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Neurons are cells with a highly complex morphology; their dendritic arbor spans up to thousands of micrometers. This extended arbor poses a challenge for the logistics of neuronal processes: mRNA, proteins, and organelles have to be transported to dendrites, hundreds of micrometers away from the soma. This thesis aims to calculate the minimum number of proteins needed to populate the dendritic trees for different scenarios.
In chapter 2, I analyzed the ability of different mechanisms to populate the dendritic arbor. I started from the solution of the diffusion equation in Sec. 2.1, then I included the contribution of active transport in Sec. 2.2 and showed how it could have either the effect of increasing the effective diffusion coefficient or of introducing a bias in the diffusion process. In Sec. 2.3 I studied the spatial distribution of locally synthesized protein, accordingly with actively and passively transported mRNA. In Sec. 2.5, I derived the boundary condition for branches showing a qualitatively different behavior of surface and cytoplasmic proteins induced by the medium’s dimensionality in which they diffuse.
In chapter 3, I introduced the concept of protein requirement, defined as the minimum number of proteins that the neuron needs to produce to provide at least one protein to each micrometer of the dendritic arbor. In Sec. 3.1, I derived the protein requirement for diffusive proteins for somatic translation and constant translation in the dendritic arbor. In Sec. 3.2, I analyzed numerically the protein requirement in the case of actively transported protein synthesized in the soma, and, in Sec. 3.3, in the case of actively transported proteins synthesized in the dendritic arbor. In Sec. 3.4, I analyzed the protein requirement of protein synthesized in the dendrite accordingly with the distribution of mRNA described in Sec. 3.3 and 3.2. In Sec. 3.5, I derived the protein requirement for a single branch and purely diffusive proteins.
In chapter 4, I analyzed the relation between the radii of the three afferent dendrites in a branch, their length, and the diffusion length of a protein. In Sec. 4.1 I derived the optimal ratio between the radii of the daughter dendrites that minimizes the protein requirement. In Sec. 4.3 I introduced the 3/2− Rall Rule and in Sec. 4.5 its generalization. Finally, I used those rules to estimate the fraction of proteins diffusing away from and toward the soma.
In chapter 5, I analyzed the radii distribution for three categories of neurons: cultured hippocampal neurons in Sec. 5.1, stomatogastric ganglia neuron in Sec. 5.2, and 3DEM reconstructed prefrontal pyramidal neurons in Sec. 5.3. For each of these three classes, I analyzed the distribution of radii, Rall exponents, and the probability ratio. For most of them, I found that the probability of a protein diffusing away from the soma is higher for surface proteins than for cytoplasmic ones. I quantified this with a parameter called surface bias.
In Chapter 6, I analyzed the fluorescent ratio imaged by our collaborators Anne-Sophie Hafner, for a surface protein, GFP::Nlg, and a soluble one, GFP, in cultured hippocampal neurons, and I compared the fluorescent ratio with the probability ratio obtained in 5.1, finding that they are in good agreement.
In chapter 7, I compared the real dendritic morphologies imaged by one of our collaborators Ali Karimi with the optimal branching rule obtained in Sec. 4.1 and I calculated the cost for not having optimal branching radii.
Finally, in Chapter 8, I used the knowledge of the branching statistics gathered in 5.3 to simulate the protein profile on three different classes of neurons: pyramidal neurons, granule neuron, and Purkinje neurons. I compared the protein profile for surface and cytoplasmic neurons for each morphology for two different values of the diffusion length: λ = 109µm and λ = 473µm, both for optimized radii and symmetrical radii. I showed how the radii optimization reduces the protein requirement of a factor 10 4 for pyramidal neurons.
Particle collisions provide insight into the structure of matter and the interaction of its constituents. Furthermore, they also allow a better understanding of the processes involved in the formation of the universe. To cover these diverse areas, it is necessary to study different observables and collision systems. A particular challenge is to find a suitable measurable observable for a theoretically meaningful variable and to develop a measurement process taking into account the experiment. The analyses of particle collisions in this thesis cover many of the challenges and objectives mentioned above. The focus of the work is the analysis of isolated photons at an energy of √s = 7 TeV. In addition, the work also includes measurements of the average transverse momentum in Pb-Pb collisions at an energy of √s = 2.76 TeV.
Apart from the collision system, the two analyses complement each other in other respects. The measurement of isolated photons represents the first measurement of this observable with ALICE and thus lays the foundation for further measurements at other collision systems and energies. The measurement of the mean transverse momentum, on the other hand, is based on an established measurement and thus allows the comparison of different collision systems. Likewise, the physical processes studied differ. With the measurement of isolated photons, hard scattering processes in the collisions can be investigated, while the average transverse momentum allows a description of the underlying event.
When measuring isolated photons, it should be noted that isolated photons are a measurable observable that cannot be assigned to an explicit physical process. The isolation criterion used in the analysis serves to increase the fraction of prompt photons from 2→2 processes. These photons can contribute to a better understanding of the parton density function (PDF) of gluons, as well as be used as a reference for perturbative QCD calculations.
Of particular importance for the analysis are the cluster shape and the energy within a certain radius around the potential photon. The combination of these two quantities allows determining the background using the ABCD method established by CDF and ATLAS. The result obtained in this way extends the previous measurements of the cross-section of isolated photons at the LHC to lower transverse momenta. Similarly, the previous measurements of the cross-section as a function of the scale variable xT are extended to lower values.
The main focus of the measurement of the average transverse momentum of charged particles ⟨pT⟩ is to compare the measurement for the pp, p-Pb, and Pb-Pb collision systems. To obtain a direct comparison between the different collision systems, ⟨pT ⟩ is measured against the true multiplicity nch. Since the multiplicity range of pp and p-Pb collisions is limited, the analysis in Pb-Pb collisions is restricted to nch = 100. This range corresponds to peripheral Pb-Pb collisions. A particular focus of the analysis is the determination and reduction of the electromagnetic background in peripheral Pb-Pb collisions and the determination of nch based on the measured multiplicity nacc . The different collision systems show similar behavior with increasing multiplicity. The steepest increase occurs at low multiplicities and changes for all collision systems at nch = 14. With higher multiplicities, the slope reduces further, with the effect being most pronounced in Pb-Pb collisions.
This dissertation describes the development of the beam dynamics design of a novel superconducting linear accelerator. At a main operating frequency of 216.816 MHz, ions with a mass-to-charge ratio of up to 6 can be accelerated at high duty cycles up to CW operation. Intended for construction at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Darmstadt, the focus of the work is on the beam dynamic design of the accelerator section downstream of the high charge injector (HLI) at an injection energy of 1.39 MeV/u. An essential feature of this linear accelerator (Linac) is the use of the EQUUS (Equidistant Multigap Structure) beam dynamics concept for a variably adjustable output energy between 3.5 and 7.3 MeV/u (corresponding to about 12.4 % of the speed of light) with a required low energy spread of maximum 3 keV/u.
The GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research is a large-scale research facility that uses its particle accelerators to perform basic research with ion beams. Research on super-heavy elements ("SHE") is a major focus. It is expected that their production and research will provide answers to a large number of scientific questions. The production and detection of elements with atomic numbers 107 to 112 (Bohrium, Hassium, Meitnerium, Darmstadtium, Röntgenium and Copernicium) was first achieved at GSI between 1981 and 1996.
Key to this remarkable progress in SHE research were continuous developments and technical innovations. On the one hand, in the field of experimental sensitivity and detection of the nuclear reaction products and, on the other hand, in the field of accelerator technology.
For the acceleration of the projectile beam, the UNILAC (Universal Linear Accelerator), which was put into operation in 1975, has been used at GSI so far. In the course of the reconstruction and expansion of the research infrastructure at GSI, a dedicated new particle accelerator, HELIAC (Helmholtz Linear Accelerator), is now under development to meet the special requirements of the beam parameters for the synthesis of new superheavy elements. Typically, the production rates of super-heavy elements with effective cross sections in the picobarn range are very low. Therefore, a high duty cycle (up to CW operation) is a key feature of HELIAC. Thus, the required beam time for the desired nuclear reactions can be significantly shortened.
Theoretical preliminary work by Minaev et al. and newly created knowledge about design, fabrication, and operation of superconducting drift tube cavities have laid the foundation for this work and thus the development of the HELIAC linear accelerator. It consists of a superconducting and a normal conducting part. Acceleration takes place in the superconducting part in four cryomodules, each about 5 m long. These contain three CH cavities, one buncher cavity, two solenoid magnets for transverse beam focusing, and two beam position monitors (BPMs).
The following 10 m long normal conducting part is primarily used for beam transport and ends with a buncher cavity. This is operated at a halved frequency of 108.408 MHz.
A key feature of this accelerator is the variability of the output energy from 3.5 to 7.3 MeV/u with a small energy uncertainty of ±3 keV/u maximum over the entire output energy range. For the development of HELIAC, the EQUUS beam dynamics concept used combined the advantages of conventional linac designs with the high acceleration gradients of superconducting CH-DTLs. By doubling the frequency (compared to the GSI high charge injector) to 216.816 MHz in the superconducting section and using CH cavities at an acceleration gradient of maximum 7.1 MV/m, an acceleration efficiency with superconducting drift tube structures that is unique in the world is made possible. At the same time, the compact lengths of the CH cavities ensure good handling for both production and operation. EQUUS leads to longitudinal beam stability in all energy ranges of the accelerator with the sliding motion of the synchronous phase within each CH cavity. The rms emittance growth is moderate in all levels. The modular design of the HELIAC with four cryomodules basically allows the Linac to be commissioned starting with the first cryomodule, the so-called Advanced Demonstrator. In the subsequent expansion stage with only the first two cryomodules of HELIAC, the lower limit of the energy range to be provided by HELIAC (3.5 MeV/u) can already be clearly exceeded, so that use in regular beam operation at GSI is already conceivable from here on.
By means of error tolerance studies, the stability of the HELIAC beam dynamics design against possible alignment errors of the magnetic focusing elements and accelerator cavities as well as errors of the electric field amplitudes and phases have been investigated, basically confirmed and critical parameters have been determined. An additional steering concept via dipole correction coils at the solenoid magnets allows transverse beam control as well as diagnostics by means of two BPMs per cryomodule.
With completion of this work in 2021, the CH1 and CH2 cavities have already been built and are in the final preparation and cold test phase. In parallel, the development of the CH cavities CH3-11 has also been started.
The topic of this thesis is the theoretical description of the hadron gas stages in heavy-ion collisions. The overall addressed question hereby is: How does the hadronic medium evolve i.e. what are the relevant microscopic reaction mechanisms and the properties of the involved degrees of freedom? The main goal is to address this question specifically for hadronic multi-particle interactions. For this goal, the hadronic transport approach SMASH is extended with stochastic rates, which allow to include detailed balance fulfilling multi-particle reactions in the approach. Three types of reactions are newly-accounted for: 3-to-1, 3-to-2 and 5-to-2 reactions. After extensive verifications of the stochastic rates approach, they are used to study the effect of multi-particle interactions, particularly in afterburner calculations.
These studies follow complementary results for the dilepton and strangeness production with only binary reactions, which show that hadronic transport approaches are capable of describing observables when employed for the entire evolution of low-energy heavy-ion collisions. This is illustrated by the agreement of dilepton and strangeness production for smaller systems with SMASH calculations. It is, in particular, possible to match the measured strangeness production of phi and Xi hadrons via additional heavy nucleon resonance decay channels. For larger systems or higher energies, hadronic transport cascade calculations with vacuum resonance properties can point to medium effects. This is demonstrated extensively for the dilepton emission in comparisons to the full set of HADES dielectron data. The dilepton invariant mass spectra are sensitive to a medium modification of the vector meson spectral function for large collision systems already at low beam energies. The sensitivity to medium modifications is mapped out in detail by comparisons to a coarse-graining approach, which employs medium-modified spectral functions and is based on the same evolution.
The theoretical foundation of stochastic rates are collision probabilities derived from the Boltzmann equation's collision term with the assumption of a constant matrix element. This derivation is presented in a comprehensive and pedagogical fashion. The derived collision probabilities are employed for a stochastic collision criterion and various detailed-balance fulfilling multi-particle reactions: the mesonic Dalitz decay back-reaction (3-to-1), the deuteron catalysis (3-to-2) and the proton-antiproton annihilation back-reaction (5-to-2). The introduced stochastic rates approach is extensively verified by studies of the numerical stability and comparisons to previous results and analytic expectations. The stochastic rates results agree perfectly with the respective analytic results.
Physically, multi-particle reactions are demonstrated to be significant for different observables, most notably the yield of the partaking particles, even in the late dilute stage of heavy-ion reactions. They lead to a faster equilibration of the system than equivalent binary multi-step treatments. The difference in equilibration consequently influences the yield in afterburner calculations. Interestingly, the interpretation of results is not dependent on employing multi-particle or multi-step treatments, which a posteriori validates the latter.
As the first test case of multi-particle reactions in heavy-ion reactions, the mesonic 3-to-1 Dalitz decay is found to be dominated by the omega Dalitz decay back-reaction. While the effect on the medium is found to be negligible overall, the regeneration is found to be sizable: up to a quarter of Dalitz decays are regenerated.
Non-equilibrium rescattering effects are shown to be relevant for late collision stages for two particle species: deuteron and protons. In both cases, the relevant rescatterings involve multiple particles.
The deuteron pion and nucleon catalysis reactions equilibrate quickly in the afterburner stage at intermediate energies. The constant formation and destruction keeps the yield constant and microscopically explains the "snowballs in hell"-paradox. The yield is also generated with no d present at early times, which explains why coalescence models can also match the multiplicity.
New is the study of the 5-body back-reaction of proton-antiproton annihilations. This work marks the first realization of microscopic 5-body reactions in a transport approach to fulfill detailed balance for such reactions. A sizable regeneration due to the back-reaction of up to half of the proton-antiproton pairs lost due to annihilations is found. Consequently, both annihilation and regeneration in the late non-equilibrium stage are shown to have a significant effect on the p yield.
This thesis deals with the phenomenology of QCD matter, its aspects in heavy ion collisions and in neutron stars. The first half of the work focuses on the hadronic phase of QCD matter. One focus is on how the hadronic phase shows itself in heavy ion collisions and how its dynamics can be simulated. The role of hadronic interactions is considered in the context of the lattice QCD data. The second part of this thesis presents a unified approach to QCD matter, the CMF model. The CMF model incorporates many aspects of QCD phenomenology which allows for a consistent description of the hadron-quark transition, making it applicable to the entire QCD phase diagram, i.e., to the cold nuclear matter and to the hot QCD matter. It is shown that a description of both the hot matter created in heavy ion collisions and the cold dense matter in neutron star interiors is possible within one single approach, the CMF model.
Next-generation DIRC detectors, like the PANDA Barrel DIRC, with improved optical designs and better spatial and timing resolution, require correspondingly advanced reconstruction and PID methods. The investigation of the PID performance of two DIRC counters and the evaluation of the reconstruction and PID algorithms form the core of this thesis. Several reconstruction and PID approaches were developed, optimized, and tested using hadronic beam particles, experimental physics events, and Geant simulations. The near-final design of the PANDA Barrel DIRC was evaluated with a prototype in the T9 beamline at CERN in 2018. The analysis finds excellent agreement between the experimental data and the Geant simulations for all reconstruction algorithms. The best PID performance of up to $5.2 \pm 0.2$ s.d. $\pi$/K separation at 3.5 GeV/c, was obtained with a time imaging PID method. The PANDA Barrel DIRC simulation, as well as the reconstruction and PID algorithms, were evaluated using experimental data from the GlueX DIRC as part of the FAIR Phase-0 program. The performance validation was carried out using physics events of the GlueX experiment and simulations. The initial analysis results of the commissioning dataset show a $\pi$/K separation power of up to 3 s.d. at a momentum of 3.0-3.5 GeV/c, obtained using a geometric reconstruction algorithm.
Terahertz (THz) technology is an emerging field that considers the radiation between microwave and far-infrared regions where the electronic and photonic technologies merge. THz generation and THz sensing technologies should fill the gap between photonics and electronics which is defined as a region where THz generation power and THz sensing capabilities are at a low technology readiness level (TRL). As one of the options for THz detection technology, field-effect transistors with integrated antennae were suggested to be used as THz detectors in the 1990s by M. Dyakonov and M. Shur from where the development of field-effect transistor-based detector began. In this work, various FET technologies are presented, such as CMOS, AlGaN/GaN, and graphene-based material systems and their further sensitivity enhancement in order to reach the performance of well-developed Schottky diode-based THz sensing technology. Here presented FET-based detectors were explored in a wide frequency range from 0.1 THz up to 5 THz in narrowband and broadband configurations.
For proper implementation of THz detectors, the well-defined characterization is of high importance. Therefore, this work overviews the characterization methods, establishes various definitions of detector parameters, and summarizes the state-of-the-art THz detectors. The electrical, optical, and cryogenic characterization techniques are also presented here, as well as the best results obtained by the development of the characterization methods, namely graphene FET stabilization, low-power THz source characterization for detector calibration, and technology development for cryogenic detection.
Following the discussion about the detector characterization, a wide range of THz applications, which were tested during the last four years of Ph.D. and conducted under the ITN CELTA project from HORIZON2020 program, are presented in this work. The studies began with spectroscopy applications and imaging and later developed towards hyperspectral imaging and even passive imaging of human body THz radiation. As various options for THz applications, single-pixel detectors as well as multi-pixel arrays are also covered in this work.
The conducted research shows that FET-based detectors can be used for spectroscopy applications or be easily adapted for the relevant frequency range. State-of-the-art detectors considered in this work reach the resonant performance below 20 pW/√Hz at 0.3 THz and 0.5 THz, as well as 404 pW/√Hz cross-sectional NEP at 4.75 THz. The broadband detectors show NEP as low as 25 pW/√Hz at around 0.6 THz for the best AlGaN/GaN design and 25 pW/√Hz around 1 THz for the best CMOS design. As one of the most promising applications, metamaterial characterization was tested using the most sensitive devices. Furthermore, one of the single-pixel devices and a multi-pixel array were tested as an engineering solution for a radio astronomy system called GREAT in a stratosphere observatory named SOFIA. The exploration of the autocorrelation technique using FET-based devices shows the opportunity to employ such detectors for direct detection of THz pulses without an interferometric measurement setup.
This work also considers imaging applications, which include near-field and far-field visualization solutions. A considerable milestone for the theory of FET technology was achieved when scanning near-field microscopy led to the visualization of plasma (or carrier density) waves in a graphene FET channel. Whereas another important milestone for the THz technology was achieved when a 3D scan of a mobile phone was performed under the far-field imaging mode. Even though the imaging was done through the phone’s plastic cover, the image displayed high accuracy and good feature recognition of the smartphone, inching the FET-based detector technology ever so close to practical security applications. In parallel, the multi-pixel array testing was carried out on 6x7 pixel arrays that have been implemented in configurable-size aperture and imaging configurations. The configurable aperture size allowed the easier detector focusing procedure and a better fit for the beam size of the incident radiation. The imaging has been tested on various THz sources and compared to the TeraSense 16x16 pixel array. The experimental results show the big advantage of the developed multi-pixel array against the used commercial technology.
