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Diese Zusammenfassung ist in zwei Abschnitte gegliedert. Im Abschnitt 6.1. wird die physiologische Bedeutung der Glutamatrezeptoren (GluR) und ihr biologischer Hintergrund kurz erklärt. Am Ende dieses Abschnitts wird der Stand der Strukturanalyse des GluR-B Ionenkanals zu Beginn des Projektes zusammengefasst. Im nachfolgenden Abschnitt 6.2. sind die wesentlichen Ergebnisse der hier vorgelegten Arbeit zusammengefasst. 6.1. Die Bedeutung von Glutamatrezeptoren - Stand der Strukturanalyse zum Beginn dieser Arbeit Die Kommunikation zwischen Nervenzellen erfolgt vorwiegend an hochspezialisierten Kontaktstellen den chemischen Synapsen. Der enge Raum zwischen sendender und empfangender Nervenzelle wird auch als synaptischer Spalt bezeichnet. Der Prozess der synaptischen Übertragung beruht auf der präsynaptischen Freisetzung von chemischen Botenstoffen, sogenannten Neurotransmittern in den synaptischen Spalt. Die Aminosäure L- Glutamat (Glu) ist der wichtigste erregende Neurotransmitter im menschlichen Gehirn und Rückenmark. Dementsprechend bedeutend ist die Rolle der ionotropen Glutamatrezeptoren (iGluRs), die sie bei der elektrochemischen Erregungsübertragung am synaptischen Spalt spielen (Seeburg, 1993), (Hollmann and Heinemann, 1994), (Dingledine et al., 1999). Die Freisetzung von Neurotransmittern wird durch ein elektrisches Signal (Aktionspotential) ausgelöst, das sich entlang der Nervenfaser, dem Axon, bis zur Nervenendigung, der Synapse, fortpflanzt. Nach der Freisetzung diffundieren die Neurotransmitter durch den synaptischen Spalt und binden an sogenannte Rezeptoren. Ionotrope Glutamatrezeptoren sind Ionenkanäle, die in die Membran der nachgeschalteten (postsynaptischen) Nervenzelle eingebaut sind. Sie zählen deshalb zu den Membranproteinen. Als ligandgesteuerte kationenselektive Ionenkanäle machen Glutamatrezeptoren (GluRs) die postsynaptische Membran nach Aktivierung durch Ligandbindung für bestimmte Kationen durchlässig. Der Einstrom von Ionen bewirkt eine Änderung des Membranpotentials. Die Stärke der synaptischen Übertragung ist lebenslang modulierbar; die sogennante synaptische Plastizität wird als eine entscheidende Grundlage für die Erklärung von Lernen und Gedächtnis angesehen. Drei synthetische Agonisten aktivieren die GluRs selektiv und wurden deshalb für die Klassifizierung der ionotropen Glutamatrezeptoren herangezogen. Bei den Agonisten handelt es sich um -Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazol-4-propionat (AMPA), Kainat and N- Methyl-D-Aspartat (NMDA). Die ersten beiden Subtypen werden auch als non-NMDA- Rezeptoren zusammengefasst. Die Aktivierung und Desensitivierung der non-NMDA Rezeptoren ist schneller als die der NMDA-Rezeptoren. Aus molekularbiologischer Sicht (siehe Kapitel 1.3.2.) zeigen die drei Klassen der ionotropen Glutamatrezeptoren eine beträchliche Diversität. So gibt es vier verschiedene Unterheiten vom AMPA-Subtyp, nämlich GluR-A, GluR-B, GluR-C und GluR-B. In dieser Arbeit steht die Strukturanalyse eines aus GluR-B Untereinheiten bestehenden AMPA-Rezeptors im Vordergrund. (Die weitere Unterteilung der NMDA- und Kainatrezeptoren kann dem Kapitel 1.3.2. auf Seite 6 entnommen werden.) Bestimmte Abschnitte der Aminosäurensequenz von Glutamatrezeptoren sind durch hydrophobe Bereiche gekennzeichnet ((M1-M4) in Abbildung 6.1.A (A.)). Das durch verschiedene Untersuchungen etablierte Modell der Glutamatrezeptor-Topologie zeigt 3 Transmembrandomänen (M1, M3 und M4) und eine Membranschleife (M2) (Hollmann et al., 1994), (Kuner et al., 1996). Der Aminoterminus ist extrazellulär, der Carboxyterminus hingegen intrazellulär. Daraus ergibt sich die in Abbildung 6.1.A (B.) abgebildete Topologie (Paas, 1998). S1 und S2 kennzeichnen die Ligandbindungsdomäne. Glutamatrezeptoren (GluR) sind Oligomere, die sich mit grosser Wahrscheinlichkeit aus vier Untereinheiten (Rosenmund et al., 1998), (Ayalon and Stern-Bach, 2001) zusammensetzen (siehe Kapitel 1.3.3.). Die Zusammenlagerung verschiedener Untereinheiten zu einem funktionellen Kanal setzt voraus, dass die Untereinheiten zum gleichen Subtyp gehören, d.h. AMPA Untereinheiten können nur mit anderen AMPA Untereinheiten einen Ionenkanal bilden. Das gleiche gilt für die Zusammensetzung von NMDA und Kainat-Rezeptoren. Das Modell eines tetrameren Glutamatrezeptors ist im Bild C. der Abbildung 6.1.A zu sehen. Die Bestimmung der Quartärstruktur eines vollständigen Glutamatrezeptors ist bislang nicht veröffentlicht. Die strukturelle Analyse von Proteinen erfordert die Isolierung von reinem und funktionellem Protein. Im Vergleich zu den meisten löslichen Proteinen erfordert die Isolierung von Membranproteinen oft besonderer Optimierung. Falls das Vorkommen des Proteins in natürlichem Gewebe gering ist, so kann die strukturelle Analyse durch rekombinante Expression in einem geeigneten Wirtsorganismus zugänglich gemacht werden. Die Isolierung von Milligramm-Mengen eines rekombinanten homomeren GluR-B Rezeptors aus dem entsprechenden Baculovirusexpressionssystem (Keinänen et al., 1994) wurde in unserem Labor etabliert (Safferling et al., 2001) und wurde im ersten Jahr dieses Projektes fortgeführt. Durch zonale Ultrazentrifugation konnte gezeigt werden, dass die molekulare Masse des GluR-B Proteinkomplexes ca. 495 kD beträgt. Dieser Wert liegt in der Nähe des theoretischen Molekulargewichts eines tetrameren Ionenkanals, dessen Molmasse sich aus vier GluR-B Untereinheiten (104 kD) und einer Detergenzmizelle von ca. 63-97 kD zusammensetzt (Safferling et al., 2001). Die elektronenmikroskopische Analyse des Proteinkomplexes von W. Tichelaar aus unserer Gruppe erfolgte 1999 durch Negativfärbung. Für die Strukturanalyse mit Hilfe der Software IMAGIC wurden 10 000 Proteinteilchen selektiert. Das Ergebnis der Bildrekonstruktion ist in der folgenden Abbildung 6.1.B gezeigt. Die projezierten Dimensionen des Models entsprechen einem Molekül mit den Dimensionen 17 nm × 11 nm × 14 nm. Das Model zeigt keine ausgezeichnete Symmetrie, die auf die Stöchiometrie des GluR hinweisen könnte. Das Molekül zeigt mit Färbemittel gefüllte Vertiefungen und innere Strukturen, die vielleicht an der Ionenleitung beteiligt sind. 6.2. Funktionelle und strukturelle Charakterisierung des GluR-B Ionenkanals In der Fortsetzung des oben beschriebenen Projektes wurden für die rekombinante Expression desselben Rezeptors (GluR-B homomer) stabil transformierte Insektenzellen eingesetzt. Dazu wurde die für die GluR-B Untereinheit kodierende und in Plasmiden enthaltene DNA in Insektenzellen transformiert (siehe APPENDIX A.2.2.). Im Vergleich zu dieser auf Dauerhaftigkeit angelegten Integration der Rezeptor DNA wird die Proteinexpression beim Baculovirusexpressionssystem durch Infektion mit rekombinanten Baculoviren initiiert. Der Vergleich zeigte, dass die mit Baculoviren erzielten Ausbeuten bei GluR-B etwa doppelt so hoch waren als bei stabil transformierten Zellen. Allerdings fallen bei stabil transformierten Zellen die eventuellen Nachteile der viralen Belastung auf die zellulären Sekretionsprozesse