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Bears are iconic mammals with a complex evolutionary history. Natural bear hybrids and studies of few nuclear genes indicate that gene flow among bears may be more common than expected and not limited to polar and brown bears. Here we present a genome analysis of the bear family with representatives of all living species. Phylogenomic analyses of 869 mega base pairs divided into 18,621 genome fragments yielded a well-resolved coalescent species tree despite signals for extensive gene flow across species. However, genome analyses using different statistical methods show that gene flow is not limited to closely related species pairs. Strong ancestral gene flow between the Asiatic black bear and the ancestor to polar, brown and American black bear explains uncertainties in reconstructing the bear phylogeny. Gene flow across the bear clade may be mediated by intermediate species such as the geographically wide-spread brown bears leading to large amounts of phylogenetic conflict. Genome-scale analyses lead to a more complete understanding of complex evolutionary processes. Evidence for extensive inter-specific gene flow, found also in other animal species, necessitates shifting the attention from speciation processes achieving genome-wide reproductive isolation to the selective processes that maintain species divergence in the face of gene flow.
The mammalian family of bears (Ursidae) comprises eight extant species, occurring on four different continents. Among them are the iconic and well-known brown and polar bears, both widely distributed across the Northern hemisphere. Their intraspecific genetic structuring has been extensively investigated, albeit with a focus on genetic markers from maternally inherited parts of their genomes (mitochondrial DNA). The evolutionary relationship and divergence time between brown and polar bears have recently triggered an extensive debate, while less focus has been put on to other parts of the ursid phylogeny, particularly to a clade of three Asian bear species. To date, whole genomes of more than 100 bear individuals from four different species have been sequenced. Yet, one fundamental part of the genome has been largely omitted from specific analyses, in bears as well as in most other mammals: the Y chromosome.
The mammalian Y chromosome provides a unique perspective on the evolutionary history of organisms due to its distinct features, and specifically reflects the patriline because of its male-specific inheritance. The characteristics of this chromosome make it well suited to complement and contrast evolutionary inferences based on other genetic markers, and to uncover processes like sex-biased gene flow and hybridization. The unique insights that can be gained from analyses of Y-linked genetic variation made me utilize this part of the genome to investigate the evolution of male lineages in bears. Studying the patriline is particularly promising in this taxonomic group because of male-biased dispersal and a complex and fast radiation of bears. The analysis of Y-chromosomal genetic markers is thus the common theme of this dissertation: I present the identification of large amounts of Y-chromosomal sequence, the development of male-specific markers from such sequences, and the application of these markers to trace the evolution of male lineages of different bear species.
Specifically, I developed a molecular sex determination system based on the detection of two Y-linked fragments that allows to reliably discriminate between females and males from seven different bear species (Bidon et al. 2013). The approach is highly sensitive, bear-specific, and can be applied in standard molecular laboratories. This makes it valuable in conservation genetics and forensic applications, e.g. to analyze non-invasively collected samples.
Furthermore, I used Y-linked markers in a comprehensive and range-wide sample of brown and polar bears, and show that male-biased gene flow plays an important role in distributing genetic material throughout the ranges of both species (Bidon et al. 2014). In brown bears, I detected a lack of paternal population structuring which is in strong contrast to the detailed structuring of the matriline.
Analyzing Y-chromosomal sequences from all eight bear species, I present a phylogeny of the patriline that largely resembles the topology from other nuclear markers but is different from the topology of the mitochondrial gene tree (Kutschera et al. 2014). This discordance among loci generates interesting hypotheses about inter-species gene flow, particularly among American and Asiatic black bears.
With the identification of almost two million basepairs of Y-chromosomal sequence and the analysis of an unprecedented large male-specific dataset in polar bears, a high-resolution view on the distribution of their intraspecific variation was obtained (Bidon et al. 2015). In particular, two clades that are divergent but do not show pronounced phylogeographic structure were detected, confirming the great dispersal capacity of males of this high arctic species.