Furthermore, two ultra-low-power applications have been successfully tested. The application on hyper-frequency THz imaging tested in the specially developed dual frequency comb and our detector system for 300 GHz radiation with 9 spectral lines led to outstanding imaging results on various materials. The passive imaging of human body radiation was conducted using the most sensitive broadband CMOS detector with a log-spiral antenna working in the 0.1 – 1.5 THz range and reaching the optical NEP of 42 pW/√Hz. The NETD of this device reaches 2.1 K and overcomes the performance limit of passive room-temperature imaging of the human body radiation, which was less than 10 K above the room temperature. This experiment opened a completely new field that was explored before only by the multiplier chain-based or thermal detectors.
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The Compressed Baryonic Matter (CBM) Experiment will investigate heavy ion collisions and reactions at interaction rates of 100 kHz in a targeted energy range of up to 11 AGeV for systems such as gold-gold or lead-lead. It will be one of the major scientific experiments of the Facility for Antiproton and Ion Research in Europe (FAIR) currently under construction at the site of the GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Darmstadt, Germany. CBM is going to be a fixed target experiment consisting of a superconducting magnet, multiple detectors of various types, and high-performance computing for online event reconstruction and selection. The detector closest to the interaction point of the experiment will be the Micro Vertex Detector (MVD). Consisting of four planar stations equipped with custom CMOS pixel sensors, it will allow to reconstruct the primary vertex with high precision and will help to reconstruct secondary vertices and identify particles originating from conversion in the detector material.
Due to the high interaction rates foreseen for CBM, understanding and minimizing systematic errors due to the detectors’ operating conditions will become all the more important to obtain significant measurement results, as statistical errors in the measurements of many observables are diminishing due to the enormous amount of data available.
Furthermore, the MVD will be the first detector based on CMOS pixel sensors used in a large physics experiment, that will be operated in vacuum. As a result, many aspects of the mechanical and electrical integration of the detector require careful testing and validation.
This thesis addresses both those challenges specifically for the Micro Vertex Detector with the development of a control system for the operation and validation of the MVD prototype “PRESTO” in vacuum. The prototype was selected as device under test as the final MVD is not yet built.
The developed control system helps a) to operate the prototype safely and keep it at the desired working point and b) to record important time-series data of the state of the detector prototype. Those two aspects allow the control system (which might later serve as a ‘blueprint’ for the final detector) to minimize the mentioned systematic errors as much as possible and to contribute to the understanding of remaining systematic errors using correlations with the time-series data. The controlled operation of the prototype in vacuum allowed to validate the integration concepts from a wide range of mechanical and electrical aspects in an endurance test for more than a year with 24/7 operation.
The prototype for this study itself was named “PRESTO” (standing for ‘PREcursor of the Second sTatiOn of the CBM-MVD’). It represents one quadrant of an MVD detector plane, equipped with a total of 15 MIMOSA-26 sensors on the front and back side of a carrier plate. Within this thesis, major parts of the prototype itself were designed. Custom ultra-thin flat flexible cables for data and power were designed and validated. Furthermore, the CNC-machined Aluminium heatsink to mount and cool the prototype design was refined to increase thermal performance. A custom vacuum feedthrough for a total of 21 flat ribbon cables was designed and fabricated. The read-out chain for MIMOSIS-26 was extended to cover a total of 8 sensors with a single and newer TRB-3 FPGA board and was set-up with the prototype. Vacuum equipment including chambers, hoses, pumps, valves and gauges were integrated to form a large vacuum testing system. A cooling circuit for the prototype was assembled comprising an external chiller, hoses, vacuum feedthroughs, as well as temperature, flow and pressure sensors.
The control system was developed to serve the needs of the prototype, while taking the requirements of the final MVD already into account. The main design goals of the control system are:
• compatibility with the other detectors and the overall CBM experiment,
• access to real-time measurements of all necessary parameters (‘process values’),
• reliable, fail-safe operation of the detector,
• recording of all time-series data (‘archiving’),
• cost efficiency and acceptance within the physics community,
• good usability for the users (‘operators’),
• long-term maintainability.
The recorded time-series data of the process variables (i.e. sensor readings) allow a post-measurement analysis of variations in the detector performance. The longterm archiving of all relevant system parameters is therefore of outstanding importance, which is why the software intended for this purpose – called “archiver” – was given special attention in this thesis.
For this reason in particular, it is necessary to implement a comprehensive control system that allows the detector to be operated safely under these conditions and cooled effectively. Before the start of this doctoral thesis, vigilant and extensively trained operators were always necessary for this. The control system that has been developed makes it possible that, after basic training, the detector can also be operated by a less specialised shift supervisor during measurement campaigns.
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Die vorliegende Dissertation behandelt das Thema der Wechselstromleitfähigkeit nano-granularer Metalle, welche mit Hilfe der fokussierten elektronenstrahlinduzierten Direktabscheidung (FEBID) hergestellt wurden, sowie der dielektrischen Relaxation in metall-organischen Gerüstverbindungen (MOFs). Sie war eingebettet in das interdisziplinäre Projekt „Dielectric and Ferroelectric Surface-Mounted Metal-Organic Frameworks (SURMOFs) as Sensor Devices“ im Rahmen des DPG-Schwerpunktsprogramms „Coordination Networks: Building Blocks for Functional Systems“ (SPP 1928, COORNETs). Dabei verfolgt sie ein Sensorkonzept zur selektiven Detektion von Analytgasen. Der zentrale Erfolg der Arbeit besteht dabei in neuen Erkenntnissen über die Wechselstromleitfähigkeit nano-granularer Pt(C)-FEBID-Deponate. Die hierbei gewonnen Erkenntnisse können in Zukunft einen weiteren Baustein in der theoretischen Beschreibung dieses grundlegend interessanten und für sensorische Anwendungen wichtigen Teilgebiets der Festkörperphysik darstellen.
High-energy astrophysics plays an increasingly important role in the understanding of our universe. On one hand, this is due to ground-breaking observations, like the gravitational-wave detections of the LIGO and Virgo network or the black-hole shadow observations of the EHT collaboration. On the other hand, the field of numerical relativity has reached a level of sophistication that allows for realistic simulations that include all four fundamental forces of nature. A prime example of how observations and theory complement each other can be seen in the studies following GW170817, the first detection of gravitational waves from a binary neutron-star merger. The same detection is also the chronological starting point of this Thesis. The plethora of information and constraints on nuclear physics derived from GW170817 in conjunction with theoretical computations will be presented in the first part of this Thesis. The second part goes beyond this detection and prepares for future observations when also the high-frequency postmerger signal will become detectable. Specifically, signatures of a quark-hadron phase transition are discussed and the specific case of a delayed phase transition is analyzed in detail. Finally, the third part of this Thesis focuses on the inclusion of radiative transport in numerical astrophysics. In the context of binary neutron-star mergers, radiation in the form of neutrinos is crucial for realistic long-term simulations. Two methods are introduced for treating radiation: the approximate state-of-the-art two-moment method (M1) and the recently developed radiative Lattice-Boltzmann method. The latter promises
to be more accurate than M1 at a comparable computational cost. Given that most methods for radiative transport or either inaccurate or unfeasible, the derivation of this new method represents a novel and possibly paradigm-changing contribution to an accurate inclusion of radiation in numerical astrophysics.