weg. Im Verlauf der elektronenmikroskopischen Analyse von baculoviral erzeugtem GluR-B Protein hat sich gezeigt, dass Proteine viralen Ursprungs unter Umständen selbst doppelt aufgereinigte GluR-B Proben verunreinigen können (siehe APPENDIX A.2.1.). Dieser Punkt ist bei einer Einzelbildverarbeitung von grosser Relevanz, falls die virusspezifischen Proteinverunreinigungen eine ähnliche Grösse haben wie das eigentliche Zielprotein. Das Hauptziel dieser Arbeit war es, das Potenzial stabil transformierter Insektenzellen für die Expression von homomeren GluR-B Ionenkanälen zu bewerten und dabei die Stöchiometrie der Untereinheiten in diesem Ionenkanal aufzuklären. Zu diesem Zweck wurden biochemische und elektronenmikrosopische Techniken eingesetzt. Zur Isolierung des GluR-B Ionenkanals aus stabil transformierten Insektenzellen wurde das bestehende Aufreinigungsprotokoll für die Affinitätchromatographie an immobilisierten Metallionen (IMAC) (Safferling et al., 2001) optimiert, indem das Chargenverfahren durch das Durchflussverfahren ersetzt wurde (zur genaueren Erklärung der Optimierung siehe RESULTS 4.1.2.). Abbildung 6.C zeigt ein silbergefärbtes Gel mit den Eluaten der IMAC und Eluaten der abschliessenden Affinitätschromatographie mit immobilisiertem M1-Antikörper. Die auf den Bahnen 5-8 aufgetragen GluR-B Proben wurden auch für die Einzelteilchenanalyse mittels Elektronenmikroskopie verwendet. Die Ligandbindungsaktivität von GluR-B wurde durch Filterbindungsexperimente mit dem Radioliganden [3H]-AMPA vor und nach der Isolierung aus den Membranfragmenten bestimmt. Die KD-Werte sind für beide Proben ähnlich gross. Der Bmax-Werte ist für die aufgereinigte Probe wie erwartet sehr viel (mehr als 200×) höher. Die Ergebnisse der Ligandbindungsexperimente sind im Kapitel 4.2.1 tabellarisch zusammengefasst. Die oligomere Struktur des isolierten Ionenkanals wurde durch Quervernetzungsexperimente (Cross-linking) und Einzelteilchenanalyse von negativ gefärbten Proteinmolekülen bewertet. Die Quervernetzungsexerimente selbst erbrachten kein eindeutiges Ergebnis im Hinblick auf oligomere Struktur des komplett zusammengesetzten Rezeptors. Kontrollexperimente mit dem Lysat vom Rattenhippocampus zeigten, dass mit DTSSP ein geeigneter Cross-Linker verwendet wurde (siehe RESULTS 4.3.2.). Neben einem aus 4 Banden bestehenden Muster (siehe RESULTS 4.3.1.) lieferten die Quervernetzungsexperimente mit isoliertem GluR-B aber einen deutlichen Hinweis auf die Stabilität von dimeren GluR-B Strukturen, die im Einklang mit einer jüngst veröffentlichten Arbeit stehen (Ayalon and Stern-Bach, 2001). Diese Veröffentlichung liefert zusätzliche (Armstrong et al., 1998) Hinweise auf die Bedeutung von Dimeren in der Glutamatrezeptorstruktur und postuliert, dass sich ein kompletter Glutamaterezeptor aus einem Dimer-Paar zusmmensetzt, wobei die Dimere zuerst gebildet werden. Die nachfolgende Abbildung 6.2.B zeigt negativ gefärbte GluR-B Ionenkanäle bei einer 46000× Vergrösserung. Die Aufnahme stammt von einem Philips EM 400 Elektronenmikroskop. Für die 3D Rekonstruktion wurden 500 der in Abbildung 6.2.B gezeigten Rezeptormoleküle ausgewählt. Dieser relativ kleine Datensatz besteht aus GluR-B Ionenkanälen deren Präservierung in Uranylacetat als besonderes vielversprechend eingeschätzt wurde. Dieser positive Effekt wurde auf die Verwendung frisch von einer Wasseroberfläche aufgefischter Kohlefilme zurückgeführt (siehe RESULTS 4.4.3.3.). Während der Klassifizierung dieses Datensatzes fiel auf, dass die beim Band-Pass-Filtern für die niedrigen Frequenzen gesetzten Cut-offs einen deutlichen Einfluss auf die erste Klassifizierung der unterschiedlichen zweidimensionalen Ansichten des Proteinkomplexes haben (siehe RESULTS 4.4.3.4.). Aus diesem Grund wurde der gleiche Datensatz mit 5 verschiedenen low-frequency cut-offs (LFCO) gefiltert (siehe Table 4.4.3.4.) und getrennt klassifiziert. Von den 5 resultierenden Klassifikationen wurden 3 (LFCO 0,005, 0,03 und 0,05) für die weiterführende 3D Rekonstruktion ausgewählt. Die Evaluierung der resultiernden 3D Modelle ergab, dass der mit einem LFCO von 0,03 gefilterte Datensatz eine Klassifikationen erlaubte, die zu einem 3D Modell (Modell GluR-BII/a siehe RESULTS Figure 4.4.3.4.H) führte, das im Vergleich zu den beiden anderen Rekonstruktionen konsistenter war. Am stärksten spricht für dieses Modell die Übereinstimmung der Input-Projektionen mit den Reprojektionen der 3D Rekonstruktion (siehe siehe RESULTS Figure 4.4.3.4.H). Zur Verfeinerung des Modells GluR-BII/a wurden die beiden Projektionen mit der höchsten Standardabweichung vom Klassendurchschnitt (class average) eliminiert. Die verbleibenden 11 Projektionen bildeten die Input-Projektionen für die Berechung eines verfeinerten Modells, GluR-BII/b, das auf einer neuen Zuordnung der Euler-Winkel beruht. Das Ergebnis dieser Berechung ist in der nachfolgenden Abbildung gezeigt. Das Modell in Abbildung 6.2.C zeigt einen zentralen Kanal und hat die Dimensionen 18 nm × 14 nm × 11 nm. Die Stöchiometrie der Untereinheiten ist aus dem Modell, das mit grosser Wahrscheinlichkeit einen komplett zusammengesetzten GluR darstellt, nicht ablesbar. Ebensowenig zeigt das Modell eine eindeutig vierzählige oder fünfzählige Symmetrie. Allerdings ist die erkennbare zweizählige Symmetrie im Einklang mit dem vorgeschlagenen Pair-of-Dimer Modell (Ayalon and Stern-Bach, 2001), das auf eine teramere Struktur des oligomeren Ionenkanals schliessen lässt. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit zeigen, dass stabil transifzierte Insektenzellen eine durchaus geeignete Quelle für GluR-B Ionenkanäle sind. Nachteilig sind die geringen Ausbeuten. Allerdings kann durch weitere Selektion der Zellen die GluR Expression noch gesteigert werden (siehe APPENDIX A.2.2.). Bei höheren GluR-B Ausbeuten könnte zukünftig auch die Detektion des Rezeptors in vitrifizierten Proben in Verbindung mit Kryo-Elektronen- mikroskopie und auch die 2D-Kristallisation gelingen. Die während dieses Projekts gemachten Kristallisationsexperimente (siehe APPENDIX A.3.) und Kryo-Experimente mit GluR-B Protein aus dem Baculovirusexpressionssystem (siehe RESULTS 4.4.1. und 4.4.2.) ergaben negative Ergebnisse. Das Potential der Kryo-Methode konnte allerdings in Kontrollexperimenten mit Tabak-Mosaik-Virus (TMV) gezeigt werden. Kryo-Daten von GluR-B würden die Berechnung eines genaueren Strukurmodells erlauben. Die Reprojektionen des hier besprochenen Strukturmodells GluR-BII/b aus der Abbildung 6.2.C könnten als Referenzen für das Alignment der vitrifizierten GluR Ionenkanäle dienen. Für das langfristige Ziel der Rekonstituition des Rezeptors in Liposomen sollte die Delipidierung des Membranproteins während der Aufreinigung möglichst reduziert werden. Hier erscheinen zwei Ansätze sinnvoll. Die Aufreinigung des Proteins in einem Schritt durch die Erweiterung des tags am Carboxyterminus von nur 6 auf 10 Histidin-Reste. Ausserdem gibt es Hinweise, dass die Anwesenheit von Lipiden während der Aufreinigung für seine Rekonstituierbarkeit förderlich ist (Huganir and Racker, 1982).
