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This work aimed to investigate the regulation and activity of 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO), the central enzyme in leukotriene biosynthesis, in two colorectal cancer cell lines. The leukotriene pathway is positively correlated with the progression of several solid malignancies; however, factors regulating 5-LO expression and activity in tumors are poorly understood.
Cancer development, as well as cancer progression, are strongly dependent on the tumor microenvironment. In the conventional monolayer culture of cancer cell lines, cell-matrix and cell-cell interactions present in native tumors are absent. Furthermore, it is already known that various colon cancer cell lines dysregulate several important signaling pathways due to 3D growth. Therefore, the expression of the leukotriene cascade in HT-29 and HCT-116 colorectal cancer cells was investigated within a three-dimensional context using multicellular tumor spheroids to mimic a more physiological environment compared to conventional cell culture. Especially the expression of 5-LO, cPLA2α, and LTA4 hydrolase was altered due to threedimensional (3D) cell growth, which was investigated by qPCR and Western blot analysis. High cellular density in monolayer cultures led to similar results. The observed 5-LO upregulation was found inversely correlated with cell proliferation, determined by cell cycle analysis, and activation of PI3K/mTORC-2- and MEK-1/ERK-dependent pathways, determined using pharmacological pathway inhibition, stable shRNA knockdown cell lines, and analysis via qPCR and Western blot analysis. Following, the transcription factor E2F1 and its target gene MYBL2 were identified to play a role in the repression of 5-LO during cell proliferation. For this purpose, several stable MYBL2 over-expression and ALOX5 reporter cell lines were prepared and analyzed. Since 5-LO was already identified as a direct p53 target gene, the influence of p53, which is variably expressed in the cell lines (HT-29, p53 R273H mut; HCT-116 p53 wt; HCT-116 p53 KO), was investigated as well. Furthermore, HCT-116 cells carrying a p53 knockout were investigated. The PI3K/mTORC-2- and MEK-1/ERK-dependent suppression of 5-LO was also found in tumor cells from other origins (Capan-2, Caco-2, MCF-7), which was determined using pharmacological pathway inhibition and following analysis via qPCR. This suggests that the identified mechanism might apply to other tumor entities as well.
5-LO activity was previously described as attenuated in HT-29 and HCT-116 cells compared to polymorphonuclear leukocytes, which express a highly active 5-LO. However, the present study showed that the enzyme activity is indeed low but inducible in HT-29 and HCT-116 cells. Of note, the general lipid mediator profile and the mediator concentrations were comparable to those of M2 macrophages. Finally, the analysis of substrate availability in HT-29 and HCT-116 cells revealed a vast difference between formed metabolite concentrations and supplemented fatty acid concentrations, indicating that the substrates are either transformed into lipoxygenase-independent metabolites or are esterified into the cellular membrane.
In summary, the data presented in this work demonstrate that 5-LO expression and activity are tightly regulated in HT-29 and HCT-116 cells and fine-tuned due to environmental conditions. The cells suppress 5-LO during proliferation but upregulate the expression and activity of the enzyme under cellular stress-triggering conditions. This implies a possible role of 5-LO in manipulating the tumor stroma to support a tumor-promoting microenvironment.
