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Mit der Bereitstellung des 208Pb-Strahls durch das CERN-SPS können seit Herbst 1994 Kollisionen schwerster Kerne bei den höchsten zur Zeit in Schwerionenbeschleunigern erreichten Einschußenergien untersucht werden.
Ziel dieser Arbeit ist die Untersuchung der raumzeitlichen Entwicklung von zentralen Pb-Pb-Kollisionen bei 158 GeV/Nukleon. Diese Untersuchung wurde im Rahmen des Experimentes NA49 durchgefüuhrt und stützt sich auf die Analyse von Bose-Einstein-Korrelationen identischer Pionen. Die Auswertung von rund 40000 zentralen Ereignissen, die in zwei verschiedenen Magnetfeldkonfigurationen mit der zweiten Vertex-Spurendriftkammer des NA49-Experimentes aufgezeichnet wurden, erlaubt hierbei eine annähernd vollständige Untersuchung des pionischen Phasenraumes zwischen zentraler Rapidität und der Projektilhemisphäre.
Auf der experimentellen Seite stellt der Nachweis von mehreren hundert geladenen Teilchen pro Ereignis eine große Herausforderung dar. Daher werden in dieser Arbeit die Optimierung von Spurendriftkammern sowie die verwendeten Analyseverfahren und die erreichte experimentelle Auflösung ausführlich diskutiert. Dabei zeigt sich, daß der systematische Einfluß der erreichten Impuls- und Zweispurauflösung auf die Bestimmung der Bose-Einstein-Observablen vernachlässigbar ist.
Die Messung von Korrelationen ungleich geladener Teilchen bestätigt die Beobachtungen früherer Untersuchungen, wonach die Gamowfunktion als Coulombkorrektur der Bose-Einstein-Korrelationsfunktionen in Schwerionenexperimenten nicht geeignet ist. Ein Vergleich mit einem Modell zeigt, daß diese Messungen konsistent sind mit der Annahme einer endlichen Ausdehnung der Pionenquelle von rund 6 fm. In dieser Arbeitwird zur Korrektur daher eine Parametrisierung der gemessenen Korrelationsstärke ungleich geladener Teilchen benutzt, wodurch die systematischen Unsicherheiten bei der Auswertung der Bose-Einstein-Korrelationsfunktionen erheblich reduziert werden konnten.
Die Auswertung der Bose-Einstein-Korrelationen im Rahmen des Yano-Koonin-Podgoretskii-Formalismus erlaubt eine differentielle Bestimmung der longitudinalen Expansionsgeschwindigkeit. Dabei ergibt sich das Bild eines vornehmlich in longitudinaler Richtung expandierenden Systems, wie es bereits in Schwefel-Kern-Reaktionen bei vergleichbaren Einschußenergien beobachtet wurde. Die Transversalimpulsabhängigkeit der transversalen Radiusparameter ist moderat und verträglich mit einer mäßigen radialen Expansion, deren quantitative Bestätigung allerdings im Rahmen von Modellrechnungen erfolgen muß.
Im Rahmen eines einfachen hydrodynamischen Modells kann die Lebensdauer des Systems zu 7-9 fm/c bei schwacher Abhängigkeit von der Rapidität bestimmt werden. Die Zeitdauer der Pionenemission beträgt etwa 3-4 fm/c und wird damit erstmals in ultrarelativistischen Schwerionenreaktionen als signifikant von Null verschieden beobachtet.
Die Auswertung der Korrelationsfunktion unter Verwendung der Bertsch-Pratt-Parametrisierung liefert Ergebnisse, die mit denen der Yano-Koonin-Podgoretskii-Parametrisierung konsistent sind. Dasselbe gilt für den Vergleich der Analyse positiv und negativ geladener Teilchenpaare sowie unter Verwendung verschiedener Bezugssysteme.
Ein Vergleich mit den Ergebnissen von Schwefel-Kern-Reaktionen deutet an, daß die in Pb-Pb ermittelten Ausfriervolumina nicht mit dem einfachen Bild eines Ausfrierens bei konstanter Teilchendichte vereinbar sind. Vielmehr scheint das Pb-Pb-System bei niedrigerer Dichte auszufrieren. Dies läßt darauf schließen, daß die Ausfrierdichte über die mittlere freie Weglänge mit der Größe des Systems zum Zeitpunkt der letzten Wechselwirkung verknüpft ist.
The two-proton correlation function at midrapidity from Pb+Pb central collisions at 158 AGeV has been measured by the NA49 experiment. The results are compared to model predictions from static thermal Gaussian proton source distributions and transport models RQMD and VENUS. An effective proton source size is determined by minimizing CHI-square/ndf between the correlation functions of the data and those calculated for the Gaussian sources, yielding 3.85 +-0.15(stat.) +0.60-0.25(syst.) fm. Both the RQMD and the VENUS model are consistent with the data within the error in the correlation peak region.
We present first data on event-by-event fluctuations in the average transverse momentum of charged particles produced in Pb+Pb collisions at the CERN SPS. This measurement provides previously unavailable information allowing sensitive tests of microscopic and thermodynamic collision models and to search for fluctuations expected to occur in the vicinity of the predicted QCD phase transition. We find that the observed variance of the event-by-event average transverse momentum is consistent with independent particle production modified by the known two-particle correlations due to quantum statistics and final state interactions and folded with the resolution of the NA49 apparatus. For two specific models of non-statistical fluctuations in transverse momentum limits are derived in terms of fluctuation amplitude. We show that a significant part of the parameter space for a model of isospin fluctuations predicted as a consequence of chiral symmetry restoration in a non-equilibrium scenario is excluded by our measurement.