Proliferation and apoptosis are fundamental cellular processes that are important for the development and homeostasis of multi-cellular organisms. Deregulation of these processes plays an important role in tumor formation. Often, genes that control homeostasis by regulating proliferation and apoptosis are mutated or improperly expressed in tumors. In this project, the physiological and pathological functions of FUSE Binding Protein 1 (FBP1) were studied to elucidate the involvement of this gene in the context of embryonic development and tumorigenesis. Two reasons led to the hypothesis that FBP1 might be relevant in this context. FBP1 was isolated in the group of PD Dr. Martin Zörnig using a functional yeast survival screen for the identification of anti-apoptotic genes involved in tumorigenesis, and the anti-apoptotic function of FBP1 was confirmed in the human colon carcinoma cell line RKO. In addition, FBP1 had been published to function as a transcriptional regulator that activates expression of the proto-oncogene c-myc. This gene stimulates cell proliferation and is overexpressed in many tumors. Analysis of FBP1 expression by immunhistochemistry in normal and tumor tissue samples revealed frequent and significant overexpression of FBP1 in Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC). To study the functional relevance of FBP1 activity for this tumor type, apoptosis and proliferation of the HCC cell line Hep3B were studied in dependence of FBP1 expression. Downregulation of FBP1 by lentiviral expression of FBP1-specific short hairpin RNA (shRNA) reduced proliferation and increased sensitivity to apoptosis. Subcutaneous injection of FBP1-deficient Hep3B cells into immunodeficient NOD/SCID mice demonstrated that tumor growth was strongly decreased in comparison to control cells. mRNA expression studies by quantitative real time PCR showed reduced mRNA levels of the pro-apoptotic genes Bik, Noxa, TRAIL and TNF-􀀁 in the absence of FBP1. In addition, the cell cycle inhibitors p21 and p15 were repressed by FBP1 while Cyclin D2 expression was decreased in the absence of FBP1. Surprisingly, expression of c-myc was not altered by FBP1 downregulation, indicating a different mechanism of c-myc regulation in HCC cells. These results demonstrate that overexpression of FBP1 inhibits apoptosis and stimulates proliferation in HCC cells by regulating the transcription of relevant target genes. Therefore, FBP1 might represent a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of HCC. For analysis of the physiological function of FBP1, a gene trap mouse model was established. In these mice, the gene trap vector pT1􀀂geo is inserted in intron 19 of the FBP1 locus, leading to the expression of a fusion protein consisting of a truncated FBP1 (lacking the last 62 amino acids), 􀀁-Galactosidase and Neomycin Phosphotransferase. Luciferase reporter assays demonstrated that the fusion protein was not capable of activating the c-myc promoter and even showed a dominant negative effect. Thus, this gene trap mouse serves as a functional FBP1 knockout model. Phenotyping of the FBP1 gene trap mice showed that homozygous mutation of FBP1 resulted in embryonic lethality at late stages of embryonic development (E15.5-E16.5). Heterozygous mice were viable, but born at lower frequencies, indicating a gene dosage- or a dominant negative effect of the FBP1 fusion protein. The cellular effects of FBP1 inactivation were tested in mouse embryonic fibroblasts isolated from FBP1 gene trap mice. While proliferation was reduced in the absence of wildtype FBP1, apoptosis was not affected. Expression analysis showed that in homozygous MEFs p15 and p21 transcripts were upregulated, while decreased cmyc mRNA levels were measured. Closer inspection of homozygous gene trap embryos revealed an anemic phenotype that appeared most pronounced around embryonic day 15.5. Analysis of fetal livers, the main site of hematopoiesis at this stage of development, showed a strongly reduced total cell number in homozygous embryos. Evaluation of the different hematopoietic cell lineages did not reveal significant changes in particular differentiated cell types. Instead, all cell lineages seemed to be affected equally by FBP1 inactivation. In contrast, analysis of hematopoietic progenitor cell populations showed an increased percentage of multipotent progenitor cells (MPPs) and a strongly reduced number of long-term hematopoietic stem cells (LT-HSCs). Functional analysis of MPPs by in vitro colony formation assays demonstrated that the FBP1-mutant cells possess a normal colony formation potential while their expansion capacity was reduced. Competitive transplantation of lineage negative fetal liver cells into irradiated recipient mice resulted in reduced engraftment of liverderived progenitor cells from homozygous FBP1 gene trap mice. However, stable engraftment was observed over a period of 12 weeks, demonstrating that the FBP1-deficient LT-HSCs are in principle capable of long-term repopulation. These results demonstrate that FBP1 exerts an essential function during definitive hematopoiesis. It can be speculated that FBP1 influences proliferation, apoptosis and possibly also stem cell self-renewal through the regulation of specific target genes within the hematopoietic progenitor cells. Alternatively, extrinsic effects caused by the absence of FBP1 activity could impair the function of the progenitor cells.
Der Produktion von Interleukin-8 (IL-8), Hämoxygenase-1 (HO-1), und dem vaskulären endothelialen Wachstumsfaktor (VEGF) wird zunehmend größere Bedeutung im Rahmen der Regulation der Immunantwort bei Entzündung, Infektion und Tumorwachstum zugemessen. Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Untersuchung der Regulation dieser Botenstoffe in vitro durch Verwendung der humanen Dickdarmkarzinomzellinie DLD-1. Die Substanz Pyrrolidinedithiocarbamate (PDTC) verstärkt nicht nur die durch Tumornekrosefaktor-a (TNF-a) vermittelte Ausschüttung von IL-8, sondern induziert auch als alleiniger Stimulus die IL-8-Sekretion. Mutationsanalysen des IL-8-Promotors und "Electrophoretic Mobility Shift" Untersuchungen (EMSA) zeigten, daß die Aktivierung des Transkriptionsfaktors AP-1 (Aktivator Protein-1) und die Bindungsaktivität von konstitutiv aktiviertem NF-KB in DLD-1 Zellen für die PDTC induzierte IL-8 Expression zwingend erforderlich waren. Weiterhin war PDTC in der Lage in DLD-1 Zellen neben IL-8 auch die Expression von HO-1 und VEGF zu verstärken. Die Induktion von IL-8 durch PDTC war nicht nur auf DLD-1 Zellen beschränkt, sondern wurde auch in Caco-2 Zellen (ebenfalls Dickdarmkrebszellen) und in humanen mononukleären Blutzellen beobachtet. Die Verwendung von PDTC wird seit kurzem als Kombinationspräparat für Zytostatia zur Behandlung von verschiedenen bösartigen Tumoren, unter ihnen auch Darmkrebs, vorgeschlagen. Aus unseren Versuchen läßt sich ableiten, daß die Induktion von IL-8, HO-1 und VEGF die therapeutische Anwendung dieser Substanz nachteilig beeinflussen könnte. Dies ergibt sich daraus, daß alle drei genannten Faktoren durch proangiogene Wirkungen das Tumorwachstum fördern. Die Expression der induzierbaren Stickoxidsynthase und die Produktion von Stickoxid (NO) korreliert mit der Angiogenese bei verschiedenen Krebserkrankungen darunter Melanome, Tumore im Hals- und Kopfbereich und Darmkrebs. Da tumorbegünstigende Funktionen von NO mit vermehrter Angiogenese in Verbindung gebracht werden, wurden die Effekte von NO hinsichtlich der Produktion von ausgesuchten Chemokinen, die an der Steuerung des Tumorwachstums beteiligt sind, untersucht. Zu diesen Chemokinen gehören das proangiogene IL-8 sowie das tumorsuppressiv durch Interferon induzierbare Protein-10 (IP-10) und das Monokin induziert durch Interferon-y (MIG). Diese Chemokine werden, nach Stimulation mit IL- 1ß und lnterferon-? (IFN-?) von DLD-1 Zellen, ausgeschüttet. Unter diesen Bedingungen wird die IL-8 Freisetzung alleine durch IL-1ß vermittelt, aber nicht durch INFy. Im Gegensatz zu IL-8 hängt die Sekretion von IP-10 und MIG von der Aktivierung durch IFNy ab. Die Effekte von NO wurden analysiert indem DLD-1 Zellen mit dem NO-Donor DETA-NO inkubiert wurden. DETA-NO besitzt eine Halbwertzeit von 16,5h und simuliert damit die Effekte der endogenen NO-Synthase. Synthese und Freisetzung von IL-8 wurden durch die Behandlung mit NO stark gesteigert. Außerdem wurde in Zellen die dem NO-Donor ausgesetzt wurden die basale Sekretion des VEGF signifikant verstärkt. Dies steht im Gegensatz zur IL-Iß/IFNy-induzierten Produktion von IP-10 und MIG, beide wurden durch Koinkubation mit NO unterdrückt. Ebenso wurde die Regulation der IFNy abhängigen induzierbaren Stickoxidsynthase in DLD-1 Zellen von NO unterdrückt. Die vorliegenden Daten ergänzen vorherige Studien, in denen NO mit Tumorangiogenese und verstärkten Tumorwachstum in Verbindung gebracht wird. Die NO vermittelte Induktion von IL-8 und VEGF, ebenso wie die Verminderung der IP-10 and MIG Expression, könnte zu diesem Phänomen beitragen. Unsere Studien stützen die Hypothese, daß spezifische lnhibitoren der iNOS therapeutischen Nutzen bei humanen Neoplasien haben könnten.
