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During the measurement campaign FROST 2 (FReezing Of duST 2), the Leipzig Aerosol Cloud Interaction Simulator (LACIS) was used to investigate the influences of various surface modifications on the immersion freezing behavior of Arizona Test Dust (ATD) particles. The dust particles were exposed to sulfuric acid vapor, to water vapor with and without the addition of ammonia gas, and heat using a thermodenuder operating at 250 °C. Size selected, quasi monodisperse particles with a mobility diameter of 300 nm were fed into LACIS and droplets grew on these particles such that each droplet contained a single particle. Temperature dependent frozen fractions of these droplets were determined in a temperature range between −40 °C ≤ T ≤ −28 °C. The pure ATD particles nucleated ice over a~broad temperature range with their freezing behavior being separated into two freezing branches characterized through different slopes in the frozen fraction vs. temperature curves. Coating the ATD particles with sulfuric acid resulted in the particles' IN potential significantly decreasing in the first freezing branch (T > −35 °C) and a slight increase in the second branch (T≤ −35 °C). The addition of water vapor after the sulfuric acid coating caused the disappearance of the first freezing branch and a strong reduction of the IN ability in the second freezing branch. The presence of ammonia gas during water vapor exposure had a negligible effect on the particles' IN ability compared to the effect of water vapor. Heating in the thermodenuder led to a decreased IN ability of the sulfuric acid coated particles for both branches but the additional heat did not or only slightly change the IN ability of the pure ATD and the water vapor exposed sulfuric acid coated particles. In other words, the combination of both sulfuric acid and water vapor being present is a main cause for the ice active surface features of the ATD particles being destroyed. A possible explanation could be the chemical transformation of ice active metal silicates to metal sulfates. From an atmospheric point of view, and here specifically the influences of atmospheric aging on the IN ability of dust particles, the strongly enhanced reaction between sulfuric acid and dust in the presence of water vapor, and the resulting significant reductions in IN potential, are certainly very interesting.
Die Autophagie ist ein in Eukaryonten evolutionär konservierter Prozess, bei dem es zu einem lysosomalen Abbau von cytosolischen Bestandteilen kommt. Die dabei entstehenden biochemischen Bausteine stehen anschließend erneut zum Aufbau benötigter Strukturen zur Verfügung. Verschiedene Stimuli, wie beispielsweise Nährstoffmangel, können die Aktivität der Autophagie erhöhen und ermöglicht Zellen dadurch die Aufrechterhaltung der Zellhomöostase, selbst unter Stressbedingungen. Im Verlauf der Autophagie bildet sich eine tassenförmige Doppelmembran-Struktur, das sogenannte Phagophor. Dieses wächst, um das abzubauende Material zu umschließen und wird dabei von sogenannten Atg-Proteinen (autophagy-related genes) prozessiert. Nach der Schließung spricht man vom Autophagosom, welches letztlich mit einem Lysosom verschmilzt und das Autophagolysosom bildet, welches wiederum die eingeschlossenen Bestandteile zerlegt und die recycelten Bausteine freigibt. Die einzelnen Schritte während der Autophagie sind hochgradig durch die Atg-Proteine reguliert. Eines dieser Atg-Proteine, das Atg8, ist an einigen entscheidenden Schritten wie dem Phagophor-Wachstum, der Autophagosom-Reifung sowie der Schließung beteiligt. Während es in Hefen nur ein einziges Atg8-Protein gibt, so zeigt sich in höheren Eukaryonten meist eine gewisse Diversität. So codiert beispielsweise das humane Genom mindestens sechs Atg8-Homologe. Neben den drei Proteinen der LC3-Familie (A, B, C) zählen auch GABARAP, GABARAPL1 und GABARAPL2 dazu. Die Gründe für diese Diversität sind noch nicht vollständig aufgeklärt, weshalb es wichtig ist, möglichst selektive