Während den ersten Mikrosekunden nach dem Urknall glaubt man, dass unser Universum aus einer heißen, dichten und stark wechselwirkenden Materie bestanden haben soll, welche man das Quark-Gluonen-Plasma (QGP) nennt.
In diesem Medium sind die elementaren Bausteine der Materie, die Quarks und die Gluonen, nicht mehr in Hadronen gebunden, sondern können sich stattdessen wie quasi-freie Teilchen verhalten.
Für die ALICE Kollaboration an CERN's Large Hadron Collider (LHC) ist die Untersuchung dieses Mediums eines der Hauptziele. Um dieses Medium im Labor zu erzeugen, werden Protonen und Nukleonen auf nahezu Lichtgeschwindigkeit beschleunigt und anschließend zur Kollision gebracht. Dabei werden Schwerpunktsenergien von bis zu 13 TeV bei Proton-Proton (pp) Kollisionen und bis zu 5.02 TeV bei Blei-Blei (Pb--Pb) Kollisionen erreicht.
Bei solchen hochenergetischen Kollisionen werden die kritischen Werte der Energiedichte und Temperatur von jeweils ungefähr 1 GeV/c und undgefähr 155 MeV überschritten, welche mithilfe von "lattice QCD" bestimmt wurden. Sie bieten daher die perfekten Voraussetzungen für einen Phasenübergang von normaler Materie zu einem QGP.
Die Entwicklung eines solchen Mediums, beginnend bei der eigentlichen Kollision, gefolgt von der Ausbildung des Plasmas und der letztendlichen Hadronisierung, kann jedoch nicht direkt untersucht werden, da das Plasma eine extrem kurze Lebensdauer hat.
Die Studien die das QGP untersuchen möchten, müssen sich deshalb auf Teilchenmessungen und deren Veränderung aufgrund von Einflüssen durch das Medium beschränken.
Es ist noch nicht definitiv geklärt, ob sich ein QGP nur in Kollisionen schwerer Ionen bildet, oder ob dies auch in kleineren Kollisionssystemen wie Proton-Proton oder Proton-Blei der Fall ist.
Damit in dieser Thesis Einschränkungen bezüglich einer möglichen Erzeugung eines mini-GQP in kleinen Kollisionssystemen gemacht werden kann, wird der Fokus auf Messungen von neutralen Pionen und Eta Mesonen mit dem ALICE Detektor am CERN LHC gesetzt. Hierfür wird in einem Referenzsystem von Proton-Proton Kollisionen bei sqrt(s)=8 TeV und in einem Proton-Blei (p--Pb) System bei sqrt(sNN)=8.16 TeV, welches eine nukleare Modifikation erfährt, gemessen und die Ergebnisse verglichen.
Da in Proton-Proton Kollisionen die Bildung eines QGP, aufgrund zu geringer Energiedichte, nicht erwartet wird, dient eine Messung in diesem System als Messbasis, um Effekte der Kollision selbst von Effekten nach der Kollision zu separieren, welche die Teilchenproduktion beeinflussen.
Teilchen können zusätzlich zu dem QGP auch mit kalter Kernmaterie interagieren, was sich in asymmetrischen Proton-Blei Kollisionen testen lässt. In diesem Kollisionssystem wird größtenfalls ein vergleichsweise kleines QGP gebildet, wohingegen das Blei Ion selbst als kalte Kernmaterie agieren kann.
Zusätzlich zu den Mesonenmessungen wird in dieser Thesis auch die Erzeugung von direkten Photonen bei niedrigen Transversalimpulsen (pT) in multiplizitätsabhängigen p--Pb Kollisionen bei einer Schwerpunktsenergie von sNN=5.02 TeV gemessen, welche als direkte Probe, sowie als charakteristisches Signal des QGP gilt.
Die neutralen Pionen, welche in dieser Thesis gemessen werden, kann man als einen Überlagerungszustand der zwei leichtesten Quarksorten, dem "up" (u) und dem "down" (d) Quark, sowie deren entsprechenden Anti-Teilchen verstehen.
Das eta meson hingegen hat einen zusätzlichen Anteil des "strange" Quarks und eine resultierende höhere Masse.
Quarks sind Teil des Standardmodells der Teilchenphysik, welches die Elementarteilchen und die zwischen ihnen wirkenden Elementarkräfte, ausgeübt durch Bosonen, beschreibt.
Das Modell umfasst insgesamt sechs Quarks, welche sich durch ihre Masse und Ladung unterscheiden und als Grundbestandteil von gebundenen Zuständen, sogenannten Hadronen, fungieren.
Die "up" und "down" Quarks gelten hierbei als die leichtesten Quarks und kommen daher am häufigsten in der Natur vor. Das bekannteste Beipiel stellen hier die allgemein bekannten Protonen (uud) und Neutronen (udd) dar, welche die Grundkomponenten von Nukleonen sind.
Die restlichen Quarks tragen eine deutlich höhere Masse und haben daher eine große Tendenz, sich in leichtere Quarks umzuwandeln, wodurch ihre Lebensdauer sehr gering ist. Die "top" und "bottom" Quarks, welche die Schwersten sind, können daher nicht in gewöhnlicher Materie gefunden werden.
Sie können jedoch experimentell durch hoch energetische Teilchenkollisionen erzeugt werden und indirekt über ihre Zerfallsprodukte nachgewiesen werden.
Quarks tragen eine elektrische Ladung von entweder 1/3 oder 2/3, sowie eine Farbladung, wobei Letztere verantwortlich für ihre Bindung in Hadronen ist.
Hadronen bestehen entweder aus drei Quarks, dann werden sie Baryonen genannt, oder aus einem Quark-Antiquark Paar, welches Meson genannt wird.
Diese gebundenen Zustände erfüllen eine insgesamt neutrale Farbladung, sowie eine vollzählige elektrische Ladung.
Des Weiteren gibt es auch exotische Penta-Quark Zustände, welche aus vier Quarks und einem Antiquark bestehen und bereits experimentell nachgewiesen wurden.
Aufgrund der starken Wechselwirkung, welche durch Gluonen vermittelt wird, können Quarks nicht einzeln beobachtet werden.