In the first part of this study, we have identified the two steroid hormones progesterone and norgestimate as novel TRPC channel blockers. Both substances blocked TRPC-mediated Ca2+ influx with micromolar activities in fluorometric measurements. TRPC channel inhibition did not seem to be a general steroid effect since another progestin, the norgestimate metabolite levonorgestrel, was not effective. Norgestimate was 4- to 5-fold more active on the TRPC3/6/7 subfamily compared to TRPC4/5, whereas progesterone was similarly potent. This selectivity of norgestimate was confirmed by patch clamp recordings. As norgestimate blocked channels directly gated by DAG with a fast kinetic, we assume the compound acts on the channel protein itself. This view was further substantiated by the lack of effects on IP3R-mediated Ca2+ release from the endoplasmic reticulum, which is activated in parallel with TRPCs by Gq/11-coupled receptor stimulation. Norgestimate did not only block ectopically expressed TRPC channels but also native, TRPC-mediated currents in rat aortic smooth muscle cells with similar activity. The usefulness of norgestimate as a tool compound for the investigation of physiological TRPC functions was tested in isolated vessel rings. Consistent with TRPC6 being an essential component of the alpha-1-adrenoceptor-activated cation channel, we demonstrated a direct vasorelaxant, endothelium-independent effect of norgestimate on rat aortic rings precontracted with phenylephrine. Thus, our results provide further experimental support for a role of TRPC6 in alpha-1-adrenergic vessel constriction. In the second part of this study, we screened a human aorta cDNA-library for novel TRPC4-interacting proteins with a modified yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) system in which the TRPC4-C-terminus was expressed as tetrameric bait protein, thereby mimicking the native channel conformation. Of the eleven interacting proteins found SESTD1 was chosen for further analyses since it contains a phospholipid-binding Sec14p-like domain and thus could be involved in regulation of TRPC channels by phospholipids. After the biochemical validation of the found interaction, the first spectrin domain of SESTD1 was then identified to interact with the CIRB domain of TRPC4 in directed Y2H tests. SESTD1 also co-immunoprecipitated with the closely related TRPC5 protein in which the SESTD1-binding domain is highly conserved. Independent of the CIRB site, co-immunoprecipitation with TRPC6 and the distantly related TRPM8 channel was observed indicating the existence of other sites in these channel proteins that mediate interaction with SESTD1. Analysis of SESTD1 gene expression in human tissues showed that its transcripts are ubiquitously expressed and tissues with significant coexpression with TRPC4 and -5 were identified. We have generated two polyclonal antisera directed against SESTD1 that consistently detected SESTD1 protein in brain, aorta, heart, and in smooth muscle and endothelial cells. The functional consequences of the found interaction were investigated by examination of the TRPC5-mediated Ca2+ influx in a clonal HM1 cell line stably expressing the channel. Since SESTD1 overexpression had no detectable effects on TRPC5-mediated Ca2+ influx, most likely due to expression of endogenous SESTD1, we knocked-down the native protein with specific siRNA. This procedure reduced TRPC5-mediated Ca2+ influx following receptor stimulation by 50%. Parallel biotinylation experiments did not reveal any differences in cell surface expressed TRPC5-protein, suggesting that reduction of TRPC5 activity resulted from a loss of a direct SESTD1 effect on the channel. In addition, in immunofluorescence experiments we observed that reduced SESTD1 protein levels resulted in a redistribution of the multifunctional protein ß-catenin from the plasma membrane to the cytosol. This result may point to an involvement of SESTD1 in formation and maintenance of adherens junctions. SESTD1 contains a phospholipid-binding Sec14p-like domain and we were the first to demonstrate its Ca2+-dependent binding to phosphatidic acid and all physiological phosphatidylinositol mono- and bisphosphates in vitro. The physiological function of this binding activity is not known at present, but it could play a role in regulation of associated TRPC channels. TRPC4 and -5 channels are activated by phospholipid hydrolysis and also bind phospholipids directly. The identification of SESTD1 as novel TRPC-interacting protein could thus be an important step forward in the investigation and better comprehension of the complex molecular mechanisms of TRP channel regulation by lipids.
5-LO is the key enzyme in the biosynthesis of proinflammatory leukotrienes. It catalyses the conversion of arachidonic acid to the hydroperoxy intermediate 5(S)-hydroperoxy-6- trans-8,11,14-cis-eicosatetraenoic acid (5-HpETE). In a second step 5-LO catalyses a dehydration reaction forming the unstable epoxide intermediate 5(S)-trans-5,6-oxido-7,9- trans-11,14-cis-eicosatetraenoic acid (leukotriene A4 , LTA4). The 5-LO gene is subjected to versatile regulation mechanisms. Apart from regulation by DNA-methylation and histone acetylation / deacetylation 5-LO gene expression can be regulated by the differentiation inducers calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3) and transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) 5-LO gene expression. In the myeloid cell lines Mono Mac 6 (MM6) and HL-60, differentiation with both agents caused a prominent upregulation of 5-LO mRNA level, of 5-LO protein expression and of 5-LO activity. Treatment with calcitriol alone already has an impact on 5-LO gene expression which is additionally potentiated by TGFβ treatment. Previous nuclear run-off analysis and reporter gene analysis could not associate the 5-LO promoter with the induction of 5-LO mRNA expression mediated by calcitriol and TGFβ. Inclusion of the 5-LO coding sequence (cds) and inclusion of the 5-LO cds plus the last four introns of the gene (J to M) in the 5-LO promoter construct pN10 led to an enhanced reporter gene activity. The inductions were dependent on vitamin D receptor (VDR) and retinoid x receptor (RXR) cotransfection. Therefore the work was concentrated on identifying elements outside the 5-LO promoter region which contribute to the calcitriol / TGFβ effect on 5-LO mRNA expression. Insertion of the LTA4 hydrolase coding sequence – a coding sequence of similar size - instead of the 5-LO cds led to a loss of the calcitriol / TGFβ effect (pN10LTA4Hcds 1-fold induction). Therewith, it was proven that the presence of the 5-LO cds is crucial for the upregulating effect of calcitriol / TGFβ on 5-LO mRNA level. Cloning of the SV40 promoter instead of pN10 upstream of the 5-LO cds still showed inducibility by treatment with the inducers which argues for a promoter unspecific effect. Insertion of the 5-LO cds in a promoterless basic vector (pGL3cds) displayed same inductions by calcitriol / TGFβ treatment as the 5-LO promoter 5-LO cds construct (pN10cds). Thus, the effect of the inducers is not dependent on the 5-LO promoter under the in vitro conditions of the reporter gene assay. Hence, further cloning was done with promoterless constructs. Through 5-LO cds deletion constructs a positive regulating region in exon 10 to 14 was discovered. To adapt the natural gene context the last four introns (J-M) of the 5-LO gene were inserted in a promoterless construct containing exon 10 to 14 (pGL3cdsΔABInJM). 5end deletion constructs of it revealed putative vitamin D responsive elements (VDREs) in exon 12 and intron M. Mutation of the putative VDREs led to a reduced calcitriol effect –more prominent when the putative VDRE in intron M was mutated (reduction of 40%). Moreover another putative VDRE in exon 10 with an adjacent SMAD binding element (SBE) was detected. SMAD proteins are effector proteins of TGFβ signalling. Gelshift experiments demonstrated in vitro binding of the VDR-RXR heterodimer to those three putative VDREs. By chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay in vivo binding of VDR and RXR was shown to the VDRE in the region of exon 10, exon 12 and intron M. 8h and 24h incubation with calcitriol / TGFβ resulted in enhanced expression of VDR in each of the examined regions. The VDR is able to bind to the VDRE without its ligand, whereas this goes along with corepressor recruitment and thus the VDR has a repressive effect on transcription. Histone H4 acetylation was increased when MM6 cells were treated for 8h or 24h with calcitriol or the combination of calcitriol / TGFβ. This finding implies that at that point of time corepressors associated with the VDR are replaced by coactivators. It seems convincing that 5-LO transcription is mainly promoted by calcitriol alone which leads to a more accessible chromatin structure. Previous data indicated that calcitriol and TGFβ upregulate 5-LO RNA maturation and 5- LO transcript elongation. Thus several elongation markers were investigated by ChIP analysis: Histone H3 lysine 36 (H3K36) trimethylation and H4K20 monomethylation were detected in the analysed regions in exon 10, exon 12 and intron M. In region exon 10 the H3K36 trimethylation status was enhanced after 24h calcitriol or calcitriol / TGFβ treatment. An increased H4K20 monomethylation status in all regions was observed when MM6 cells were treated for 24h with calcitriol / TGFβ. 24h treatment with both agents also enhanced the recruitment of the elongation form of RNA polymerase II, which is phosphorylated at serine 2 of the carboxyterminal domain, to the investigated regions. These findings prove the positive regulating role for calcitriol and TGFβ on 5-LO transcript elongation. A putative mechanism of the effect of calcitriol and TGFβ on 5-LO RNA maturation might be the elevated phosphorylation of serine 2 of the RNA Polymerase II which is known to be followed by recruiting polyadenylating factors.