Net proton and negative hadron spectra for central \PbPb collisions at 158 GeV per nucleon at the CERN SPS were measured and compared to spectra from lighter systems. Net baryon distributions were derived from those of net protons, utilizing model calculations of isospin contributions as well as data and model calculations of strange baryon distributions. Stopping (rapidity shift with respect to the beam) and mean transverse momentum \meanpt of net baryons increase with system size. The rapidity density of negative hadrons scales with the number of participant nucleons for nuclear collisions, whereas their \meanpt is independent of system size. The \meanpt dependence upon particle mass and system size is consistent with larger transverse flow velocity at midrapidity for \PbPb compared to \SS central collisions.
The Time Projection Chamber (TPC) of the ALICE experiment at the CERN LHC was upgraded for Run 3 and Run 4. Readout chambers based on Gas Electron Multiplier (GEM) technology and a new readout scheme allow continuous data taking at the highest interaction rates expected in Pb-Pb collisions. Due to the absence of a gating grid system, a significant amount of ions created in the multiplication region is expected to enter the TPC drift volume and distort the uniform electric field that guides the electrons to the readout pads. Analytical calculations were considered to correct for space-charge distortion fluctuations but they proved to be too slow for the calibration and reconstruction workflow in Run 3. In this paper, we discuss a novel strategy developed by the ALICE Collaboration to perform distortion-fluctuation corrections with machine learning and convolutional neural network techniques. The results of preliminary studies are shown and the prospects for further development and optimization are also discussed.
We present the first measurement of event-by-event fluctuations in the kaon sector in Pb – Pb collisions at √sNN = 2.76 TeV with the ALICE detector at the LHC. The robust fluctuation correlator νdyn is used to evaluate the magnitude of fluctuations of the relative yields of neutral and charged kaons, as well as the relative yields of charged kaons, as a function of collision centrality and selected kinematic ranges. While the correlator νdyn[K+,K−] exhibits a scaling approximately in inverse proportion of the charged particle multiplicity, νdyn[K0 S ,K±] features a significant deviation from such scaling. Within uncertainties, the value of νdyn[K0 S ,K±] is independent of the selected transverse momentum interval, while it exhibits a pseudorapidity dependence. The results are compared with HIJING, AMPT and EPOS–LHC predictions, and are further discussed in the context of the possible production of disoriented chiral condensates in central Pb – Pb collisions.
A measurement of the transverse momentum spectra of jets in Pb-Pb collisions at sNN−−−√=2.76 TeV is reported. Jets are reconstructed from charged particles using the anti-kT jet algorithm with jet resolution parameters R of 0.2 and 0.3 in pseudo-rapidity |η|<0.5. The transverse momentum pT of charged particles is measured down to 0.15 GeV/c which gives access to the low pT fragments of the jet. Jets found in heavy-ion collisions are corrected event-by-event for average background density and on an inclusive basis (via unfolding) for residual background fluctuations and detector effects. A strong suppression of jet production in central events with respect to peripheral events is observed. The suppression is found to be similar to the suppression of charged hadrons, which suggests that substantial energy is radiated at angles larger than the jet resolution parameter R=0.3 considered in the analysis. The fragmentation bias introduced by selecting jets with a high pT leading particle, which rejects jets with a soft fragmentation pattern, has a similar effect on the jet yield for central and peripheral events. The ratio of jet spectra with R=0.2 and R=0.3 is found to be similar in Pb-Pb and simulated PYTHIA pp events, indicating no strong broadening of the radial jet structure in the reconstructed jets with R<0.3.
The design, construction, and commissioning of the ALICE Time-Projection Chamber (TPC) is described. It is the main device for pattern recognition, tracking, and identification of charged particles in the ALICE experiment at the CERN LHC. The TPC is cylindrical in shape with a volume close to 90 m3 and is operated in a 0.5 T solenoidal magnetic field parallel to its axis.
In this paper we describe in detail the design considerations for this detector for operation in the extreme multiplicity environment of central Pb–Pb collisions at LHC energy. The implementation of the resulting requirements into hardware (field cage, read-out chambers, electronics), infrastructure (gas and cooling system, laser-calibration system), and software led to many technical innovations which are described along with a presentation of all the major components of the detector, as currently realized. We also report on the performance achieved after completion of the first round of stand-alone calibration runs and demonstrate results close to those specified in the TPC Technical Design Report.
Two-particle angular correlations between unidentified charged trigger and associated particles are measured by the ALICE detector in p–Pb collisions at a nucleon–nucleon centre-of-mass energy of 5.02 TeV. The transverse-momentum range 0.7 < pT,assoc < pT,trig < 5.0 GeV/c is examined, to include correlations induced by jets originating from low momentum-transfer scatterings (minijets). The correlations expressed as associated yield per trigger particle are obtained in the pseudorapidity range |η| < 0.9. The near-side long-range pseudorapidity correlations observed in high-multiplicity p–Pb collisions are subtracted from both near-side short-range and away-side correlations in order to remove the non-jet-like components. The yields in the jet-like peaks are found to be invariant with event multiplicity with the exception of events with low multiplicity. This invariance is consistent with the particles being produced via the incoherent fragmentation of multiple parton–parton scatterings, while the yield related to the previously observed ridge structures is not jet-related. The number of uncorrelated sources of particle production is found to increase linearly with multiplicity, suggesting no saturation of the number of multi-parton interactions even in the highest multiplicity p–Pb collisions. Further, the number scales only in the intermediate multiplicity region with the number of binary nucleon–nucleon collisions estimated with a Glauber Monte-Carlo simulation.