Modulatoren zu entwickeln, um so die Aufgaben der einzelnen Homologen entschlüsseln zu können. Eine weitere wichtige Aufgabe übernimmt Atg8 beim Binden des abzubauenden Materials über sogenannte Autophagie-Rezeptoren, wie beispielsweise p62. Der Bindevorgang beruht dabei auf der Interaktion von p62 mit ubiquitinierten Zellbestandteilen auf der einen Seite und der Interaktion zwischen p62 und LC3 auf der anderen Seite. Letztgenannte beruht auf dem Binden des LIR-Motivs (LC3-interagierende Region) von p62 an die LDS (LIR-docking site) des LC3-Proteins. Das LIR-Motiv zeichnet sich durch Aminosäure-Sequenz D-D-D-W/F/Y-X1-X2-L/I/V aus. Währende die aromatische Seitenkette (W/F/Y) die hydrophobe Tasche 1 (HP1) der LDS besetzt, ragt die aliphatische Seitenkette (L/I/V) in die HP2 hinein. Damit sollte es möglich sein, die LIR-LC3-Interaktion, durch das Besetzen der LDS zu stören bzw. zu inhibieren. Solche Inhibitoren könnten zum einen der weiteren Aufklärung der Prozesse, an denen die Autophagie beteiligt ist, dienen, zum anderen jedoch auch die Untersuchung fehlerhafter Autophagie ermöglichen. Ausgangspunkt für diese Arbeit stellt die Verbindung Novobiocin dar, die im Rahmen eines Mitteldurchsatz-Screenings als potenzieller Inhibitor der LIR-LC3-Interaktion identifiziert und mittels ITC, TSA und 1H-15N-HSQC verifiziert werden konnte. Die Struktur des Novobiocins setzt sich aus dem 3-Amino-4-hydroxy-8-methylcoumarin-Kern, der über eine Amidbindung an 3-iso-Prenyl-4-Hydroxybenzoesäure gebunden ist, sowie einer O-glykosidischen Bindung in Position C7 des Coumarins mit L-Noviose zusammen. Da es sich bei Novobiocin (XL6) um ein verhältnismäßig komplexes Molekül handelt, wurde der Einfluss einzelner funktionellen Gruppen des Moleküls auf die Bindungsaffinität hin untersucht. Hierfür wurden Synthesestrategien sowohl für die Coumarin-Gerüste als auch verschiedene Benzoesäuren entwickelt. Die erhaltenen Verbindungen wurden mittels ITC und TSA untersucht. Dabei wurde die Verbindung MH507 als geeigneter Ausgangspunkt für die Untersuchung der Struktur-Aktivitätsbeziehungen (SAR) bezüglich der Benzamid-Seite identifiziert. Im Rahmen einer ersten SAR-Untersuchung wurden neben verschiedenen 3-Alkyl-benzoesäuren, auch verschiedene divalente Isostere (-O-, -S-, -NHSO2-) der benzylischen Methylengruppe synthetisiert. Diese, sowie kommerzielle Aminosäuren, wurden mit 3-Amino-4,7-dihydroxycoumarin zu den entsprechenden Endverbindungen gekuppelt. Ergänzend dazu wurden auch eine Verbindung mit umgekehrter Konstitution der Amidbindung dargestellt, um den Einfluss der Reihenfolge zu verifizieren. In einer weiteren SAR-Studie wurden Derivate synthetisiert, die zusätzlich eine Funktionalisierung am C7 des Coumarin-Gerüstes über Amidkupplung, Sulfonamid-Bildung bzw. Suzuki-Reaktion erlauben und somit eine Interaktion mit der HP1 ermöglichen könnten. Dafür wurde eine weitere Synthesestrategie zur Darstellung von 7-Nitro- bzw. 7-Brom-3-amino-4-hydroxycoumarinen ausgearbeitet und eine Reihe von Endverbindungen dargestellt. Neben den Coumarin-Derivaten wurden auch vier Peptidomimetika synthetisierten. Hierfür wurde, basierend auf den Interaktionen zwischen dem LIR-Motiv und der LC3 Proteinoberfläche, ein Pharmakophor-Modell erstellt. Neben einem Pentapeptid wurden auch drei Verbindungen dargestellt, die ein 5-Amino 2-methoxybenzohydrazid-Gerüst besitzen. Um die synthetisierten Verbindungen auf ihre inhibitorische Aktivität auf LC3A bzw. LC3B gegenüber dem LIR-Motiv von p62 hin untersuchen zu können, wurde ein HTRF-basierter Verdrängungsassay entwickelt. Dabei diente ein mit dem LIR-Motiv modifiziertes sGFP als FRET-Akzeptor, während das jeweilige Terbium-Kryptat-gelabelte SNAP-LC3-Fusionsprotein als FRET-Donor fungierte. Neben den Titrationsexperimenten zur Bestimmung der IC50-Werte wurden auch die jeweiligen Dissoziationskonstanten (Kd) von LC3A und LC3B gegenüber dem LIR-sGFP-Fusionsprotein bestimmt, um die IC50-Werte in inhibitorische Konstanten (Ki) zu überführen, da diese untereinander besser vergleichbar sind.