Die Funktion nukleärer Rezeptoren (NR) beruht auf einem empfindlichen Zusammenspiel zwischen ihren Domänen, Coregulatoren und Liganden. Die meisten Rezeptoren binden die DNA als Homo- oder Heterodimere und transregulieren die Gentranskription in Folge von Ligandenbindung. Klassische Assay-Systeme, die sich auf die Untersuchung der NR-Funktion oder auf die Charakterisierung von Substanzen richten, bilden nur die Coregulator-Rekrutierung zu isolierten NR-Ligandenbindungsdomänen (LBDs) ab und vernachlässigen dabei die NR:NR-Interaktion. Damit klammern sie die NR:NR-Wechselwirkung aus, obwohl die Rekrutierung von Cofaktoren durch allosterischen Crosstalk mit der Oligomerisierung verbunden ist. Dies war die Motivation dafür, Assay-Systeme zu entwickeln, welche die Untersuchung von NR-Interaktionen,
insbesondere der NR-Dimerisierung, und deren Modulation durch verschiedene Arten von Liganden ermöglichen. Im Rahmen dieser Doktorarbeit wird ein vielfältiges modulares Set von Assays für die Untersuchung der NR-Dimerisierung und NR-Coregulator-Rekrutierung vorgestellt und deren Anwendbarkeit auf eine Vielzahl von NRs demonstriert. Die Verwendung einer
rekrutierungsunfähigen RXRα-Variante mit einer mutierten AF-2-Domäne ermöglichte den spezifischen Nachweis der Coaktivatorrekrutierung durch PPARγ im Kontext des Heterodimers mit seinem obligatorischen Dimerpartner RXRα. Außerdem konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Aktivierung der RXRα LBD mit ihrem Agonisten SR11237 zu einer Destabilisierung des RXRα-Homodimers, aber zu einer Förderung der Bildung des Heterodimers mit der PPARγ LBD führte.
Ein zentrales Ergebnis war das Phänomen, dass der Einbau von PPARγ in das Heterodimer zu einem erheblichen Anstieg an Affinität gegenüber Coaktivatoren führt, auch in Abwesenheit von Liganden. Somit fördert die RXRα-Aktivierung die Coaktivator-Rekrutierung von PPARγ indirekt durch eine Verschiebung der Oligomerisierungspräferenz von RXRα in Richtung des Heterodimers. Zusätzlich wurde die Wirkung von Tetrac, einem nicht-klassischen Schilddrüsenhormon, auf PPARγ und RXRα untersucht und dessen Aktivierungsvermögen gegenüber beiden Rezeptoren mit einer deutlich vervielfachten Wirkung auf das Heterodimer demonstriert. Mit Hilfe des neu etablierten Cofaktor-Rekrutierungsscreens konnte die Dynamik
zwischen dem Nurr1 NR und 29 kanonischen Coregulatoren, von denen einige ligandenabhängig hohe Affinitäten zum Rezeptor aufwiesen, beleuchtet werden. Diese Interaktionen wurden
bidirektional durch eine Reihe von strukturell unterschiedlichen nicht-steroidalen Antirheumatika moduliert, die auch die Affinitäten sowohl des Nurr1-Homodimers als auch des Heterodimers mit der RXRα LBD beeinflussen konnten. Die Nurr1-Dimere zeigten zudem auch eine hohe Empfindlichkeit gegenüber dem Endocannabinoid Anandamid. Zusätzlich zu PPARγ, RXRα und Nurr1 wurden erste Schritte zur Untersuchung der TLX NR-Funktion unternommen. Unter Anwendung der entwickelten Assays konnte die Heterodimerbildung der TLX und der RXRα LBD
beschrieben und die ligandenabhängige Rekrutierung des Corepressors SMRT beobachtet werden.
Zusammenfassend beschreibt diese Arbeit einen Satz von Werkzeugen für die Untersuchung von ligandenabhängiger NR-Coregulator-Interaktion und Oligomerisierung. Auf diese Weise trug sie zu einer umfassenderen Identifizierung und Charakterisierung von NR-Liganden bei und stellt eine valide Basis für die weitere Assayentwicklung und Ligandendesign dar.
Macrophages in the tumor microenvironment respond to complex cytokine signals. How these responses shape the phenotype of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) is incompletely understood. Here we explored how cytokines of the tumor milieu, interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-4, interact to influence target gene expression in primary human monocyte-derived macrophages (hMDMs). We show that dual stimulation with IL-4 and IL-6 synergistically modified gene expression. Among the synergistically induced genes are several targets with known pro-tumorigenic properties, such as CC-chemokine ligand 18 (CCL18), transforming growth factor alpha (TGFA) or CD274 (programmed cell death 1 ligand 1 (PD-L1)). We found that transcription factors of the signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) family, STAT3 and STAT6 bind regulatory regions of synergistically induced genes in close vicinity. STAT3 and STAT6 co-binding further induces the basic leucine zipper ATF-like transcription factor (BATF), which participates in synergistic induction of target gene expression. Functional analyses revealed increased MCF-7 and MDA-MB 231 tumor cell motility in response to conditioned media from co-treated hMDMs compared to cells incubated with media from single cytokine-treated hMDMs. Flow cytometric analysis of T cell populations upon co-culture with hMDMs polarized by different cytokines indicated that dual stimulation promoted immunosuppressive properties of hMDMs in a PD-L1-dependent manner. Analysis of clinical data revealed increased expression of BATF together with TAM markers in tumor stroma of breast cancer patients as compared to normal breast tissue stroma. Collectively, our findings suggest that IL-4 and IL-6 cooperate to alter the human macrophage transcriptome, endowing hMDMs with pro-tumorigenic properties.
