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Inhibitoren der Apoptose (IAP, inhibitor of apoptosis) Proteine spielen eine wichtige Rolle in Bezug auf Zelltodregulation und es ist anzunehmen, dass eine Dysregulation dieser Proteine zu einer Tumorentwicklung und Tumorprogression beiträgt. Erhöhte Expressionslevel von IAP Proteinen verhindern die Aktivierbarkeit des Zelltodprogrammes von Tumorzellen und eine Reihe von Studien konnte bereits erhöhte IAP Level in Tumorzelllinien sowie in primären Tumorproben nachweisen. Des Weiteren korrelieren erhöhte Expressionslevel von IAPs in Tumoren mit Behandlungsresistenzen und schlechten Prognosen für die Patienten.
Das diffuse großzellige B-Zell Lymphom (DLBCL, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma) zählt zu den häufigsten Subtypen der Non-Hodgkin Lymphome (NHL) mit 40 % aller neu diagnostizierten NHL Fälle. DLBCL ist eine sehr heterogene Erkrankung die in drei verschiedene Gruppen klassifiziert wurde: aktivierter B-Zell Typ (ABC, activated B-cell), Keimzentrum B-Zell Typ (GCB, germinal center B-Cell) und Mediastinaler großzelliger B-Zell Typ (PMBL, primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma). Erhöhte Expressionslevel von zellulärem IAP1 (cIAP, cellular IAP) und cIAP2 wurden ebenfalls in primären Tumorproben von DLBCL Patienten nachgewiesen. Smac mimetics wurden entwickelt, um IAPs zu antagonisieren und stellen damit eine Behandlungsstrategie für DLBCL Patienten dar, denn ca. 40 % aller DLBCL Patienten entwickeln ein Rezidiv oder erreichen gar keine Remission unter Standardtherapie. Jedoch ist der Effekt von Smac mimetics in einer Einzelbehandlung limitiert, weswegen Kombinationstherapien mit Smac mimetics eine vielversprechende Strategie für ihren klinischen Einsatz darstellen. Aus diesem Grund haben wir in dieser Arbeit den Effekt von Smac mimetic in Kombination mit Proteasom-Inhibitoren analysiert und einen speziellen Fokus auf den molekularen Mechanismus des ausgelösten Zelltodsignalweges gelegt.
Die Kombination verschiedener Konzentrationen des Smac mimetics BV6 mit dem Proteasom-Inhibitor carfilzomib (CFZ) löst in allen drei getesteten DLBCL Subtypen (ABC, GCB und PMBL) Zelltod aus. Die Kalkulation des Kombinationsindexes (CI, combination index) sowie des Bliss Scores, zwei quantitative Parameter zur Bestimmung eines Synergismus, zeigen, dass fast alle getesteten Kombinationen einen Synergismus aufweisen. Dies verdeutlicht, dass eine Co-Behandlung von BV6 und CFZ eine wirksame Kombination ist um Zelltod in DLBCL Zelllinien auszulösen. Außerdem zeigt eine Kombination von BV6 mit anderen Proteasom-Inhibitoren wie ixazomib (IXA) oder oprozomib (OPR), ebenfalls eine synergistische Reduktion der Zellviabilität. Diese Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass der detektierte Effekt nicht auf eine Substanz limitiert ist, sondern, dass ein genereller Effekt von Smac mimetic und Proteasom-Inhibitoren vorliegt, um Zellviabilität in DLBCL zu reduzieren. BV6 und CFZ induzieren einen apoptotischen Zelltod, da sie die Spaltung und Aktivierung von Initiator- und Effektorcaspasen (Caspasen-3, -7, -8 und -9) initiieren und sich der induzierte Zelltod mit Hilfe des Caspasen-Inhibitors zVAD.fmk verhindern lässt. Die Behandlung mit BV6 und CFZ führt zu einer Akkumulation von NIK, ein Protein welches zur Aktivierung des non-kanonischen NF-kB Signalweges benötigt wird. Weitere Untersuchungen zeigen jedoch, dass NIK nicht an der Zelltodinduktion beteiligt ist, da eine siRNA-basierte Herunterregulierung des NIK Proteins keinen Einfluss auf die Zelltodinduktion nimmt. Ebenfalls ist der Zelltod unabhängig von dem TNFa Signalweg, da weder eine Behandlung mit dem TNFa Inhibitor Enbrel den Zelltod verringern kann noch eine zusätzliche Gabe von TNFa den Zelltod erhöht. Weitere mechanistische Studien zeigen eine kritische Rolle der mitochondrialen Apoptose für den BV6/CFZ-vermittelten Zelltod. Unter Behandlung mit BV6/CFZ wurde eine Aktivierung von BAX und BAK nachgewiesen, welche beide mit verantwortlich für die Porenbildung in der mitochondrialen Membran sind. Eine Herunterregulation dieser beiden Proteine mittels siRNA reduziert signifikant den durch BV6/CFZ-induzierten Zelltod auf ein Minimum. Gleichzeitig löst eine Co-Behandlung mit BV6/CFZ einen Verlust des mitochondrialen Membranpotentials (LOMMP, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential) aus. In Übereinstimmung mit den vorherigen Experimenten, zeigen wir eine Akkumulation von mitochondrialen reaktiven Sauerstoffspezies (ROS; reactive oxygen species), sowie einen generellen Anstieg des allgemeinen ROS Levels. Eine Behandlung mit BV6/CFZ zeigt eine deutliche Akkumulation des pro-apoptotischen Proteins NOXA. Um dessen funktionelle Relevanz zu überprüfen, wurde die Proteinmenge von NOXA mittels siRNA stark reduziert. Eine Behandlung mit der Kombination aus BV6 und CFZ zeigt daraufhin eine signifikant reduzierte Zelltodinduktion, was die funktionelle Relevanz von NOXA für den BV6/CFZ-vermittelten Zelltod unterstreicht. Immunopräzipitationsstudien zeigen, dass in RIVA und U2932 Zellen NOXA konstitutiv an seinen anti-apoptotischen Bindungspartner MCL-1 gebunden ist, was die Zellen bereits darauf vorbereitet Apoptose zu durchlaufen. Dieses sogenannte „primen“ für Apoptose wird durch die Behandlung mit BV6 und CFZ weiter verstärkt, da es die Bindung zwischen NOXA und MCL-1 weiter erhöht. Dadurch wird die Balance zwischen pro- und anti-apoptotischen Proteinen zu Gunsten der pro-apoptotischen Proteine verschoben und die Induktion von Apoptose begünstigt.
Insgesamt zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass DLBCL Zelllinien sensitiv auf eine Behandlung mit Smac mimetic und Proteasom-Inhibitor reagieren und damit eine mögliche neue Behandlungsstrategie für diese heterogene Tumorerkrankung darstellt.
Neutron total cross sections are an important source of experimental data in the evaluation of neutron-induced cross sections. The sum of all neutron-induced reaction cross sections can be determined with a precision of a few per cent in a relative measurement. The neutron spectrum of the photoneutron source nELBE extends in the fast region from about 100 keV to 10 MeV and has favourable conditions for transmission measurements due to the low instantaneous flux of neutrons and low gamma-flash background. Several materials of interest (in part included in the CIELO evaluation or on the HPRL of OECD/NEA) have been investigated: 197Au [1, 2], natFe [2], natW [2], 238U, natPt, 4He, natO, natNe, natXe. For gaseous targets high pressure gas cells with flat end-caps have been built that hold up to 200 bar pressure. The experimental setup will be presented including results from several transmission experiments and the data analysis leading to the total cross sections will be discussed.
An accurate measurement of the 140Ce(n,γ) energy-dependent cross-section was performed at the n_TOF facility at CERN. This cross-section is of great importance because it represents a bottleneck for the s-process nucleosynthesis and determines to a large extent the cerium abundance in stars. The measurement was motivated by the significant difference between the cerium abundance measured in globular clusters and the value predicted by theoretical stellar models. This discrepancy can be ascribed to an overestimation of the 140Ce capture cross-section due to a lack of accurate nuclear data. For this measurement, we used a sample of cerium oxide enriched in 140Ce to 99.4%. The experimental apparatus consisted of four deuterated benzene liquid scintillator detectors, which allowed us to overcome the difficulties present in the previous measurements, thanks to their very low neutron sensitivity. The accurate analysis of the p-wave resonances and the calculation of their average parameters are fundamental to improve the evaluation of the 140Ce Maxwellian-averaged cross-section.
Neutron capture on 241Am plays an important role in the nuclear energy production and also provides valuable information for the improvement of nuclear models and the statistical interpretation of the nuclear properties. A new experiment to measure the 241Am(n, γ) cross section in the thermal region and the first few resonances below 10 eV has been carried out at EAR2 of the n_TOF facility at CERN. Three neutron-insensitive C6D6 detectors have been used to measure the neutron-capture gamma cascade as a function of the neutron time of flight, and then deduce the neutron capture yield. Preliminary results will be presented and compared with previously obtained results at the same facility in EAR1. In EAR1 the gamma-ray background at thermal energies was about 90% of the signal while in EAR2 is up to a 25 factor much more favorable signal to noise ratio. We also extended the low energy limit down to subthermal energies. This measurement will allow a comparison with neutron capture measurements conducted at reactors and using a different experimental technique.
Background: The photon strength functions (PSFs) and nuclear level density (NLD) are key ingredients for calculation of the photon interaction with nuclei, in particular the reaction cross sections. These cross sections are important especially in nuclear astrophysics and in the development of advanced nuclear technologies.