Die Verbindung MH209 zeigte die höchste Aktivität auf LC3A bzw. LC3B und besitzt aufgrund der Noviose-Einheit eine gute Wasserlöslichkeit, weshalb sie für die weiteren Untersuchungen ausgewählt wurde. Im Zuge von Kristallisationsexperimenten gelang die Isolierung und Vermessung eines Co-Kristalls von LC3A mit Verbindung MH209. Durch die Kristallstruktur wurden wichtige Einblicke in die intermolekularen Wechselwirkungen der 4-Hydroxycoumarine mit der LC3A- bzw. LC3B-Proteinoberfläche gewonnen und die Bindungsmode aufgeklärt. Diese Erkenntnisse passen gut zu den Ergebnissen aus den durchgeführten TSA-, ITC- und HTRF-Assays, wie beispielsweise der korrekten Konstitution der Amidbindung am C3 des Coumarin-Gerüstes. Mittels ITC wurde die Verbindung MH209 auf ihre Bindungsaffinität gegenüber den anderen humanen Homologen der Atg8-Proteinfamilie hin untersucht. Dabei zeigte sich, dass MH209 abgesehen von LC3A und LC3B keinerlei Aktivität auf den humanen Atg8-Homologen besitzt. Diese Selektivität ist nützlich, um die biologische Bedeutung der Diversität von Atg8-Homologen in höheren Eukaryonten zu untersuchen und Prozesse, in die diese involviert sind, aufzuklären.
Non-standard errors
(2021)
In statistics, samples are drawn from a population in a data-generating process (DGP). Standard errors measure the uncertainty in sample estimates of population parameters. In science, evidence is generated to test hypotheses in an evidence-generating process (EGP). We claim that EGP variation across researchers adds uncertainty: non-standard errors. To study them, we let 164 teams test six hypotheses on the same sample. We find that non-standard errors are sizeable, on par with standard errors. Their size (i) co-varies only weakly with team merits, reproducibility, or peer rating, (ii) declines significantly after peer-feedback, and (iii) is underestimated by participants.
Background: The approval of everolimus (EVE) for the treatment of angiomyolipoma (2013), subependymal giant cell astrocytoma (2013) and drug-refractory epilepsy (2017) in patients with tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) represents the first disease-modifying treatment option available for this rare and complex genetic disorder. Objective: The objective of this study was to analyse the use, efficacy, tolerability and treatment retention of EVE in patients with TSC in Germany from the patient’s perspective. Methods: A structured cross-age survey was conducted at 26 specialised TSC centres in Germany and by the German TSC patient advocacy group between February and July 2019, enrolling children, adolescents and adult patients with TSC. Results: Of 365 participants, 36.7% (n = 134) reported the current or past intake of EVE, including 31.5% (n = 115) who were taking EVE at study entry. The mean EVE dosage was 6.1 ± 2.9 mg/m2 (median: 5.6 mg/m2, range 2.0–15.1 mg/m2) in children and adolescents and 4 ± 2.1 mg/m2 (median: 3.7 mg/m2, range 0.8–10.1 mg/m2) in adult patients. An early diagnosis of TSC, the presence of angiomyolipoma, drug-refractory epilepsy, neuropsychiatric manifestations, subependymal giant cell astrocytoma, cardiac rhabdomyoma and overall multi-organ involvement were associated with the use of EVE as a disease-modifying treatment. The reported efficacy was 64.0% for angiomyolipoma (75% in adult patients), 66.2% for drug-refractory epilepsy, and 54.4% for subependymal giant cell astrocytoma. The overall retention rate for EVE was 85.8%. The retention rates after 12 months of EVE therapy were higher among adults (93.7%) than among children and adolescents (88.7%; 90.5% vs 77.4% after 24 months; 87.3% vs 77.4% after 36 months). Tolerability was acceptable, with 70.9% of patients overall reporting adverse events, including stomatitis (47.0%), acne-like rash (7.7%), increased susceptibility to common infections and lymphoedema (each 6.0%), which were the most frequently reported symptoms. With a total score of 41.7 compared with 36.8 among patients not taking EVE, patients currently being treated with EVE showed an increased Liverpool Adverse Event Profile. Noticeable deviations in the sub-items ‘tiredness’, ‘skin problems’ and ‘mouth/gum problems’, which are likely related to EVE-typical adverse effects, were more frequently reported among patients taking EVE. Conclusions: From the patients’ perspective, EVE is an effective and relatively well-tolerated disease-modifying treatment option for children, adolescents and adults with TSC, associated with a high long-term retention rate that can be individually considered for each patient. Everolimus therapy should ideally be supervised by a centre experienced in the use of mechanistic target of rapamycin inhibitors, and adverse effects should be monitored on a regular basis.