In dieser Studie haben wir die Modulation von Arachidonsäure (AA)-Stoffwechselwegen während einer Wurminfektionen mit dem Fadenwurm Heligmosomoides polygyrus bakeri (Hpb) als angeborene regulatorische Strategie zur Modulation der Typ-2-Entzündung untersucht. Wir zeigten, dass Hpb in frühen Stadien der Infektion (Tag 7) die Produktion von regulatorischen Prostaglandinen (PGE2 und 6-keto PGF1-α, ein Abbauprodukt von PGI2) und COX-Metaboliten (12-HHT und TXB2) fördert, jedoch die Sekretion von entzündungsfördernden Mediatoren PGD2 und LTs (LTB4, cysLTs) unterdrückt. Die Hpb-gesteuerte Regulierung des AA-Stoffwechsels könnte eine Strategie zur Immunsuppression/ Immunevasion dieses Parasiten darstellen, die darauf abzielt, die vom Wirt ausgelösten Immunantworten des Typs-2 zu unterbinden und sowohl die Infiltration und Rekrutierung von Granulozyten als auch die Schleimproduktion zu begrenzen und auf diese Weise das Abtöten bzw. Ausscheiden der Larven zu verhindern.
Als Schwerpunkt der Arbeit, konnten wir ebenso zeigen, dass ein Larvenextrakt aus Heligmosomoides polygyrus bakeri (HpbE) den AA Stoffwechsel in myeloiden Zellen wie Makrophagen und Granulozyten moduliert, indem die Synthese von 5-LOX in Richtung COX-Metaboliten verschoben wird. Die Behandlung von murinen und humanen Makrophagen mit HpbE induzierte die Synthese von regulatorischen Prostaglandinen (PGE2) und Prostaglandinen, die an der Wundheilung und Blutgerinnung beteiligt sind (12-HHT, TXB2), wohingegen die Produktion von entzündungsfördernden Lipidmediatoren (LTs, PGD2) unterdrückt wurde. Weiter induzierte HpbE in humanen und murinen Makrophagen die Synthese der Typ-2 hemmenden Mediatoren IL-10 und IL-1β und modulierte die Produktion von Zytokinen, die an der Regulierung von M2-Polarisierung und der Typ-2-Entzündung (IL-12, IL-28, IL-27 und TNF-α) in humanen Makrophagen beteiligt sind. Ähnlich zu der HpbE-vermittelten Eicosanoid-Umprogrammierung in Makrophagen, veränderte HpbE den AA-Stoffwechsel humaner Granulozyten und zeigt eine Verschiebung von LOX- in Richtung COX-Metabolismus. Außerdem kann HpbE direkt auf humane Granulozyten wirken und die Chemotaxis von Granulozyten effizienter hemmen als zur Asthmabehandlung verwendete Standardarzneimittel, indem es die Expression von LT synthetisierenden Enzymen (LTA4H und LTC4S) verringert und die Expression von chemotaktischen Rezeptoren (CCR3 und CRTH2) herunterreguliert.
