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Non-standard errors
(2021)
In statistics, samples are drawn from a population in a data-generating process (DGP). Standard errors measure the uncertainty in sample estimates of population parameters. In science, evidence is generated to test hypotheses in an evidence-generating process (EGP). We claim that EGP variation across researchers adds uncertainty: non-standard errors. To study them, we let 164 teams test six hypotheses on the same sample. We find that non-standard errors are sizeable, on par with standard errors. Their size (i) co-varies only weakly with team merits, reproducibility, or peer rating, (ii) declines significantly after peer-feedback, and (iii) is underestimated by participants.
Die bergbauliche Wasserhaltung der ehemaligen Mansfelder Kupferschiefergewerkschaft führte vor über 100 Jahren zur Trockenlegung des Salzigen Sees und zu einer umfassenden Umgestaltung der Vorflutverhältnisse. Bei der Wiederentstehung des Salzigen Sees müsste der Mensch ein zweites Mal gravierend in den Wasserhaushalt der Region eingreifen. Bei diesem Prozess ist zu beachten, dass sich die wasserwirtschaftlichen Bedingungen unter denen der See bis Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts bestand, durch die vielfältigen Aktivitäten des Bergbaues, der Landwirtschaft und der Siedlungsentwicklung verändert haben. Als Beispiele dafür seien die heute viel geringere Bewaldung des Einzugsgebietes, die durch Grundwasserausleitung über den Schlüsselstollen dem See heute fehlende Wassermenge sowie die durch die gestiegene Wassernutzungen ebenfalls gestiegenen Nährstoffbelastungen der Zuflüsse angeführt.
The last decade has seen a sharp increase in the number of scientific publications describing physiological and pathological functions of extracellular vesicles (EVs), a collective term covering various subtypes of cell-released, membranous structures, called exosomes, microvesicles, microparticles, ectosomes, oncosomes, apoptotic bodies, and many other names. However, specific issues arise when working with these entities, whose size and amount often make them difficult to obtain as relatively pure preparations, and to characterize properly. The International Society for Extracellular Vesicles (ISEV) proposed Minimal Information for Studies of Extracellular Vesicles (“MISEV”) guidelines for the field in 2014. We now update these “MISEV2014” guidelines based on evolution of the collective knowledge in the last four years. An important point to consider is that ascribing a specific function to EVs in general, or to subtypes of EVs, requires reporting of specific information beyond mere description of function in a crude, potentially contaminated, and heterogeneous preparation. For example, claims that exosomes are endowed with exquisite and specific activities remain difficult to support experimentally, given our still limited knowledge of their specific molecular machineries of biogenesis and release, as compared with other biophysically similar EVs. The MISEV2018 guidelines include tables and outlines of suggested protocols and steps to follow to document specific EV-associated functional activities. Finally, a checklist is provided with summaries of key points.