Pathogenic variants in PRRT2, encoding the proline-rich transmembrane protein 2, have been associated with an evolving spectrum of paroxysmal neurologic disorders. Based on a cohort of children with PRRT2-related infantile epilepsy, this study aimed at delineating the broad clinical spectrum of PRRT2-associated phenotypes in these children and their relatives. Only a few recent larger cohort studies are on record and findings from single reports were not confirmed so far. We collected detailed genetic and phenotypic data of 40 previously unreported patients from 36 families. All patients had benign infantile epilepsy and harbored pathogenic variants in PRRT2 (core cohort). Clinical data of 62 family members were included, comprising a cohort of 102 individuals (extended cohort) with PRRT2-associated neurological disease. Additional phenotypes in the cohort of patients with benign sporadic and familial infantile epilepsy consist of movement disorders with paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia in six patients, infantile-onset movement disorders in 2 of 40 individuals, and episodic ataxia after mild head trauma in one girl with bi-allelic variants in PRRT2. The same girl displayed a focal cortical dysplasia upon brain imaging. Familial hemiplegic migraine and migraine with aura were reported in nine families. A single individual developed epilepsy with continuous spikes and waves during sleep. In addition to known variants, we report the novel variant c.843G>T, p.(Trp281Cys) that co-segregated with benign infantile epilepsy and migraine in one family. Our study highlights the variability of clinical presentations of patients harboring pathogenic PRRT2 variants and expands the associated phenotypic spectrum.
Background: Definite diagnosis and therapeutic management of cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) remains a challenge. The aim of the current study was to investigate feasibility and potential impact on clinical management of targeted sequencing of intraductal biopsies.
Methods: Intraductal biopsies with suspicious findings from 16 patients with CCA in later clinical course were analyzed with targeted sequencing including tumor and control benign tissue (n = 55 samples). A CCA-specific sequencing panel containing 41 genes was designed and a dual strand targeted enrichment was applied.
Results: Sequencing was successfully performed for all samples. In total, 79 mutations were identified and a mean of 1.7 mutations per tumor sample (range 0–4) as well as 2.3 per biopsy (0–6) were detected and potentially therapeutically relevant genes were identified in 6/16 cases. In 14/18 (78%) biopsies with dysplasia or inconclusive findings at least one mutation was detected. The majority of mutations were found in both surgical specimen and biopsy (68%), while 28% were only present in biopsies in contrast to 4% being only present in the surgical tumor specimen.
Conclusion: Targeted sequencing from intraductal biopsies is feasible and potentially improves the diagnostic yield. A profound genetic heterogeneity in biliary dysplasia needs to be considered in clinical management and warrants further investigation.
Translational impact: The current study is the first to demonstrate the feasibility of sequencing of intraductal biopsies which holds the potential to impact diagnostic and therapeutical management of patients with biliary dysplasia and neoplasia.