5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) is the key enzyme in the formation of inflammatory leukotrienes, which are mediators of inflammation and allergy. The 5-LO catalyses the oxidation of arachidonic acid to 5-HPETE and subsequently to LTA4. The leukotrienes are involved in the development and maintenance of inflammatory diseases, like asthma and allergic rhinitis. Additionally, 5-LO is overexpressed in some cancer types, although its relevance is still not fully understood. 5-LO expressing cells are B- lymphocytes and cells of myeloid origin like monocytes, macrophages and granulocytes. The 5-LO promoter lacks a TATA or CCAT box and covers two CpG islands. These are characteristics of a housekeeping gene, but as the 5-LO is not expressed ubiquitiously, the expression of the 5-LO is tightly regulated. Epigenetic mechanisms were known to be involved in the control of the 5-LO expression. The HDAC inhibitor TsA significantly induced the transcriptional activity of the 5-LO promoter in reporter gene assays as well as on 5-LO mRNA transcript level in MM6 cells. The GC-boxes GC4 and GC5 in the proximal 5-LO promoter were identified to be essential for the TsA effect, as deletion of these element led to an attenuated TsA effect in reporter gene assay. Recruitment of the transcription factors Sp1 and Sp3 and the RNA polymerase II to the 5-LO promoter was detectable after TsA treatment in MM6 cells by chromatin immunoprecipitation assays (ChIP), while the acetylation status of histone H4 remained unchanged. Likewise it is known that DNA methylation leads to silencing of 5-LO expression in-vitro and in-vivo. The 5-LO promoter is densely methylated in the cell line U937, but unmethylated in HL-60 cells and - elucidated in this study - also in MM6 cells. Reporter gene assays with in-vitro methylated 5-LO promoter containing plasmids revealed that the frequency of methylated CpGs is directly proportional to reduction of 5-LO promoter activity. Incubation of U937 cells with 5-AdC, an inhibitor of DNA methyltransferases, was able to reactivate 5-LO transcription and to demethylate CpG dinucleotides. In the first part of this study the mechanism of TsA induced promoter activation was further investigated. I elucidated the mechanism of Sp1 and Sp3 recruitment to the 5-LO promoter after TsA treatment. Immnoprecipitation assay was used to detect a transcription factor complex containing Sp1 or Sp3 interacting with HDAC proteins, which might change its composition after TsA treatment. Besides the posttranslational modifications of the transcription factors Sp1 and Sp3 after TsA treatment were investigated, potentially causing an increased interaction of the proteins with the 5-LO promoter. Both aspects and their response in HDAC inhibition have been described. TsA did not affect the composition of the Sp1/HDAC1/HDAC2 complex. Sp3 was not located in a complex with the HDAC enzymes. Acetylation of Sp1 and Sp3 was detectable, but no change occurred after TsA treatment. Since neither release of the transcription factors off a complex, nor alterations in posttranslational modifications of Sp1 and Sp3 are the reason for the increased Sp1 and Sp3 binding to the 5-LO promoter, I elucidated alterations in the chromatin structure. The acetylation status of the histone proteins H3 and H4, as well as the chromatin marks H3K4me3, representing active chromatin, and H3K9me, representative for repressive state, were investigated. Additionally, the time course of the TsA effect was determined on 5-LO mRNA level using real-time PCR. The acetylation status of the histone proteins on the 5-LO core promoter correlated with the basal 5-LO mRNA transcript expression in MM6, HL-60 and U937 cells. The highest 5-LO mRNA level was detectable in MM6 cells, followed by HL-60 cells. The lowest 5-LO mRNA level was detected in 5-LO promoter methylated U937 cells. The order of the basal 5-LO mRNA expression of the three cell lines correlates with the basal acetylation status of histone proteins H3 and H4. In MM6 cells the highest basal levels in acH3 and acH4 were detected, followed by HL-60 and U937 cells. Moreover, the data obtained in U937 cells revealed that the correlation between DNA methylation and histone hypoacetylation is alike on the 5-LO promoter. TsA treatment induced the 5-LO mRNA level in the three cell lines with different intensity: 5-LO mRNA level in MM6 cells was induced 11-fold, in HL-60 cells 6- fold and in U937 cells 4- fold. The histone acetylation and methylation levels on the 5-LO promoter after TsA incubation were investigated. No increase in acH3 and acH4, but in H3K4me3 was detectable in MM6 cells by ChIP assay. HL-60 cells showed an increase in acH3 and acH4 as well as in H3K4me3. H3K9me was only detectable in untreated U937 cells, but disappeared after TsA treatment, while acH3, acH4 and H3K4me3 increased constantly after TsA treatme nt. A strong correlation between the histone modifications and the time course of the mRNA expression was detectable in all three cell lines. The combination of the posttranslational modifications acH3, acH4 and H3K4me3 led to a fast effect in transcriptional activation and the maxima of acH3 and acH4 were usually associated with the maximum in 5-LO mRNA transcript level. An increase in H3K4me3 alone, as detected in MM6 cells, led to continuous increase in the 5-LO mRNA expression with a late maximum. Additionally, we detected a slight overall decrease in 5-LO promoter methylation in U937 cells after TsA treatment. This fact taken together with the observed histone modifications could explain the 4- fold response in 5-LO mRNA level to TsA treatment of the methylated cell line U937. Another aim of the present study was to identify the specific HDAC enzymes involved in the 5-LO promoter regulation. Reporter gene assays and real-time PCR with selective HDAC inhibitors revealed that HDACs of class I are involved in 5-LO promoter regulation, namely HDAC 1, 2 and 3. The influence of each of the enzymes seemed to depend on the cell type, as inhibition of HDACs 2, 3 strongly induced 5-LO promoter activity in reporter gene assay in HeLa cells, whereas in MM6 cells HDACs 1 and 2, 3 seemed to be responsible for the 5-LO promoter regulation, measured as 5-LO mRNA level. The HDACs of class IIa and class III are not involved in the regulation of 5-LO mRNA expression. The second part of this study investigated the influence of MBD proteins on the methylated 5-LO promoter and the 5-LO mRNA expression. ChIP assays revealed MBD1, 2 and MeCP2 protein binding to the proximal 5-LO promoter in U937 cells. MBD1 was detectable on the 5-LO promoter in unmethylated HL-60 cells, while no MBD protein was located on the 5-LO promoter in MM6 cells. To elucidate the functional role of the MBD proteins, stable knocked down of MBD proteins was established in U937 cells. 5-LO mRNA transcript level was determined in the knock down clones by real-time PCR. The 5-LO transcript level was increased in all knock down samples. MBD2 knock down clones showed the highest effect in activating 5-LO with a 3- and 4.4-fold increase in the 5-LO mRNA level, followed by MBD1 (3.5- fold) and MeCP2 (2.5-fold) knock down clones. A combined participation of these three enzymes in the corepression of the methylated 5-LO promoter is indicated. Taken together, the data reveal that epigenetic mechanisms are strongly involved in the regulation of 5-LO transcription and might function as a crucial control mechanism of 5-LO expression.