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This thesis explores the phase diagrams of the Nambu--Jona-Lasinio (NJL) and quark-meson (QM) model in the mean-field approximation and beyond. The focus lies in the investigation of the interplay between inhomogeneous chiral condensates and two-flavor color superconductivity.
In the first part of this thesis, we study the NJL model with 2SC diquarks in the mean-field approximation and determine the dispersion relations for quasiparticle excitations for generic spatial modulations of the chiral condensate in the presence of a homogeneous 2SC-diquark condensate, provided that the dispersion relations in the absence of color superconductivity are known. We then compare two different Ansätze for the chiral order parameter, the chiral density wave (CDW) and the real-kink crystal (RKC). For both Ansätze we find for specific diquark couplings a so-called coexistence phase where both the inhomogeneous chiral condensate and the diquark condensate coexist. Increasing the diquark coupling disfavors the coexistence phase in favor of a pure diquark phase.
On the other hand, decreasing the diquark coupling favors the inhomogeneous phase over the coexistence phase.
In the second part of this thesis the functional renormalization group is employed to study the phase diagram of the quark-meson-diquark model. We observe that the region of the phase diagram found in previous studies, where the entropy density takes on unphysical negative values, vanishes when including diquark degrees of freedom. Furthermore, we perform a stability analysis of the homogeneous phase and compare the results with those of previous studies. We find that an increasing diquark coupling leads to a smaller region of instability as the 2SC phase extends to a smaller chemical potential. We also find a region where simultaneously an instability occurs and a non-vanishing diquark condensate forms, which is an indication of the existence of a coexistence phase in accordance with the results of the first part of this work.
Bohmian mechanics as formulated originally in 1952, has been useful in the implementation of numerical methods applied to quantum mechanics. The scientific community though has had ever since a critical thought about it. Therefore, there are still points to be clarified and rectified. The two main problems are basically: Bohmian mechanics gives a privilege role to the position representation. Secondly, the current interpretation of Bohmian trajectories has been recently proven wrong.
In this context, in Chapter 2, new complex Bohmian quantities are defined; so that they allow the capacity to formulate Bohmian mechanics in any arbitrary continuous representation, for instance, the momentum representation. This Chapter is fully based on two articles, regarding the proposed complex Bohmian formulation and its extension into momentum space.
Chapter 3 deals with a redefinition and reinterpretation of the Bohmian trajectories from the handling of the continuity equation, this is done without any need of additional postulates or interpretations. Also, it is proved that Bohmian mechanics is actually more than a projective aspect of the Wigner function.
As a third point, Chapter 4 presents a sytematic treatment of the hydrodynamic scheme of Bohmian mechanics. Then, a brief summary of the transport equations in Bohmian mechanics is done. Next, a unified hydrodynamic treatment is found for the Bohmian mechanics. This treatment is useful to sketch, a Bohmian treatment to efficiently find the steady value of the transmission integral.
In Chapter 5 conclusions of this thesis are drawn.
The realization of a fast and robust closed orbit feedback (COFB) system for the on-ramp orbit correction at SIS18 synchrotron of FAIR project is reported in this thesis. SIS18 has some peculiar behaviors including on-ramp optics variation, very short lengths of the ramps (200 ms to 1 s) and a cycle-to-cycle variation of beam parameters. The realized fast COFB system being robust against above mentioned features of SIS18 is a first of its kind and the course to its realization led to some novel contributions in the field of closed orbit correction. A new method relying on the discrete Fourier transform (DFT)-based decomposition of the orbit response matrix (ORM) has been introduced, exploiting the symmetry in the arrangement of beam position monitors (BPMs) and the corrector magnets in the synchrotrons. A nearest-circulant approximation has also been introduced for synchrotrons having slight deviation from the symmetry, making the method applicable to a vast majority of synchrotrons. Moreover, the performance and the stability analysis of COFB systems in the presence of ORM mismatch between the synchrotron and the feedback controller is presented. The COFB systems are divided into slow and fast regimes and a new stability criterion consistent with measurements, is introduced. The practicality of the criterion is verified experimentally at COSY Jülich and is used for the analysis of various sources of ORM mismatch at SIS18. The commissioning of the SIS18 COFB system is also reported in detail which relies on Libera Hadron as the main hardware resource for the controller implementation. The on-ramp orbit correction is demonstrated for the horizontal plane of SIS18, for the disturbance rejection up to 600 Hz.
The requirement of the versatile signal generator has always been evident in modern RF and communication systems. The most conventional technique, voltage control oscillator (VCO), has inferior phase noise and narrow bandwidth despite its operating frequency can be up to the sub-THz regime. Its phase noise influenced by a various parameter associated with the oscillator circuit e.g. transistor size \& noise, bias current, noise leaking from the bias supply etc. The bandwidth is limited because the input voltage \& the output frequency of the VCO is not strictly linear over the tuning range. The phase noise and SFDR of the VCO output are enhanced by using the phase-lock technique. The phase-locked loop (PLL) uses the feedback system locking the reference frequency set by the VCO. However, the settling time of the PLL is higher due to a feedback control loop. The higher settling time increases the frequency switching time between PLL outputs. IG-oscillators is suitable for multi-GHz range and wide bandwidth application. Signal generation can alos be achieved by the free-electron radiation, optical lasers, Gunn diodes as well and they can operate even at the THz domain. All these signal generators suffer from slow frequency switching, lack of digital controllability, and advance modulation capability even though their frequency of operation is THz regime. Alternatively, the AWG (arbitrary wave generator) can produce a wide range of frequencies with low phase noise, including digital controllability. One of the vital components of the AWG is the direct digital synthesiser (DDS). Generally, it is composed of a phase accumulator, digital to analogue converter, sine mapping circuits and low pass filter. It needs a reference clock that acts as samples of the DDS outputs. Its output frequency can be varied by applying an appropriate digital input code. But high-speed DDS has several limitations; such as low number of output frequency points, lack of phase control unit, high power consumptions etc. This work addresses such limitations.
Diese Thesis befasst sich mit dem Problem korrelierter Elektronensysteme in realen Materialien. Ausgangspunkt hierbei ist die quantenmechanische Beschreibung dieser Systeme im Rahmen der sogenannten Kohn-Scham Dichtefunktionaltheorie, welche die Elektronen der Kristallsysteme als effektiv nicht-wechselwirkende Teilchen beschreibt.
Während diese Modellierung im Falle vieler Materialklassen erfolgreich ist, unterscheiden sich die korrelierten Elektronensysteme dadurch, dass der kollektive Charakter der Elektronendynamik nicht zu vernachlässigen ist.
Um diese Korrelationseffekte genauer zu untersuchen, verwenden wir in dieser Arbeit das Hubbard-Modell, welches mit der projektiven Wannierfunktionsmethode aus der Kohn-Scham Dichtefunktionaltheorie konstruiert werden kann.