Darüber hinaus, konnten wir die Mechanismen identifizieren, die der HpbE-gesteuerten Eicosanoid-Umprogrammierung in Makrophagen zugrunde liegen. Hpb Produkte induzierten die Aktivierung von p38 MAPK, welche COX und die Transkriptionsfaktoren HIF-1α und NFκβ aktiviert und die Produktion von Prostaglandinen (PGE2 and TXB2) sowie der Typ-2 unterdrückenden Zytokine IL-10 and IL-1β fördert. Der der Induktion des COX-Signalwegs zugrunde liegende Upstream-Mechanismus umfasste mehrere PPRs (TLR2, Dectin-1/2). Diese Rezeptoren waren allerdings nicht an der HpbE-gesteuerten Induktion von IL-10 beteiligt. Die Mechanismen der Modulation des 5-LOX-Signalweges muss noch in zukünftigen Studien weiter erforscht werden.
Das therapeutische Potential von HpbE oder HpbE-behandelten Makrophagen wurde in einem Maus Model mit HDM-induzierter allergischer Atemwegsentzündung in vivo gezeigt. Eine intranasale Behandlung mit HpbE vor HDM-Sensibilisierung und -Provokation führte zu einer Umprogrammierung des AA-Stoffwechsels und verhinderte die Allergie-induzierte Eosinophilie, Zellinfiltration, Atemwegsentzündung und Schleimproduktion. Die Modulation der Typ-2-Entzündung durch HpbE wurde vor allem durch COX-2-Metabolite vermittelt, die von HpbE-stimulierten Makrophagen freigesetzt wurden. Dies zeigte sich insbesondere darin, dass der Transfer von HpbE-stimulierten Wildtyp- aber nicht COX-2-defizienten Makrophagen vor Provokation die Granulozyten Rekrutierung und Typ-2-Entzündung während der HDM-induzierten Allergie in vivo abschwächte.
Mittels eines Maus Models für die allergische Atemwegsentzündung in unterschiedlichen Altersstufen (Neugeboren, Jungtier und Erwachsen) zeigte dieses Forschungsprojekt, dass das Alter der Sensibilisierung eine Schlüsselrolle bei der Produktion von LTs, der Expression von LT-Synthese Enzymen sowie von Faktoren, die zu strukturellen Veränderungen in den Atemwegen führen, spielt. Hier haben wir auch festgestellt, dass der Mechanismus hinter der LT-Produktion und dem Atemwegs-Remodeling im Epithel von ausgewachsenen sensibilisierten Mäusen die Aktivierung der Faktoren sPLA2X, TGM2 und Wnt5a beinhaltet.
Des Weiteren zeigte unsere Studie, dass eine Wechselwirkung zwischen entzündetem Atemwegsepithel und Alveolar-ähnlichen Makrophagen die Synthese von LTs fördern kann. Der vorgeschlagene Mechanismus startet mit der Sekretion von Wnt5a durch das entzündete Atemwegsepithel, welches die Expression von TGM2 in Makrophagen aktiviert und die Produktion von entzündungsfördernden LTs induziert, wodurch die Rolle der Makrophagen in entzündeten Atemwegen bei Erwachsenen weiter unterstützt wird. Die Relevanz der entdeckten Kaskade konnte auch in Geweben von Patienten mit chronischer Rhinosinusitis und Nasenpolypen (CRSwNP) bestätigt werden. Hohe Konzentrationen von LT Enzymen (5-LO, LTC4S LTA4H), sPLA2-X, TGM2 und Wnt5a wurden in humanen Nasenpolyp Geweben beobachtet, und hohe Konzentrationen von CysLTs wurden in Nasenpolyp Sekreten dieser Patienten gemessen. Dies lässt vermuten, dass die Expression von Atemwegs Remodeling-Faktoren, LT-Synthese Enzymen und die LT Synthese steroidresistent sind. Daher könnte diese entzündliche Kaskade ein alternatives therapeutisches Ziel für die Behandlung von Asthma darstellen, speziell bei Patienten mit steroidresistenten Formen von Atemwegsentzündungen.
Basierend auf den möglichen therapeutischen Anwendungen von HpbE haben wir begonnen, an der Charakterisierung der im HpbE vorhandenen immunmodulatorischen Wirkstoffe zu arbeiten. Glutamatdehydrogenase (GDH) und Ferritin wurden als potenzielle immunmodulatorische Komponenten von HpbE identifiziert. Es ist jedoch weitere Arbeit erforderlich, um diese in HpbE vorhandenen Proteine rekombinant herzustellen und den Wirkungsmechanismus im Bezug auf die Typ-2-Entzündung weiter aufzuklären.