Der L-Carnitin/gamma-Butyrobetain Antiporter CaiT ist ein Mitglied der Betain/Carnitin/Cholin Transporter (BCCT) Familie. Sekundärtransporter der BCCT Familie transportieren Substrate, die eine positiv-geladene quartäre Ammoniumgruppe besitzen. CaiT besteht aus 504 Amiosäuren und besitzt ein moleculares Gewicht von etwa 56 kDa. In Enterobakterien wie Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis und Salmonella typhimurium wird die Expression des caiTABCDE Operons unter anaeroben Bedingungen induziert. Unter diesen Bedinungen ist CaiT der Haupttransporter des Betain-Derivates L-Carnitin. In Enterobakterien wird L-Carnitin unter anaeroben Bedingungen aufgenommen und dehydratisiert wobei Crotonobetain ensteht. Crotonobetain wird anschließend zum Endprodukt gamma-Butyrobetain reduziert. Gamma-Butyrobetain ist das Gegensubstrat, das aus der Zelle hinaustransportiert wird, wenn L-Carnitin in die Zelle aufgenommen wird. Der Austauschmechanismus von LCarnitin gegen gamma-Butyrobetain geschieht ohne das Vorhandensein eines elektrochemischen Gradients, d.h. CaiT ist sowohl H+- als auch Na+-unabhängig. Ein Ziel dieser Arbeit war es die drei-dimensionale (3D) Struktur von CaiT mittels Röntgenstrukturanalyse zu lösen. Weiterhin sollten mit Hilfe der 3D-Struktur und funktionellen Studien detailiertere Erkenntnisse über den kationenunabhängigen Antiportmechanismus von CaiT ermittelt werden. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden die 3D-Röntgenkristallstrukturen von drei CaiT-Homologen der Enterobakterien P. mirabilis (PmCaiT), E. coli (EcCaiT) und S. typhimurium (StCaiT) mittels molekularem Ersatz (engl.: molecular replacement, MR) mit einem Alanin-Model des CaiT verwandten Na+/Glycinbetain Symporters BetP gelöst. PmCaiT konnte mit einer Auflösung von 2.3 Å gelöst werden. Das Protein kristallisierte in der Kristallraumgruppe H3, mit drei Molekülen in der asymmetrischen Einheit (engl.: asymmetric unit, AU). Die drei PmCaiT-Moleküle ordneten sich innerhalb der AU um eine kristallographische dreifach Symmetrieachse an. EcCaiT wurde mittels MR mit einem Alanin-Model von PmCaiT bei einer Auflösung von 3.5 Å gelöst. EcCaiT kristallisierte in der Kristallraumgruppe P32, ebenfalls mit drei Molekülen in der AU, jedoch ohne kristallographische Symmetry. Während der Verfeinerung des EcCaiT-Models wurde eine strenge dreifache nichtkristallographische Symmetry (engl.: non-crystallographic symmetry, NCS) angewandt. StCaiT, das ebenfalls mittels MR mit einem Alanin-Model von PmCaiT, aber bei einer Auflösung von 4.0 Å gelöst wurde, kristallisierte in der Kristallraumgruppe P65, ebenfalls mit drei StCaiT-Molekülen in der AU, ohne kristallographische Symmetry. Bei der Verfeinerung des StCaiT-Modells wurde wie bei EcCaiT eine strenge NCS angewandt. Da die Auflösung von 4.0 Å bei StCaiT zu niedrig ist um detailierte moleculare Erkenntnisse zu gewinnen, wurden Protein- sowie Substratinteraktionen nur an den Strukturen von PmCaiT und EcCaiT analysiert. Alle drei CaiT-Homologe weisen jedoch einen ähnlichen strukturellen Aufbau auf. In der Röntgenkristallstruktur bildet CaiT ein symmetrisches Trimer, das über ionische und polare Wechselwirkungen zwischen den Protomeren stabilisiert wird. Der trimere Oligomerisierungszustand von CaiT in Detergenzlösung sowie in zweidimensionalen Lipidmembrankristallen wurde bereits in früheren Arbeiten gezeigt. Jedes der drei CaiT-Protomere besteht aus zwölf Transmembranhelices (TMH), die N- und C-terminalen Domänen des Proteins befinden sich auf der cytoplasmatischen Seite. Zehn der TMH bilden zwei invertierte Wiederholungseinheiten aus jeweils fünf TMH. Die erste Einheit besteht aus den TMH 3 – 7, die invertierte zweite Einheit besteht aus den TMH 8 – 12. Beide Wiederholungseinheiten sind strukturell nahezu identisch und lassen sich fast vollständig übereinanderlegen, jedoch weisen die Aminosäuren der beiden Einheiten keine signifikante Sequenzidentität auf. Die ersten beiden Helices der Wiederholungseinheiten, die TMH 3 – 4 und die TMH 8 – 9, bilden ein antiparalleles vier-Helix-Bündel, in dem in CaiT zwei Substratbindestellen lokalisiert sind. Eine derartige Transporterarchitektur wurde erstmals in der Struktur des Na+/Alanin Symporters LeuTAa des thermophilen Bakteriums Aquifex aeolicus gezeigt. Bislang wurden, inklusive CaiT, sieben Sekundärtransporterstrukturen gelöst, die diese LeuT-Transporterarchitektur aufweisen. Ungewöhnlich dabei ist, dass diese sieben Sekundärtransporter fünf verschiedenen Transporterfamilien angehören und eine Verwandschaft auf Basis der Aminosäuren nicht zu finden ist. Da jedoch die tertiäre Struktur dieser Tansporter konserviert ist, kann davon ausgegangen werden, dass sie alle von einem Urprotein entstanden sind, welches zunächst aus fünf TMH bestanden haben muss. Im Laufe der Evolution hat sich das Urgen des Urproteins zunächst dupliziert und die weitere Evolution hat zwar die Aminosäuresequenz verändert und den Umweltbedingungen angepasst, jedoch ist die tertiäre Struktur erhalten geblieben. Da sich die tertiäre Struktur der sieben Sekundärtransporter so stark ähnelt, ist zu vermuten, dass auch der Transportmechanismus ähnlich, jedoch nicht identisch ist. Nach dem strukturellen Aufbau der Transporter, der Lage der Substratbindestellen in den jeweiligen Transportern und der Tatsache, dass es sich bei diesen Proteinen um Membranproteine handelt, wurde ein Transportmechanismus aufgestellt, in dem die Bindestelle des zu transportierende Substrats alternierend zu beiden Seiten der Membran zugänglich ist, ohne jedoch jemals den Substratweg innerhalb des Proteins vollständig zu öffnen. Dieser Mechanismus wurde als “alternating access mechanism” beschrieben. Anhand der unterschiedlichen Zustände, in denen einige der Transporter kristallisierten, kann abgeleitet werden, welche Konformationsänderungen erforderlich sind um das Substrat von einer Seiter der Membran auf die andere zu transportieren. Bisher kristallisierten einzelne der sechs Transporter in der nach außen gerichteten offenen Form, der nach außen gerichteten Form, in der die Substratbindestelle jedoch nicht mehr zugänglich ist, in einer Form, die keine Öffnungspräferenz der Substratbindestelle zu einer Seite der Membran hat und in der nach innen gerichteten Form, in der die Substratbindestelle jedoch nicht geöffnet ist. CaiT kristallisierte in der noch fehlenden Konformation, der nach innen gerichteten Form, in der die Substratbindestelle zugänglich ist. Mit dieser noch fehlenend Konformation kann der Transportzyklus des “alternating access mechanism” vollständig beschrieben werden. Alle drei CaiT-Homologe kristallisierten in der nach innen gerichteten, offenen Konformation. Im Gegensatz zur EcCaiT-Struktur kristallisierte PmCaiT in der substratungebundenen Form. In der StCaiT-Struktur konnte aufgrund der niedrigen Auflösung kein Substrat nachgewiesen werden. In der EcCaiT-Struktur sind zwei gamma-Butyrobetain-Moleküle gebunden. Das erste Molekül wurde in der zentralen Substratbindestelle, der sogenannten Tryptophan-Box bestehend aus vier Tryptophanen, im Zentrum des Protein lokalisiert. Das zweite gamma-Butyrobetain-Molekül wurde in einer Vertiefung an der extrazellulären Proteinoberfläche gefunden. Beide Substrate werden hauptsächlich über Kation-Pi-Interaktionen zwischen der positiv geladenen quatären Ammoniumgruppe des Substrats und des Pi-Elektronensystems der Tryptophane in den jeweiligen Bindestellen gebunden. Eine besondere Eigenschaft von CaiT ist der H+- bzw. Na+-unabhängige Substrattransport. Die CaiT-Struktur erklärt warum kein zusätzliches Kation benötigt wird um Substrat zu binden oder zu transportieren. In der EcCaiT-Struktur ist eine wichtige polare nicht-bindende Interaktion zwischen der Carboxylgruppe des gamma-Butyrobetains und dem Schwefelatom eines Methionins in der zentrale Bindestelle zu erkennen. Dieses Methionin ist konserviert in den prokaryotischen CaiTs und in den Na+-unabhängigen eukaryotischen L-Carnitin Transportern (OCTN), jedoch ist es nicht konserviert im Na+-abhängigen verwandten Glycinbetain Transporter BetP. In BetP ist diese Position des Methionins durch ein Valin ersetzt. Die