Das Hubbard-Modell umfasst hierbei nur die lokale Elektron-Elektron-Wechselwirkung auf einem Gitter. Auch wenn das Modell augenscheinlich sehr simpel ist, existieren exakte Lösungen nur in bestimmten Grenzfällen. Dies macht die Entwicklung approximativer Ansätze erforderlich, wobei die Weiterentwicklung der sogenannten Two-Particle Self-Consistent Methode (TPSC) eine zentrale Rolle dieser Arbeit einnimmt.
Bei TPSC handelt es sich um eine Vielteilchenmethode, die in der Sprache funktionaler Ableitungen und sogenannter conserving approximations hergeleitet werden kann.
Der zentrale Gedanke dabei ist, den effektiven Wechselwirkungsvertex als statisch und lokal zu approximieren. Dies wiederum erlaubt die Bewegungsgleichung des Systems
erheblich zu vereinfachen, sodass eine numerische approximative Lösung des Hubbard-Modells möglich wird. Vorsetzung hierbei ist nur, dass sich das System in der normalleitenden Phase befindet und die bei Phasenübergängen entstehenden Fluktuationen nicht zu groß sind.
Während diese Methode ursprünglich von Y. M. Vilk und A.-M. Tremblay für das Ein-Orbital Hubbard-Modell entwickelt wurde, stellen wir in dieser Arbeit eine Erweiterung auf Viel-Orbital-Systeme vor.
Im Falle mehrerer Orbitale treten in der TPSC-Herleitung einzelne Komplikationen auf, die mit weiteren Approximationen behandelt werden müssen. Diese werden anhand eines einfachen Zwei-Orbital Modell-Systems diskutiert und die TPSC-Ergebnisse werden darüber hinaus mit den Ergebnissen der etablierten dynamischen Molekularfeldnährung verglichen.
In diesem Zusammenhang werden auch mögliche zukünftige Erweiterungen bzw. Verbesserungen von TPSC diskutiert.
Ein weiterer wichtiger Aspekt ist die Anwendung von TPSC auf reale Materialien.
In diesem Zusammenhang werden in dieser Arbeit die supraleitenden Eigenschaften der organischen K-(ET)2X Systeme untersucht. Hierbei lassen die TPSC-Resultate darauf schließen, dass das populäre Dimer-Modell, welches zur Beschreibung dieser Materialien herangezogen wird, nicht genügt um die experimentell bestimmten kritischen Temperaturen zu erklären und dass das komplexere Molekülmodell weitere exotische supraleitende Lösungen zulässt.
Schließlich untersuchen wir außerdem die elektronischen Eigenschaften des eisenbasierten Supraleiters LiFeAs und diskutieren inwieweit nicht-lokale Korrelationseffekte, welche durch TPSC aufgelöst werden können, die experimentellen Daten reproduzieren.
This dissertation presents the development of a new radio frequency quadrupole (RFQ) structure of the 4-rod type with an operating frequency of 108 MHz for the acceleration of heavy ions with mass-to-charge ratios of up to 8.5 at high duty cycles up to CW operation ("continuous wave") at the High Charge Injector (HLI) of the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Darmstadt.
The need to develop a completely new RFQ for the HLI arises from the fact that with the previously designed and built 4-rod RFQ structure, which was commissioned at the HLI in 2010 as part of the planned HLI upgrade program, the desired operating modes in both pulsed and CW operation could not be achieved even after several years of operating experience and considerable efforts to eliminate or at least mitigate the severe operational instabilities. Mechanical vibrations of the electrodes, which result in strong modulated power reflection, as well as the high thermal sensitivity proved to be particularly problematic.
In addition to the RF design of the new RFQ by simulations performed with the CST Microwave Studio software, the focus of the investigations fell on the mechanical analysis of vibrations on the electrode rods caused by RF operation, for which the ANSYS Workbench software was used. Due to the high thermal load of the RFQ structure of more than 30 kW/m in CW operation, an accurate analysis of the thermal effects on electrode deformation as well as resulting frequency detuning of the resonator is also required, which was investigated by simulations within the capabilities of CST Mphysics Studio.
Based on the results of the design studies carried out by simulations and the thereby achieved design optimizations, a 4-rod RFQ prototype with 6 stems was finally manufactured, on which most of the properties expected from the simulations could be validated by measurements of the RF characteristics as well as of the vibration behavior.
Finally, based on the results of the pre-tests and considering a newly developed beam dynamics concept, a completely revised RF design for a new full-length HLI-RFQ was derived from the prototype design.
Die vorliegende Arbeit beschreibt die Erzeugung und Charakterisierung verschiedenartiger piezoresistiver Dünnschichten für die Druck- und Dehnungssensorik bei hohen Temperaturen, die mittels Sputterdeposition abgeschieden werden:
- metallische Schichten aus Chrom mit Verunreinigungen aus Sauerstoff, Stickstoff oder Platin,
- granulare Keramik-Metall-Schichten (Cermets), mit Platin oder Nickel als Metallkomponente und Aluminiumoxid (Al2O3) oder Bornitrid (BN) als Keramikkomponente.
Beide Schichttypen können mit geeigneten Beschichtungsparametern erhebliche piezoresistive Effekte aufweisen, also einen Widerstands-Dehnungs-Effekt, der den von typischen Metallschichten um ein Mehrfaches übersteigt. Der Effekt wird quantifiziert durch den k-Faktor, der die relative Änderung des Widerstands R auf die relative Änderung der Länge l, d.h. die Dehnung ε=Δl/l, bezieht: k=ΔR/(R ε).
In Beschichtungsreihen werden die Schichtzusammensetzung und die Depositionsbedingungen variiert und die Auswirkungen auf den elektrischen Widerstand, dessen Temperaturkoeffizienten (TKR), sowie den k-Faktor untersucht. Die k-Faktoren der chrombasierten Schichten liegen bei 10 bis 20 mit um null einstellbarem TKR. Die Cermet-Schichten erreichen je nach Material k-Faktoren von 7 bis über 70 mit meist stark negativen TKR von mehreren -0,1 %/K.
Die Chrom- und Chrom-Stickstoff-Schichten erweisen sich als geeignete Sensorschichten für Membran-Drucksensoren. Daher wird eine Reihe von Sensoren mit Wheatstone-Messbrücken erzeugt und charakterisiert. Sie zeigen den hohen k-Faktoren entsprechende hohe Signalspannen. Die guten Sensoreigenschaften bleiben auch bei hohen Temperaturen bis 230 °C erhalten.