This dissertation thus represents a comprehensive investigation of Y-linked genetic variation on the intra- and interspecific level in a non-model organism. With my research, I contribute to an increased understanding of the complex evolutionary history of bears. In particular, I show that male-biased gene flow strongly influences the distribution of nuclear genetic variation, and that the contrast between phylogenies of differentially inherited markers can help to understand interspecific hybridization between closely related species. Moreover, my findings demonstrate the potential of Y-chromosomal markers to uncover unknown evolutionary patterns and processes. This applies not only to bears but to many species, even such that are generally well known and well described.
Background: The current taxonomy of the African giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) is primarily based on pelage pattern and geographic distribution, and nine subspecies are currently recognized. Although genetic studies have been conducted, their resolution is low, mainly due to limited sampling. Detailed knowledge about the genetic variation and phylogeography of the South African giraffe (G. c. giraffa) and the Angolan giraffe (G. c. angolensis) is lacking. We investigate genetic variation among giraffe matrilines by increased sampling, with a focus on giraffe key areas in southern Africa.
Results: The 1,562 nucleotides long mitochondrial DNA dataset (cytochrome b and partial control region) comprises 138 parsimony informative sites among 161 giraffe individuals from eight populations. We additionally included two okapis as an outgroup. The analyses of the maternally inherited sequences reveal a deep divergence between northern and southern giraffe populations in Africa, and a general pattern of distinct matrilineal clades corresponding to their geographic distribution. Divergence time estimates among giraffe populations place the deepest splits at several hundred thousand years ago.
Conclusions: Our increased sampling in southern Africa suggests that the distribution ranges of the Angolan and South African giraffe need to be redefined. Knowledge about the phylogeography and genetic variation of these two maternal lineages is crucial for the development of appropriate management strategies.
Ursine bears are a mammalian subfamily that comprises six morphologically and ecologically distinct extant species. Previous phylogenetic analyses of concatenated nuclear genes could not resolve all relationships among bears, and appeared to conflict with the mitochondrial phylogeny. Evolutionary processes such as incomplete lineage sorting and introgression can cause gene tree discordance and complicate phylogenetic inferences, but are not accounted for in phylogenetic analyses of concatenated data. We generated a high-resolution data set of autosomal introns from several individuals per species and of Y-chromosomal markers. Incorporating intraspecific variability in coalescence-based phylogenetic and gene flow estimation approaches, we traced the genealogical history of individual alleles. Considerable heterogeneity among nuclear loci and discordance between nuclear and mitochondrial phylogenies were found. A species tree with divergence time estimates indicated that ursine bears diversified within less than 2 My. Consistent with a complex branching order within a clade of Asian bear species, we identified unidirectional gene flow from Asian black into sloth bears. Moreover, gene flow detected from brown into American black bears can explain the conflicting placement of the American black bear in mitochondrial and nuclear phylogenies. These results highlight that both incomplete lineage sorting and introgression are prominent evolutionary forces even on time scales up to several million years. Complex evolutionary patterns are not adequately captured by strictly bifurcating models, and can only be fully understood when analyzing multiple independently inherited loci in a coalescence framework. Phylogenetic incongruence among gene trees hence needs to be recognized as a biologically meaningful signal.
Bears are iconic mammals with a complex evolutionary history. Natural bear hybrids and studies of few nuclear genes indicate that gene flow among bears may be more common than expected and not limited to the closely related polar and brown bears. Here we present a genome analysis of the bear family with representatives of all living species. Phylogenomic analyses of 869 mega base pairs divided into 18,621 genome fragments yielded a well-resolved coalescent species tree despite signals for extensive gene flow across species. However, genome analyses using three different statistical methods show that gene flow is not limited to closely related species pairs. Strong ancestral gene flow between the Asiatic black bear and the ancestor to polar, brown and American black bear explains numerous uncertainties in reconstructing the bear phylogeny. Gene flow across the bear clade may be mediated by intermediate species such as the geographically wide-spread brown bears leading to massive amounts of phylogenetic conflict. Genome-scale analyses lead to a more complete understanding of complex evolutionary processes. The increasing evidence for extensive inter-specific gene flow, found also in other animal species, necessitates shifting the attention from speciation processes achieving genome-wide reproductive isolation to the selective processes that maintain species divergence in the face of gene flow.