Mutation des Methionins in CaiT zu Valin ermöglicht zwar immernoch die H+- bzw. Na+-unabhängige Bindung des Substrates durch die Tryptophan-Box, jedoch ist der Substrattransport nahezu vollständig zerstört. Eine derart wichtige Substratkoordinierende Funktion des Schwefelatoms eines Methionins wurde bisher nicht beschrieben. Eine weitere Stelle, die in H+- bzw. Na+-abhängigen Transporter mit H+ bzw. Na+ besetzt ist, ist in CaiT von einem positiv geladenen Arginin eingenommen. Eine positive Ladung an dieser Stelle stabilisiert den Bereich im Protein in der Nähe der zentralen Substratbindestelle. Die Mutation des Arginins zu Glutamat in CaiT erzielt eine vollständige Inaktivierung des Substrattansports. Durch Zugabe von Na+ im Transportansatz kann die Substrattransportaktivität der Glutamat-Mutante jedoch teilweise zurückerlangt werden. Diese eben beschriebenen Aminosäurereste in den beiden Stellen des Proteins erklären die Kationenunabhängigkeit von CaiT. Die Aktivierung des Antiportmechanismus in CaiT wurde mit Hilfe von Bindungsstudien an rekonstituiertem Protein ermittelt. Diese Messungen ergaben für das Wildtypprotein ein sigmoidales Substratbindungsverhalten, was auf ein positiv-kooperatives Bindungsverhalten hindeutet. Die beiden Substratbindestellen im Protein sowie die beiden unterschiedlichen Substrate, L-Carnitin und gamma-Butyrobetain, lassen auf einen heterotropen positiv-kooperativen Bindungs- und einen allosterisch regulierten Transportmechanismus schließen. Bei diesem Mechanismus erhöht die Bindung eines Substrats in der regulatorischen Bindestelle durch induzierte Konformationsänderungen die Affinität eines anderen Substrats in einer weiteren Substratbindestelle. Die regulatorische Bindestelle in CaiT befindet sich an der extrazellulären Proteinoberfläche. Eine Schwächung der Substrataffinität in dieser Bindestelle durch Einführung einer Mutation, verstärkt das sigmoidale Substratbindungsverhalten und hat einen negativen Einfluss auf den Substrattransport. Durch die in dieser Arbeit gelösten 3D-Röntgenkristallstrukturen der zwei CaiT-Homologen, PmCaiT und EcCaiT, sowie den durchgeführten funktionellen Studien sowohl an Wildtypprotein wie auch an Mutanten konnte ein L-Carnitin/gamma-Butyrobetain Antiport-Mechanismus für CaiT vorzuschlagen werden.
Leukotrienes (LTs) are pro-inflammatory lipid mediators that belong to the group of eicosanoids, which are oxygenated metabolites of one common precursor, the aracidonic acid (AA). This polyunsaturated fatty acid is esterified at the sn-2 position of cellular membrane phospholipids and can be released by cytosolic phospholipase A2 alpha (cPLA2alpha) enzymatic deacylation. AA can be converted into LTs by the catalytic reaction of 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO). Enzymatic activation of cPLA2alpha as well as of 5-LO is regulated by similar determinants. In response to cellular stimuli that elevate the intracellular Ca2+ level and/or activate MAP kinase pathways, cPLA2alpha and 5-LO comigrate from a soluble cell compartment (mainly the cytosol) to the nuclear membrane, where AA is released und converted into LTs. LTs play a significant role in promoting inflammatory reactions and immune processes. They have been shown to be released from leukocytes in response to bacterial and viral infections and substantially contribute to an effective immune reaction for host defense. Innate immune pathogen recognition is mediated to a substantial part by the Toll-like receptor (TLR) family. So far, 10 human TLR subtypes have been identified, all of which detect distinct highly conserved microbial structures and trigger the induction of signaling pathways that lead to the expression of numerous immune and inflammatory genes. TLR signaling culminates in the activation NF-kappaB and/or MAP kinases, which as well are known to be involved in the regulation of cellular LT biosynthesis. In this regard, it seemed conceivable that the release of LTs might be regulated by TLR activation. Present studies were undertaken in order to verify and characterize a possible influence of TLR activation on the LT biosynthesis, and furthermore to identify the involved signaling pathways and underlying mechanisms. First experiments revealed that pre-incubation of differentiated Mono Mac 6 (MM6) cells with a TLR4 ligand, a TLR5 ligand, as well as with different TLR2 ligands led to an about 2-fold enhancement of Ca2+ ionophore induced LT biosynthesis. Ligands of other TLR subtypes did not show any influence. These observations could also be confirmed in primary human monocytes stimulated with ionophore or fMLP. With focus on TLR2 ligands, further studies were carried out to characterize the observed enhancement of LT biosynthesis in MM6 cells. It was demonstrated that the extent of LT formation was dependent on the ligand concentration used, but was also dependent on the duration of pre-incubation. Ligand pre-incubation of 15 minutes was optimal to maximally enhance LT formation and further prolongation of pre-incubation decreased LT formation again. Moreover, simultaneous addition of TLR2 ligands with ionophore did also not enhance LT formation. These results indicated that TLR2 ligands seemed to prime human monocytes for an enhanced response upon ionophore stimulation, but did not act as costimuli, which per se were not capable of directly stimulating the biosynthesis of LTs. To analyze the underlying mechanism, the impact of TLR2 ligands on the two key enzymes of the LT biosynthesis pathway, cPLA2alpha and 5-LO, was investigated. In this regard, 5-LO could not been shown to be positively regulated by TLR ligand priming. Neither a direct stimulation, nor an enhancement of 5-LO activity by TLR ligands was detectable in MM6 cells. Similarly, TLR2 ligands did also not enhance ionophore induced 5-LO translocation to the nuclear membrane. However, it was shown that TLR2 ligands enhanced ionophore induced release of AA in MM6 cells, which occurred with a similar time course as LT formation, displaying a maximum at 10 minutes of pre-incubation. A direct stimulation of AA release, however, could not been detected. Inhibitor studies revealed cPLA2alpha to be essential for AA release in TLR2 ligand primed, ionophore stimulated MM6 cells, but also sPLA2 was found to be involved. However, the priming effect of TLR2 ligands was mediated exclusively by cPLA2alpha. Western Blot analyses revealed that p38 MAP kinase, as well as ERK1/2, are activated in MM6 cells in response to TLR2 ligands, and also Ser-505 phosphorylation of cPLA2alpha was detected, which is known to be mediated by MAP kinases and to increase cPLA2alpha activity in vitro. Maximal cPLA2alpha phosphorylation occurred after 5-10 minutes of TLR2 ligand incubation, slightly preceding maximal AA release at 10 minutes and maximal LT formation at 15 minutes of priming. The combined use of a specific p38 MAPK inhibitor with an inhibitor of the ERK1/2 signaling pathway resulted in a complete prevention of cPLA2alpha phosphorylation and TLR2 ligand mediated enhancement of AA release. Thus, both MAPK pathways seem to play a role for TLR2 ligand mediated priming effects on the release of AA. An impact of other kinases such as Mnk-1 and CamKII, which can also regulate cPLA2alpha by phosphorylation, was excluded. Finally, an anti-hTLR2 antibody significantly reduced enhanced AA release, confirming the priming effects to be dependent on TLR2 activation. In summary, it was concluded that the increase of LT biosynthesis by TLR2 ligand priming is considerably due to an enhanced cellular AA supply, which arises from a MAPK mediated phosphorylation and up-regulation of cPLA2alpha. TLR dependent enhancement of LT biosynthesis represents an interesting link between activation of innate immune receptors and the rapid formation of pro-inflammatory lipid mediators. On the one hand, this support the role of LTs in host defence and infectious diseases, but may also be relevant in pathophysiological processes, which involve TLRs as well as LTs, as it has been shown for the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis or allergic diseases.
