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In 1911 Eugen Bleuler (Bleuler, 1911) postulated that schizophrenia was a disorder resulting from inability to properly integrate mental processes. Around the same time, Carl Wernicke (Wernicke, 1894) proposed that psychosis might result from disruption of white matter tracts. Both of these statements can be considered early cornerstones of modern connectivity hypotheses developed towards the end of the twentieth century by such researchers as Karl Friston (1998) and Nancy Andreansen (1998). In the current work, the hypothesis that schizophrenia, rather than being a disorder or either anatomical or functional connectivity, is a disorder where both of these processes interact and influence the clinical presentation of patients, is examined. This is achieved through a detailed examination of a sample of chronic schizophrenia patients using a combination of functional and anatomical Magnetic Resonance Imaging techniques. The relationship of these measures to clinical symptoms is also explored. In the first study, anatomical connectivity at the whole-brain level is examined using Diffusion Tensor Imaging. The results of the study contribute to the previous literature on auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia and provide the first direct correlation between increased anatomical connectivity and increased severity of psychotic symptoms. The second study provides a thorough examination of the interhemispheric connectivity. This is achieved through a detailed examination of the corpus callosum using a combination of diffusivity and volumetric values. This is the first study to date where several anatomical methods are used in one sample. The results illustrate the importance of using different techniques to accurately characterize anatomical abnormalities observed in schizophrenia. In addition, contrary to previous research reports, the results of the current study imply that only specific sub-sections of the corpus callosum are affected by anatomical abnormalities. The pattern of these changes may influence clinical presentation of patients. Finally, functional connectivity at the whole-brain level is examined during resting-state using Independent Component Analysis. Similarly to the results of the anatomical examinations, it provides further supporting evidence that the pattern of disturbances observed in the current sample of schizophrenia patients examined herein reflects a combination of hypo- and hyperconnectivity. Moreover, the study further validates resting-state functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging as a reliable tool for examining functional abnormalities in schizophrenia.
Evidence from anatomical and functional imaging studies have highlighted major modifications of cortical circuits during adolescence. These include reductions of gray matter (GM), increases in the myelination of cortico-cortical connections and changes in the architecture of large-scale cortical networks. It is currently unclear, however, how the ongoing developmental processes impact upon the folding of the cerebral cortex and how changes in gyrification relate to maturation of GM/WM-volume, thickness and surface area. In the current study, we acquired high-resolution (3 Tesla) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data from 79 healthy subjects (34 males and 45 females) between the ages of 12 and 23 years and performed whole brain analysis of cortical folding patterns with the gyrification index (GI). In addition to GI-values, we obtained estimates of cortical thickness, surface area, GM and white matter (WM) volume which permitted correlations with changes in gyrification. Our data show pronounced and widespread reductions in GI-values during adolescence in several cortical regions which include precentral, temporal and frontal areas. Decreases in gyrification overlap only partially with changes in the thickness, volume and surface of GM and were characterized overall by a linear developmental trajectory. Our data suggest that the observed reductions in GI-values represent an additional, important modification of the cerebral cortex during late brain maturation which may be related to cognitive development.
The graph theoretical analysis of structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data has received a great deal of interest in recent years to characterize the organizational principles of brain networks and their alterations in psychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia. However, the characterization of networks in clinical populations can be challenging, since the comparison of connectivity between groups is influenced by several factors, such as the overall number of connections and the structural abnormalities of the seed regions. To overcome these limitations, the current study employed the whole-brain analysis of connectional fingerprints in diffusion tensor imaging data obtained at 3 T of chronic schizophrenia patients (n = 16) and healthy, age-matched control participants (n = 17). Probabilistic tractography was performed to quantify the connectivity of 110 brain areas. The connectional fingerprint of a brain area represents the set of relative connection probabilities to all its target areas and is, hence, less affected by overall white and gray matter changes than absolute connectivity measures. After detecting brain regions with abnormal connectional fingerprints through similarity measures, we tested each of its relative connection probability between groups. We found altered connectional fingerprints in schizophrenia patients consistent with a dysconnectivity syndrome. While the medial frontal gyrus showed only reduced connectivity, the connectional fingerprints of the inferior frontal gyrus and the putamen mainly contained relatively increased connection probabilities to areas in the frontal, limbic, and subcortical areas. These findings are in line with previous studies that reported abnormalities in striatal–frontal circuits in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, highlighting the potential utility of connectional fingerprints for the analysis of anatomical networks in the disorder.