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Focused electron and ion beam-induced deposition (FEBID/FIBID) are direct-write techniques with particular advantages in three-dimensional (3D) fabrication of ferromagnetic or superconducting nanostructures. Recently, two novel precursors, HCo 3 Fe(CO) 12 and Nb(NMe 3 ) 2 (N-t-Bu), were introduced, resulting in fully metallic CoFe ferromagnetic alloys by FEBID and superconducting NbC by FIBID, respectively. In order to properly define the writing strategy for the fabrication of 3D structures using these precursors, their temperature-dependent average residence time on the substrate and growing deposit needs to be known. This is a prerequisite for employing the simulation-guided 3D computer aided design (CAD) approach to FEBID/FIBID, which was introduced recently. We fabricated a series of rectangular-shaped deposits by FEBID at different substrate temperatures between 5 ∘ C and 24 ∘ C using the precursors and extracted the activation energy for precursor desorption and the pre-exponential factor from the measured heights of the deposits using the continuum growth model of FEBID based on the reaction-diffusion equation for the adsorbed precursor.
Controlling magnetic properties on the nanometer-scale is essential for basic research in micro-magnetism and spin-dependent transport, as well as for various applications such as magnetic recording, imaging and sensing. This has been accomplished to a very high degree by means of layered heterostructures in the vertical dimension. Here we present a complementary approach that allows for a controlled tuning of the magnetic properties of Co/Pt heterostructures on the lateral mesoscale. By means of in situ post-processing of Pt- and Co-based nano-stripes prepared by focused electron beam induced deposition (FEBID) we are able to locally tune their coercive field and remanent magnetization. Whereas single Co-FEBID nano-stripes show no hysteresis, we find hard-magnetic behavior for post-processed Co/Pt nano-stripes with coercive fields up to 850 Oe. We attribute the observed effects to the locally controlled formation of the CoPt L10 phase, whose presence has been revealed by transmission electron microscopy.
Vanadium and Manganese Carbonyls as Precursors in Electron-Induced and Thermal Deposition Processes
(2022)
The material composition and electrical properties of nanostructures obtained from focused electron beam-induced deposition (FEBID) using manganese and vanadium carbonyl precursors have been investigated. The composition of the FEBID deposits has been compared with thin films derived by the thermal decomposition of the same precursors in chemical vapor deposition (CVD). FEBID of V(CO)6 gives access to a material with a V/C ratio of 0.63–0.86, while in CVD a lower carbon content with V/C ratios of 1.1–1.3 is obtained. Microstructural characterization reveals for V-based materials derived from both deposition techniques crystallites of a cubic phase that can be associated with VC1−xOx. In addition, the electrical transport measurements of direct-write VC1−xOx show moderate resistivity values of 0.8–1.2 × 103 µΩ·cm, a negligible influence of contact resistances and signatures of a granular metal in the temperature-dependent conductivity. Mn-based deposits obtained from Mn2(CO)10 contain ~40 at% Mn for FEBID and a slightly higher metal percentage for CVD. Exclusively insulating material has been observed in FEBID deposits as deduced from electrical conductivity measurements. In addition, strong tendencies for postgrowth oxidation have to be considered.
We present experimental results and theoretical simulations of the adsorption behavior of the metal–organic precursor Co2(CO)8 on SiO2 surfaces after application of two different pretreatment steps, namely by air plasma cleaning or a focused electron beam pre-irradiation. We observe a spontaneous dissociation of the precursor molecules as well as autodeposition of cobalt on the pretreated SiO2 surfaces. We also find that the differences in metal content and relative stability of these deposits depend on the pretreatment conditions of the substrate. Transport measurements of these deposits are also presented. We are led to assume that the degree of passivation of the SiO2 surface by hydroxyl groups is an important controlling factor in the dissociation process. Our calculations of various slab settings, using dispersion-corrected density functional theory, support this assumption. We observe physisorption of the precursor molecule on a fully hydroxylated SiO2 surface (untreated surface) and chemisorption on a partially hydroxylated SiO2 surface (pretreated surface) with a spontaneous dissociation of the precursor molecule. In view of these calculations, we discuss the origin of this dissociation and the subsequent autocatalysis.