Macroautophagy, herein referred to as autophagy, is an evolutionarily conserved homeostatic process that normally occurs inside eukaryotic cells which involves degradation of cytoplasmic substances via lysosomes. It can be induced by various conditions such as starvation and drug exposure, as well as be inhibited by numerous compounds. Under normal conditions, the doublemembrane autophagosomes engulf the cytosolic substrates and deliver them to lysosomes for digestion. These substrates include unnecessary or dysfunctional cell components, such as faulty macromolecules, organelles and even invading pathogens. Autophagosomes are formed through the co-operative work of various autophagy-related (ATG) proteins organized into complexes. Upon closure of the autophagosomes, they fuse with the acidic lysosomes, resulting in formation of autolysosomes and the delivery of lysosomal hydrolases to degrade the engulfed contents. The fusion of the autophagosome with lysosome is carried out by specific SNARE proteins, small GTPases and their effectors including tethers, adaptors and motor proteins. Autophagy is impaired in many human diseases including cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, aging and inflammation. Therefore, manipulation of autophagy pathway holds a great promise for new therapeutic applications ...
This work investigated the influence of the CRISPR/Cas9 mediated knockout of 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) on different adherent tumour cell lines derived from solid tumours. For this, the 5-LO expressing tumour cell lines HCT-116, HT-29, and U-2 OS were transiently transfected using a plasmid carrying the CRISPR/Cas9 complex sequence to the ALOX5 gene. Subsequently, cells were selected using Puromycin and analysed via Western blotting and DNA Sanger sequencing. Cells that were transfected with a control plasmid missing the guide RNA sequence, were used as a control for all experiments.
Differential gene expression analysis, performed after next-generation RNA sequencing, revealed that the expression of various genes was altered after the knockout of 5-LO. In HCT-116 cells, 28 genes were expressed differentially in all 5-LO knockout single-cell clones, while in HT-29 cells the expression of 18 genes and in U-2 OS cells of 234 genes was influenced by the knockout of 5-LO. These findings were validated by real-time qPCR. A lot of the genes that were influenced by the 5-LO knockout are known to be connected to epithelial-mesenchymal-transition (EMT), a process necessary for tumour metastasis. The results from RNA sequencing were the starting point for further investigations. In the following, different aspects of the tumour cell lines were examined. In HT-29, as
well as in U-2 OS cells, it was shown that knockout of the 5-LO resulted in impaired cell proliferation. Also, the formation of three-dimensional tumour spheroids was altered. In HT-29 cells, the knockout of 5-LO increased the number of cells in spheroids. In contrast, in U-2 OS cells, the number of cells per spheroid was decreased, even though the diameter of the spheroids was increased, due to more loosely packed spheroids. The difference between 5-LO positive and negative U-2 OS cells became even more obvious after embedding the spheroids in an artificial extracellular matrix. In that scenario, cells lacking the 5-LO formed smaller spheroids that did not have the same ability to grow into the extracellular matrix as 5-LO positive cells did. Also, directed cell migration was strongly influenced by the knockout of 5-LO. In both, HCT-116 and U-2 OS cells, directed cell migration towards a serum gradient was increased in 5-LO knockout single-cell clones. Pharmacological inhibition of the enzyme was used to investigate, whether canonical or non-canonical functions were responsible for the previously mentioned effects.
Therefore, vector control cells were treated with the 5-LO inhibitors Zileuton and CJ-13610 in different concentrations. Interestingly, only some of the effects mediated by the complete knockout of 5-LO could be reproduced by inhibiting the enzyme, leading to the suggestion, that canonical, as well as non-canonical functions of 5-LO, play a role in these tumour cells.
To conclude, it was shown in this study, that 5-LO affects various cellular functions when expressed in adherent tumour cell lines. These cell line-dependent effects result in altered gene expression, enhanced proliferation, and spheroid formation, as well as impaired cell motility, and can be mediated by enzymatic activity as well as other non-canonical functions.