Purpose: The role of the scissors mode in the M1 PSF of (well-deformed) actinides was investigated by several experimental techniques. The analyses of different experiments result in significant differences, especially on the strength of the mode. The shape of the low-energy tail of the giant electric dipole resonance is uncertain as well. In particular, some works proposed a presence of the E1 pygmy resonance just above 7 MeV. Because of these inconsistencies additional information on PSFs in this region is of great interest.
Methods: The γ-ray spectra from neutron-capture reactions on the 234U, 236 U, and 238 U nuclei have been measured with the total absorption calorimeter of the n_TOF facility at CERN. The background-corrected sum-energy and multi-step-cascade spectra were extracted for several isolated s-wave resonances up to about 140 eV.
Results: The experimental spectra were compared to statistical model predictions coming from a large selection of models of photon strength functions and nuclear level density. No combination of PSF and NLD models from literature is able to globally describe our spectra. After extensive search we were able to find model combinations with modified generalized Lorentzian (MGLO) E1 PSF, which match the experimental spectra as well as the total radiative widths.
Conclusions: The constant temperature energy dependence is favored for a NLD. The tail of giant electric dipole resonance is well described by the MGLO model of the E1 PSF with no hint of pygmy resonance. The M1 PSF must contain a very strong, relatively wide, and likely double-resonance scissors mode. The mode is responsible for about a half of the total radiative width of neutron resonances and significantly affects the radiative cross section.
73Ge(n, γ ) cross sections were measured at the neutron time-of-flight facility n_TOF at CERN up to neutron energies of 300 keV, providing for the first time experimental data above 8 keV. Results indicate that the stellar cross section at kT = 30 keV is 1.5 to 1.7 times higher than most theoretical predictions. The new cross sections result in a substantial decrease of 73Ge produced in stars, which would explain the low isotopic abundance of 73Ge in the solar system.
The neutron capture cross section of 154Gd was measured from 1 eV to 300 keV in the experimental area located 185 m from the CERN n_TOF neutron spallation source, using a metallic sample of gadolinium, enriched to 67% in 154Gd. The capture measurement, performed with four C6D6 scintillation detectors, has been complemented by a transmission measurement performed at the GELINA time-of-flight facility (JRC-Geel), thus minimising the uncertainty related to sample composition. An accurate Maxwellian averaged capture cross section (MACS) was deduced over the temperature range of interest for s process nucleosynthesis modelling. We report a value of 880(50) mb for the MACS at kT = 30 keV, significantly lower compared to values available in literature. The new adopted 154Gd(n,γ) cross section reduces the discrepancy between observed and calculated solar s-only isotopic abundances predicted by s-process nucleosynthesis models.
Accurate neutron capture cross section data for minor actinides (MAs) are required to estimate the production and transmutation rates of MAs in light water reactors with a high burnup, critical fast reactors like Gen-IV systems and other innovative reactor systems such as accelerator driven systems (ADS). Capture reactions of 244Cm open the path for the formation of heavier Cm isotopes and of heavier elements such as Bk and Cf. In addition, 244Cm shares nearly 50% of the total actinide decay heat in irradiated reactor fuels with a high burnup, even after three years of cooling.
Experimental data for this isotope are very scarce due to the difficulties of providing isotopically enriched samples and because the high intrinsic activity of the samples requires the use of neutron facilities with high instantaneous flux. The only two previous experimental data sets for this neutron capture cross section have been obtained in 1969 using a nuclear explosion and, more recently, at J-PARC in 2010. The neutron capture cross sections have been measured at n_TOF with the same samples that the previous experiments in J-PARC. The samples were measured at n_TOF Experimental Area 2 (EAR-2) with three C6D6 detectors and also in Experimental Area 1 (EAR-1) with the Total Absorption Calorimeter (TAC). Preliminary results assessing the quality and limitations of these new experimental datasets are presented for the experiments in both areas. Preliminary yields of both measurements will be compared with evaluated libraries for the first time.
Feasibility, design and sensitivity studies on innovative nuclear reactors that could address the issue of nuclear waste transmutation using fuels enriched in minor actinides, require high accuracy cross section data for a variety of neutron-induced reactions from thermal energies to several tens of MeV. The isotope 241Am (T1/2= 433 years) is present in high-level nuclear waste (HLW), representing about 1.8 % of the actinide mass in spent PWR UOx fuel. Its importance increases with cooling time due to additional production from the β-decay of 241Pu with a half-life of 14.3 years. The production rate of 241 Am in conventional reactors, including its further accumulation through the decay of 241Pu and its destruction through transmutation/incineration are very important parameters for the design of any recycling solution. In the present work, the 241 Am(n,f) reaction cross-section was measured using Micromegas detectors at the Experimental Area 2 of the n_TOF facility at CERN. For the measurement, the 235U(n,f) and 238U(n,f) reference reactions were used for the determination of the neutron flux. In the present work an overview of the experimental setup and the adopted data analysis techniques is given along with preliminary results.