Background: Focused electron beam induced deposition (FEBID) is a direct-writing technique with nanometer resolution, which has received strongly increasing attention within the last decade. In FEBID a precursor previously adsorbed on a substrate surface is dissociated in the focus of an electron beam. After 20 years of continuous development FEBID has reached a stage at which this technique is now particularly attractive for several areas in both, basic and applied research. The present topical review addresses selected examples that highlight this development in the areas of charge-transport regimes in nanogranular metals close to an insulator-to-metal transition, the use of these materials for strain- and magnetic-field sensing, and the prospect of extending FEBID to multicomponent systems, such as binary alloys and intermetallic compounds with cooperative ground states.
Results: After a brief introduction to the technique, recent work concerning FEBID of Pt–Si alloys and (hard-magnetic) Co–Pt intermetallic compounds on the nanometer scale is reviewed. The growth process in the presence of two precursors, whose flux is independently controlled, is analyzed within a continuum model of FEBID that employs rate equations. Predictions are made for the tunability of the composition of the Co–Pt system by simply changing the dwell time of the electron beam during the writing process. The charge-transport regimes of nanogranular metals are reviewed next with a focus on recent theoretical advancements in the field. As a case study the transport properties of Pt–C nanogranular FEBID structures are discussed. It is shown that by means of a post-growth electron-irradiation treatment the electronic intergrain-coupling strength can be continuously tuned over a wide range. This provides unique access to the transport properties of this material close to the insulator-to-metal transition. In the last part of the review, recent developments in mechanical strain-sensing and the detection of small, inhomogeneous magnetic fields by employing nanogranular FEBID structures are highlighted.
Conclusion: FEBID has now reached a state of maturity that allows a shift of the focus towards the development of new application fields, be it in basic research or applied. This is shown for selected examples in the present review. At the same time, when seen from a broader perspective, FEBID still has to live up to the original idea of providing a tool for electron-controlled chemistry on the nanometer scale. This has to be understood in the sense that, by providing a suitable environment during the FEBID process, the outcome of the electron-induced reactions can be steered in a controlled way towards yielding the desired composition of the products. The development of a FEBID-specialized surface chemistry is mostly still in its infancy. Next to application development, it is this aspect that will likely be a guiding light for the future development of the field of focused electron beam induced deposition.
This paper introduces a new methodology for the fabrication of strain-sensor elements for MEMS and NEMS applications based on the tunneling effect in nano-granular metals. The strain-sensor elements are prepared by the maskless lithography technique of focused electron-beam-induced deposition (FEBID) employing the precursor trimethylmethylcyclopentadienyl platinum [MeCpPt(Me)3]. We use a cantilever-based deflection technique to determine the sensitivity (gauge factor) of the sensor element. We find that its sensitivity depends on the electrical conductivity and can be continuously tuned, either by the thickness of the deposit or by electron-beam irradiation leading to a distinct maximum in the sensitivity. This maximum finds a theoretical rationale in recent advances in the understanding of electronic charge transport in nano-granular metals.
Focused ion beam induced deposition (FIBID) is a direct-write technique enabling the growth of individual nanostructures of any shape and dimension with high lateral resolution. Moreover, the fast and reliable writing of periodically arranged nanostructures can be used to fabricate devices for the investigation of collective phenomena and to design novel functional metamaterials. Here, FIBID is employed to prepare dc-Josephson junction arrays (dc-JJA) consisting of superconducting NbC dots coupled through the proximity effect via a granular metal layer. The fabrication is straightforward and allows the preparation of dc-JJA within a few seconds. Microstructure and composition of the arrays are investigated by transmission electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The superconductor-to-metal transition of the prepared dc-JJA is studied in a direct way, by tuning the Josephson junction resistance in 70 nm-spaced superconducting NbC dots. The observed magnetoresistance oscillations with a period determined by the flux quantum give evidence for the coherent charge transport by paired electrons. Moreover, the measured resistance minima correspond to two fundamental matching configurations of fluxons in the dc-JJA, caused by magnetic frustration. The robust properties of the prepared dc-JJA demonstrate the opportunities for a fast preparation of complex device configurations using direct-write approaches.