A necessary requirement for a pharmacological effect is that a drug molecule tightly interacts with its disease relevant target molecule in the patient. Kinases are regulatory, signal transmitting enzymes and are a large protein family that belongs to the most frequent targets of pharmaceutical industry, as deregulation of kinases has been associated with the development of a variety of diseases, including cancer. In drug discovery, equilibrium binding metrics such as the affinity (Ki, KD) or potency (IC50, EC50) are usually applied for the systematic profiling for potent and selective drug candidates. In recent years, dynamic binding parameters, the drugs association (kon) and dissociation (koff) rates for desired primary-targets and undesired off-targets, were discussed to be better predictors than steady-state affinity per se (KD = koff / kon) for the onset and duration of the drug-target complex in the open in vivo environment and thereby for the therapeutic effect and safety of the drug. It is yet unclear whether and when the binding kinetics parameters can influence drug action in the complex context of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics and how the kinetic rate constants can be optimized rationally. One major obstacle for providing proof for the hypothesis that drug binding kinetics is of importance for drug action is the generation of large and comparable binding kinetic datasets.
The aim of this thesis was the comprehensive analysis of the binding kinetic and affinity parameters of a diverse spectrum of 270 small-molecule kinase inhibitors against a panel of pharmacologically relevant kinases to study the role played by binding kinetics for drug discovery: The generated dataset was utilized to assess the effect of chemical properties on drug binding kinetics, and to evaluate the impact of kinetic rate constants on the success of compounds in the drug discovery pipeline.
Large scale profiling was made possible by a recently developed “kinetic Probe Competition Assay” (kPCA), whose evaluation is based on Motulsky’s and Mahan’s “kinetics of competitive binding” theory. Monte Carlo analyses performed in this dissertation widened the theoretical knowledge of this theory, provided new insights into its limitations and allowed to derive recommendations about how to best design assays. It was demonstrated that kPCA is indeed high-throughput compatible and that it is comparable to other biochemical and biophysical assay formats in terms of precision and accuracy.
Multivariable linear regression for the description of the determined kinase inhibitors’ target binding characteristics (kon or koff or KD) using molecular properties and/or particular kinase-inhibitor interactions as descriptors supported the assumption that molecular properties of compounds might affect binding kinetics, generated new hypothesis about molecular determinants influencing binding kinetic parameters and provided a rational basis for following structure-kinetic relationship studies. Remarkably, the binding kinetic rate constants were better described by the established models than binding affinities.
Interestingly, the systematic, quantitative analysis of kinase inhibitors’ target binding kinetics indicated that a slow dissociation rate for the main target is a feature which is more frequently observed in inhibitors that reached approval or late stage clinical testing than in earlier phases of clinical development. In addition, it was demonstrated that binding kinetics of kinase inhibitors is a better predictor for the time course of target engagement in cells as compared to affinity per se. Furthermore, in some study cases simulations using a standard pharmacokinetics model and a modified model considering the inhibitors binding kinetics lead to different in vivo kinase occupancy time profiles. It was illustrated by simulations how the concept of kinetic selectivity can be applied to turn an unselective compound in equilibrium conditions into a more selective compound in the open in vivo situation, where the thermodynamic equilibrium of drug-target binding is not necessarily reached.
Thus the generated data and models provide evidence for the importance of binding kinetics in drug discovery and represent a valuable resource for future studies in this field.
Aim of the present study was the characterization of the RORa receptor (Retinoidrelated Orphan Receptor a). RORa is a member of the nuclear receptor family and is involved into the differentiation of Purkinje cells, inflammation, arteriosclerosis, and bone mineralization. Nuclear receptors are transcription factors and mediate biological responses within target cells to outer signals such as lipophilic hormones. They are involved in development, growth, differentiation, proliferation, apoptosis, and maintenance of homeostasis. Ligand binding, posttranslational modifications, and cofactor recruitment control their activity. Nearly all nuclear receptors share a common modular structure with an Nterminal A/B region, a DNA-binding domain (DBD) that is composed of two zinc finger motifs, a hinge region, and a C-terminal ligand-binding domain (LBD). The RORs comprise the subtypes RORa, RORb, and RORg, which are encoded by different genes. All isoforms of the respective subtypes only differ in their A/B domain. This study focused mainly on the exploration of the gene structure, expression, and subcellular distribution of RORa...