Nach den ersten Untersuchungen bei Dehnungen bis maximal 0,1 % wird zusätzlich das Verhalten der Schichten bei höheren Dehnungen bis 1,4 % untersucht. Es zeigt sich vorwiegend ein lineares Widerstands-Dehnungs-Verhalten. Die Leiterbahnen der spröden chrombasierten Schichten werden bei Dehnungen um 0,7 % jedoch durch Risse zerstört, die sich von den Rändern der Schicht her ausbreiten.
Die Platin-Aluminiumoxid-Schicht zeigt einen enorm großen, nichtlinearen Widerstands-Dehnungs-Effekt, der auf Risse zurückgeführt werden kann, die sich nach einigen Belastungszyklen reproduzierbar öffnen und schließen.
Tieftemperaturmessungen von 2 bis 300 K zeigen Widerstandsminima der Chrom-Stickstoff-Schichten; Magnetwiderstandsmessungen deuten jedoch nicht auf den Kondo-Effekt hin.
Die Cermet-Schichten zeigen thermisch aktivierte Leitfähigkeit.
Ausgewählte Schichten werden bei Temperaturen bis 420 °C (693 K) charakterisiert. Die chrombasierten Schichten haben bei hohen Temperaturen stabile Widerstände, zeigen jedoch stark nichtlineare Temperaturverläufe von Widerstand und k-Faktor. Oberhalb einer gewissen Temperatur verschwindet der piezoresistive Effekt, kehrt jedoch beim Abkühlen zurück. Die Verläufe lassen sich durch die Schichtzusammensetzung und auch durch Temperaturbehandlungen modifizieren.
Die Platin-Aluminiumoxid-Schicht ist ebenfalls temperaturstabil und zeigt geringe Änderungen des k-Faktors im Temperaturverlauf. Platin-Bornitrid zeigt große, reversible Widerstandsänderungen bei höheren Temperaturen, die auf mögliche Gaseinlagerungen hindeuten.
Aus den experimentellen Ergebnissen lassen sich die Ursachen der Piezoresistivität ableiten: Die chrombasierten Schichten bilden, wie in der Literatur vielfach beschrieben, unterhalb einer Ordnungstemperatur einen Spindichtewellen-Antiferromagnetismus aus. Dieser Zustand führt zu einem zusätzlichen Widerstandsbeitrag, der die beschriebenen Nichtlinearitäten der Widerstands-Temperatur-Verläufe verursacht und zudem empfindlich auf mechanische Dehnung reagiert und so zu erhöhten k-Faktoren führt.
Die Piezoresistivität der Cermet-Schichten resultiert aus der granularen Struktur, in der Ladungsträger zwischen Metallpartikeln tunneln. Mit exponentiell vom Partikelabstand abhängigen Widerständen der Tunnelübergänge resultieren hohe k-Faktoren. Mithilfe von Modellbetrachtungen, in denen Gleichungen für Tunnelwiderstände auf granulare Systeme angewendet werden, werden die experimentellen Ergebnisse diskutiert. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass sich die Eigenschaften der Keramik vorrangig auf den Betrag der k-Faktoren auswirken und die Eigenschaften des Metalls vor allem den TKR beeinflussen.
Für die vorliegende Arbeit wurden zur Analyse des Auger-Zerfalls kleiner Moleküle nach Photoionisation die aus der Zerfallsreaktion resultierenden Impuls- und Energiespektren von Photo- und Auger-Elektronen in Koinzidenz mit denen der ionischen Fragmente aufgenommen. Dies ermöglichte eine getrennte Betrachtung der während des Ionisationsschrittes und des Zerfallsschrittes dieses Prozesses besetzten Molekülzustände. Um weitere Einsicht in die Dynamik des Zerfalls zu erhalten, wurden vorhandene theoretische Modelle, welche insbesondere die Interaktion der durch die Reaktion produzierten geladenen Teilchen (Post Collision Interaction) einbeziehen, an die gemessenen Energiespektren angepasst. Dies ermöglichte die separate Betrachtung der im Ionisationsschritt besetzten Molekülzustände. So konnten die Emissionswinkelverteilungen der Photoelektronen im molekülfesten Koordinatensystem für jeden besetzten Anfangszustand einzeln betrachtet werden. Die Trennung der Endzustände des Zerfalls erfolgte über die Analyse des Spektrums der Ionen-Aufbruchsenergie (Kinetic Energy Release) und den Vergleich mit berechneten Potentialkurven der beitragenden Endzustände.
Durch die nach den Anfangszuständen separierte Betrachtung des Auger-Zerfalls wurde es auch möglich, die Auswirkungen dieser Zustände auf die Zerfallsdynamik zu analysieren. Dafür lieferte die Anpassung der Modellprofile die Lebensdauer des jeweiligen 1s-Lochzustandes in dem entsprechenden Zerfallskanal. Diese jeweiligen Lebensdauern eines jeden Zustandes wurden abhängig von verschiedenen Parametern mit einer Genauigkeit im Attosekunden-Bereich aus den Energiespektren der Photoelektronen ermittelt.
In the last two decades, new unpredicted charmonium-like states with extraordinary characteristics have been observed experimentally. These states also known as the XYZ states, e.g., the Y(4260) or the X(3872), are mostly interpreted as QCD allowed exotic hadrons. One of the leading hadron physics experiments in the world, the Beijing Electron Spectrometer III (BESIII) at the Beijing Electron-Positron Collider II (BEPCII) is aiming towards revealing the internal structure of these states. It has brought numerous breakthrough discoveries including the discovery of the charged Zc(3900). In order to understand the nature of the Y(4260) state and its decay patterns, an inclusive analysis is performed for different recoil systems (π+π−,K+K− and K±π∓) using the BESIII data samples for center of mass energies above 4 GeV collected between 2013 and 2019. The aim of this analysis is twofold: on one hand, we search for new unobserved charmonium-like decay channels using the missing mass technique and on the other hand, it provides an accurate inclusive cross section measurement for e+e−→X π+π−, with the X being the J/ψ, hc and ψ(2S), respectively. Two resonant structures, the Y(4220) and the Y(4390), are observed in the inclusive energy dependent Born cross section of e+e−→hc π+π−, which is consistent with the BESIII exclusive measurements. Moreover, the energy dependent cross section of e+e−→J/ψ π+π− is investigated, in which two resonances have consistently been observed with the previous BESIII exclusive studies, namely, the Y(4220) and the Y(4320). In the (K±π±) recoil system, possible Y(4260) open charm decay channels are investigated. Two enhancements are observed in the inclusive energy dependent cross section of e+e−→DD above 4.13GeV, which could possibly be the ψ(4160)and the ψ(4415).