Immune-modulating therapy is a promising therapy for patients with cholangiocarcinoma (CCA). Microsatellite instability (MSI) might be a favorable predictor for treatment response, but comprehensive data on the prevalence of MSI in CCA are missing. The aim of the current study was to determine the prevalence of MSI in a German tertiary care hospital. Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue samples, obtained in the study period from 2007 to 2015 from patients with CCA undergoing surgical resection with curative intention at Johann Wolfgang Goethe University hospital, were examined. All samples were investigated immunohistochemically for the presence of MSI (expression of MLH1, PMS2, MSH2, and MSH6) as well as by pentaplex polymerase chain reaction for five quasimonomorphic mononucleotide repeats (BAT-25, BAT-26, NR-21, NR-22, and NR-24). In total, 102 patients were included, presenting intrahepatic (n = 35, 34.3%), perihilar (n = 42, 41.2%), and distal CCA (n = 25, 24.5%). In the immunohistochemical analysis, no loss of expression of DNA repair enzymes was observed. In the PCR-based analysis, one out of 102 patients was found to be MSI-high and one out of 102 was found to be MSI-low. Thus, MSI seems to appear rarely in CCA in Germany. This should be considered when planning immune-modulating therapy trials for patients with CCA.
The transcription factor ∆Np63 is a master regulator of epithelial cell identity and essential for the survival of squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of lung, head and neck, oesophagus, cervix and skin. Here, we report that the deubiquitylase USP28 stabilizes ∆Np63 and maintains elevated ∆NP63 levels in SCC by counteracting its proteasome‐mediated degradation. Impaired USP28 activity, either genetically or pharmacologically, abrogates the transcriptional identity and suppresses growth and survival of human SCC cells. CRISPR/Cas9‐engineered in vivo mouse models establish that endogenous USP28 is strictly required for both induction and maintenance of lung SCC. Our data strongly suggest that targeting ∆Np63 abundance via inhibition of USP28 is a promising strategy for the treatment of SCC tumours.
Oncogenic transformation of lung epithelial cells is a multistep process, frequently starting with the inactivation of tumour suppressors and subsequent development of activating mutations in proto-oncogenes, such as members of the PI3K or MAPK families. Cells undergoing transformation have to adjust to changes, including altered metabolic requirements. This is achieved, in part, by modulating the protein abundance of transcription factors. Here, we report that the ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase 28 (USP28) enables oncogenic reprogramming by regulating the protein abundance of proto-oncogenes such as c-JUN, c-MYC, NOTCH and ∆NP63 at early stages of malignant transformation. USP28 levels are increased in cancer compared with in normal cells due to a feed-forward loop, driven by increased amounts of oncogenic transcription factors such as c-MYC and c-JUN. Irrespective of oncogenic driver, interference with USP28 abundance or activity suppresses growth and survival of transformed lung cells. Furthermore, inhibition of USP28 via a small-molecule inhibitor resets the proteome of transformed cells towards a ‘premalignant’ state, and its inhibition synergizes with clinically established compounds used to target EGFRL858R-, BRAFV600E- or PI3KH1047R-driven tumour cells. Targeting USP28 protein abundance at an early stage via inhibition of its activity is therefore a feasible strategy for the treatment of early-stage lung tumours, and the observed synergism with current standard-of-care inhibitors holds the potential for improved targeting of established tumours.
Oncogenic transformation of lung epithelial cells is a multi-step process, frequently starting with the inactivation of tumor suppressors and subsequent activating mutations in proto-oncogenes, such as members of the PI3K or MAPK family. Cells undergoing transformation have to adjust to changes, such as metabolic requirements. This is achieved, in part, by modulating the protein abundance of transcription factors, which manifest these adjustments. Here, we report that the deubiquitylase USP28 enables oncogenic reprogramming by regulating the protein abundance of proto-oncogenes, such as c-JUN, c-MYC, NOTCH and ΔNP63, at early stages of malignant transformation. USP28 is increased in cancer compared to normal cells due to a feed-forward loop, driven by increased amounts of oncogenic transcription factors, such as c-MYC and c-JUN. Irrespective of oncogenic driver, interference with USP28 abundance or activity suppresses growth and survival of transformed lung cells. Furthermore, inhibition of USP28 via a small molecule inhibitor reset the proteome of transformed cells towards a ‘pre-malignant’ state, and its inhibition cooperated with clinically established compounds used to target EGFRL858R, BRAFV600E or PI3KH1047R driven tumor cells. Targeting USP28 protein abundance already at an early stage via inhibition of its activity therefore is a feasible strategy for the treatment of early stage lung tumours and the observed synergism with current standard of care inhibitors holds the potential for improved targeting of established tumors.