The enzyme 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) occupies a central role in the biosynthesis of inflammatory leukotrienes and thus takes part in the pathogenesis of related diseases. Its occurrence is mainly restricted to cells of the immune system including granulocytes, monocytes/macrophages or B-lymphocytes and can be induced by cell differentiation of myeloid cells after treatment with differentiating agents, such as DMSO, retinoic acid or the combination of TGFβ/1,25(OH)2D3. The latter contribute to the highest level of induction of mRNA and protein expression. Its cell specific occurrence is at least partly due to DNA methylation in cells that do not exhibit 5-LO activity and genetic regulation is further dependent on histone acetylation. 5-LO expression is controlled by transcription factors binding to the promoter sequence of the ALOX5 gene that induce basal promoter activity, as well as promoter independent effects including transcript initiation and elongation, which are mostly attributed to TGFβ/1,25(OH)2D3 signaling. The ALOX5 gene resembles a typical housekeeping gene, hence lacks TATA- or CAAT-boxes for transcriptional regulation, but displays a high GC-content with eight GC-boxes, five of which are arranged in tandem, that provide binding sites for transcription factors Sp1, Sp3 and Egr-1.
The proximal ALOX5 promoter is furthermore a target for additional factors, such as TGFβ effector proteins SMADs or the vitamin D receptor and possesses additional consensus sequences for transcriptional regulators, including NF-κB or PU.1. However, as yet no actual binding of these proteins to the promoter sequence was demonstrated and an unbiased screening for identifying further ALOX5 promoter interacting proteins, which might have impact on 5-LO expression, is still lacking. For this purpose, the present study focused on the identification of significantly interacting proteins, employing DNA-affinity enrichment coupled to label-free quantitative proteomics, spanning a sequence of about 270 base pairs of the proximal ALOX5 promoter. For the elucidation of potential cell specific differences in protein patterns and compositions, DNA pulldowns were performed by using oligonucleotide stretches comprising the core promoter sequence including the 5-fold GC-box, which were incubated with different cell lines and differentiation states of myeloid, as well as B-lymphocytic lineages. In order to compare different mass spectrometric quantification strategies that would allow for identification of interactors, dimethyl labeling and label-free techniques were used. Since the label-free approach outperformed the label-based one in initial experiments, it was established as standard quantification strategy in all DNA pulldowns performed. The pulldowns of myeloid cell lines in both undifferentiated and differentiated state and B-lymphocytes resulted in a cell-unspecific protein pattern whose composition was similar, regardless of cell lineage. Additionally, further DNA sequences comprising either a vitamin D response element or a SMAD binding element were investigated in the promyelocytic model cell line HL-60 in both undifferentiated and differentiated state. The identified proteins confirmed known interaction partners and furthermore revealed novel potential regulators of the 5-LO promoter. Out of these, the most prominently identified and promising proteins included transcription factors of the KLF- and CCAAT/enhancer binding protein-family. In this context, KLF5 and KLF13 are both involved in the regulation of inflammatory processes, the former additionally being an effector protein of TGFβ-signaling, whose functional characterization is of utmost interest in terms of regulation of 5-LO expression. Further protein characterization will be inevitable for the CCAAT/enhancer binding proteins C/EBPα, C/EBPβ and C/EBPε. These transcription factors are involved in the regulation of inflammatory processes and heterodimers thereof (C/EBPα/β) are known to control TGFβ/1,25(OH)2D3-mediated effects of the CD14 gene.
