant x-ray structure. Additionally, the analysis of polypeptides indicates that the PS I associated Fcps differ from the free Fcp pool and also from Fcps of a PS II enriched fraction. The assumption that diatoms harbour just one Fcp antenna that serve both Photosystems equally seems to be wrong. To further study the association of Fcps with the two Photosystems, both complexes plus the free FCP complexes were isolated from the centric diatom Cyclotella meneghiniana. Because of the availability of antibodies directed against specific Fcp polypeptides of Cyclotella the PS I-FCP complex of Phaeodactylum could not be used. A trimeric FCP complex, FCPa, and a higher FCP oligomer, FCPb, have already been described for C. meneghiniana. The latter is assumed to be composed of only Fcp5, whereas the FCPa contains Fcp2 and Fcp6. Biochemical and spectroscopical evidences revealed a different subset of associated Fcp polypeptides within the isolated photosystem complexes. Whereas the PS II associated Fcp antenna resembles FCPa, at least three different Fcp polypeptides are associated with PS I. By re-solubilisation of the PS I complex and a further purification step Fcp polypeptides were partially removed from PS I and both fractions were analysed again by biochemical and spectroscopical means, as well as by HPLC. Thereby Fcp4 and a so far undescribed 17 kDa Fcp were found to be strongly coupled to PS I, whereas another Fcp, presumably Fcp5, is only loosely bound to the PS I core. Thus an association of FCPb and PS I is assumed.
Background: In this interdisciplinary project, the biological effects of heavy ions are compared to those of X-rays using tissue slice culture preparations from rodents and humans. Advantages of this biological model are the conservation of an organotypic environment and the independency from genetic immortalization strategies used to generate cell lines. Its open access allows easy treatment and observation via live-imaging microscopy. Materials and methods: Rat brains and human brain tumor tissue are cut into 300 micro m thick tissue slices. These slices are cultivated using a membrane-based culture system and kept in an incubator at 37°C until treatment. The slices are treated with X-rays at the radiation facility of the University Hospital in Frankfurt at doses of up to 40 Gy. The heavy ion irradiations were performed at the UNILAC facility at GSI with different ions of 11.4 A MeV and fluences ranging from 0.5–10 x 106 particles/cm². Using 3D-confocal microscopy, cell-death and immune cell activation of the irradiated slices are analyzed. Planning of the irradiation experiments is done with simulation programs developed at GSI and FIAS. Results: After receiving a single application of either X-rays or heavy ions, slices were kept in culture for up to 9d post irradiation. DNA damage was visualized using gamma H2AXstaining. Here, a dose-dependent increase and time-dependent decrease could clearly be observed for the X-ray irradiation. Slices irradiated with heavy ions showed less gamma H2AX-positive cells distributed evenly throughout the slice, even though particles were calculated to penetrate only 90–100 micro m into the slice. Conclusions: Single irradiations of brain tissue, even at high doses of 40 Gy, will result neither in tissue damage visible on a macroscopic level nor necrosis. This is in line with the view that the brain is highly radio-resistant. However, DNA damage can be detected very well in tissue slices using gamma H2AX-immuno staining. Thus, slice cultures are an excellent tool to study radiation-induced damage and repair mechanisms in living tissues.
This article discusses the divergent status of the two particles lé and lá in the grammar of Konkomba, a Gur language (Niger-Congo) of the Gurma subgroup. While previous studies claim that both particles are focus markers, this author argues that only the particle lá should be analyzed as a pure pragmatic device. Distributional studies suggest that the use of particle lé, on the other hand, is only required under specific focus conditions, and primarily represents a syntactic device.
Die drei Bereiche, die hier verglichen werden sollen, entsprechen in etwa der überkommenen Trias von Literatur, Musik und bildender Kunst, einer Gliederung, die im Medienzeitalters mit Videos, CDs, Installationen oder Happenings eigentlich obsolet ist. Allerdings geht es hier nur um die Eigenart der Zeichensysteme, auf denen die verschiedenen Bereiche beruhen, nicht um die Werke, die dadurch möglich werden, obgleich natürlich auch die Kunstwerke im emphatischen Sinn, die bedeutenden und die banalen, die großen und die misslungenen Gestaltungen nur möglich und verstehbar sind aufgrund der Zeichen, auf denen sie beruhen.
The main tenet of the present paper is the thesis that nominalization – like other cases of derivational morphology – is an essentially lexical phenomenon with well defined syntactic (and semantic) conditions and consequences. More specifically, it will be argued that the relation between a verb and the noun derived from it is subject to both systematic and idiosyncratic conditions with respect to lexical as well as syntactic aspects.