Several of the identified proteins of the pulldowns containing the tandem GC-box represented interactors of G-quadruplex DNA, including the helicases BLM and DHX36, the ribonucleoproteins hnRNP D and hnRNP K and transcription factor MAZ. Since G-quadruplexes form in G-rich DNA sequences as secondary DNA structures and exhibit substantial regulatory effects on the transcription of their target genes, the potential formation thereof in the ALOX5 core promoter sequence was investigated in a second project. Out of the proteins mentioned above, MAZ is shown to exert resolving effects on G4-DNA and synergistically induce Sp1-dependent gene activation of oncogene h-RAS, which displays analogous promoter characteristics to the ALOX5 gene. A DNA stretch comprising the tandem GC-box was used for elucidating the potential of secondary DNA structure formation. Intriguingly, both immune-based and spectroscopic methods provided clear evidence for the in vitro G-quadruplex formation of the proximal promoter sequence for the first time. In order to provide additional information on a possible regulatory effect of existing G-quadruplex structures on 5-LO transcription, differentiated HL-60 cells were subsequently treated with two distinct G4-DNA stabilizing agents. A porphyrin analogon (TMPyP4) did not exhibit any effects on 5-LO mRNA and protein expression after cell treatment. A second G4-DNA stabilizing agent (pyridostatin) on the other hand revealed significant reduction on 5-LO protein expression after cellular treatment. These mixed results render further experiments inevitable, in order to provide a clear assertion as to whether 5-LO expression is regulated by G-quadruplex structures or not.
Altogether, this study enlarges the knowledge of ALOX5 proximal promoter interacting proteins by corroborating the binding of already known transcription factors and identifying novel interactors. It yields essential groundwork for subsequent functional studies of proteins involved in 5-LO transcription and introduces G-quadruplexes as a new potential mechanism in ALOX5 gene regulation.
This work focused on the biosynthesis and characterization of esterified lipid mediators. Lipid mediators were generally thought to exert their effects as free molecules, and their esterification was regarded as a storage mechanism. However, more recent studies indicate that esterified lipid mediators are a distinct class of mediators. When this thesis started back in 2017, the idea of esterified lipids as a new class of mediators was relatively new so that respective compounds were either quite expensive or not commercially available at all. Therefore, a biosynthetic approach had to be established first to enable the study of the new lipid mediator class. Within the cell, esterified lipids are produced by activation and subsequent incorporation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. These steps are enzymatically catalyzed by members of the acyl-CoA synthetase family and the lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase family, respectively. Therefore, the enzymes acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain family member 4 (ACSL4) and lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase 2 (LPCAT2) were selected for a biosynthetic approach due to their broad substrate acceptance.
In a first attempt, recombinant protein expression in E. coli was studied. While the expression and purification of C-terminally His6x-tagged ACSL4 resulted in a pure and active protein, the expression of LPCAT2 turned out quite troublesome. Although several expression and purification parameters were varied, including purification tags, buffer compositions, and chromatography strategies, successful purification of LPCAT2 was not achieved.
Instead, a second approach was studied. This time, stably transfected cells overexpressing ACSL4 and/or LPCAT2 were generated from the human embryonal kidney (HEK) 293T cell line. Stably transfected cell lines were characterized on protein level and regarding their oxylipin profile. After confirming the overexpression and functionality of the enzymes, lipoxygenases (LOs) were co-expressed in a doxycycline-inducible manner to prevent premature cell death due to increased oxidative stress. As a result, LO product formation was enhanced and enabled the investigation of specific oxylipins. Since increased lipid peroxidation is also a key component of the ferroptosis cell death mechanisms, cell lines were investigated towards their cell viability. Indeed, expression of ACSL4 and/or LPCAT2 promoted cell death when treated with the ferroptosis inducers erastin or RSL3, even in the absence of LO expression. Furthermore, analysis by laser scanning confocal microscopy revealed that the localization of 15-LO1 was altered in the presence of LPCAT2, similar to treatment with RSL3 in vector control cells.
In conclusion, a stable overexpression system of ACSL4 and/or LPCAT2 was successfully established in HEK293T cells, which enabled the synthesis and characterization of esterified oxylipins. Interestingly, characterization of the cell lines revealed a correlation with the cell death mechanism ferroptosis. Although the expression of ACSL4 has already been reported as a biomarker for ferroptosis, this is the first time that a potential connection of LPCAT2 with ferroptosis was demonstrated. As a result, this may provide new therapeutic options for ferroptosis-related pathologies such as neurodegeneration, autoimmune diseases, or tumorigenesis.