The retinoic acid related orphan receptor alpha (RORalpha) regulates the expression of various target genes by binding to specific response elements in their promoter region. RORalpha is an interesting pharmaceutical target since it positively affects several pathophysiological processes of clinical relevance. RORalpha enhances the expression of Apo-AI protein, the major constituent of HDL, which is responsible for the cholesterol transportation. RORalpha notably contributes to the bone mineralization and generation of the extracellular bone matrix, demonstrating its involvement in osteoporosis, and by up-regulating the gene for IKBalpha, RORalpha has anti-inflammatory effects. Moreover, RORalpha is necessary for cerebellar development and the maintenance of the mammalian day-night periodicity governed by the core-clock within the suprachiasmatic nuclei. RORalpha receptors have been reported to bind cholesterol, melatonin, or to function ligand-independent. By monomeric binding to the recognition motif AGGTCA preceded by an A/T-rich sequence (ROR response element, RORE), RORalpha constitutively activates gene transcription. However, RORalpha activity is passively suppressed by its opponents RevErbalpha and RevErbbeta, which both bind to the same target sequence. ...
Das natürlich vorkommende Polyphenol Resveratrol (3,4‘,5-(E)-Trihydroxystilben) ist eine potente chemopräventive Substanz, die in vielen verschiedenen Krebszelllinien wirksam ist. Außerdem verfügt sie über anti-inflammatorische, anti-oxidative und pro-apoptotische Wirkungen. Da Resveratrol auch in Tiermodellen des Typ-2-Diabetes und der nicht-alkoholischen Fettlebererkrankung gute Effekte gezeigt hat, wird in Erwägung gezogen es zur Prävention und Behandlung von metabolischen Erkrankungen einzusetzen. Allerdings liegen, aufgrund von schneller Metabolisierung und geringer Bioverfügbarkeit, die wirksamen Konzentrationen im mikromolaren Bereich. Eine geeignete Strategie, um die anti-tumorale Wirkung und die Bioverfügbarkeit von Resveratrol zu verbessern, scheint die Methylierung der freien Hydroxylgruppen zu sein. Allerdings liefern einige Studien Hinweise darauf, dass diese strukturelle Modifikation der Stilbengrundstruktur zu einer Veränderung des antiproliferativen Wirkmechanismus der methylierten Substanzen führt. Daher führten wir im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit genauere Untersuchungen durch, um die Veränderungen der biologischen Wirkung, die durch die Methylierung der freien Hydroxylgruppen von (E)- und (Z)-Resveratrol verursacht werden, zu charakterisieren. Einen Schwerpunkt bildete die Bestimmung der metabolischen Effekte der methylierten Substanzen. Dabei sollte aufgeklärt werden, ob die Analoga noch immer in der Lage sind bekannte Resveratrol-Targets, wie AMPK, SIRT1 und Phosphodiesterasen, zu modulieren. Zunächst bestätigten wir, dass die methylierten Resveratrolanaloga ST911 (3,4‘,5-Z)-Trimethoxystilben) und ST912 (3,4‘,5-(E)-Trimethoxystilben) einen starken antiproliferativen Effekt auf verschiedene Krebszelllinien ausüben. Wie bereits zuvor beschrieben, konnten wir beobachten, dass ST911 und ST912 das Wachstum von Tumorzellen stärker beeinflussen, als die hydroxylierten Substanzen (E)- und (Z)-Resveratrol. Dies, in Verbindung mit einer vernachlässigbaren zytotoxischen Wirkung und einer deutlich geringeren antiproliferativen Wirkung auf Primärzellen, legt nahe, dass ST911 als potentielles neues Chemotherapeutikum weiter untersucht werden sollte. Zudem zeigten ST911 und ST912 signifikante pro-apoptotische Wirkungen in CaCo-2-Zellen. Auch Resveratrol konnte in diesen Zellen Apoptose auslösen, allerdings erst nach Behandlung mit deutlich höheren Konzentrationen, verglichen mit ST911 und ST912. Eine genauere Charakterisierung der antitumoralen Wirkung von ST911 in HT-29-Zellen zeigte, dass ST911 die Polymerisation von Tubulin zu Mikrotubuli beeinflusst und einen Arrest des Zellzyklus in der Mitose-Phase auslöst. Im Gegensatz dazu führt Resveratrol zu einem Zellzyklus-Arrest in der S-Phase und beeinflusst die Tubulinpolymerisation nicht. Diese Beobachtungen verstärkten die Annahme, dass ST911 ein Mitosehemmer ist und betonten noch einmal die mechanistischen Unterschiede zwischen Resveratrol und den methylierten Analoga. Interessanterweise konnte ST911 die hepatische Fettakkumulation in einem in-vitro-Steatosemodell nicht beeinflussen, während eine Behandlung mit Resveratrol zu einer signifikanten Reduktion der intrahepatischen Triglyzeride führte. Dieses Experiment lässt vermuten, dass die stärkere antiproliferative Wirkung von ST911, keine erhöhte Aktivität in metabolischen Krankheitsmodellen nach sich zieht. Die beobachteten Unterschiede im Steatosemodell führten zu der Frage, ob die methylierten Analoga noch immer in der Lage sind die gleichen metabolischen Targetgene zu modulieren, die in der Literatur für Resveratrol beschrieben sind. Vor kurzem wurden Phosphodiesterasen (PDEs) als direkte Targets von Resveratrol identifiziert. Die Inhibition von PDEs durch Resveratrol führt zu einem Anstieg der intrazellulären cAMP-Konzentration. Diese wiederum aktiviert die bekannten Resveratrol-Targetgene AMPK und SIRT1. Unsere Experimente zeigten, dass ST911 und ST912 keinen Einfluss auf die intrazelluläre cAMP-Konzentration haben. Zusätzlich konnten wir keine AMPK- oder SIRT1-abhängigen Veränderungen der Genexpression beobachten. Dies ist ein Hinweis darauf, dass die Substanzen ihre zellulären Effekte vermutlich nicht über eine Modulation von PDEs, AMPK oder SIRT1 vermitteln. Zusammenfassend liefert der erste Teil der Arbeit Beweise dafür, dass ST911 keine positiven Effekte in metabolischen Krankheitsmodellen ausübt. Dies liegt vermutlich in einem Aktivitätsverlust gegenüber den metabolischen Targetgenen von Resveratrol begründet. Des Weiteren unterstützen unsere Ergebnisse frühere Arbeiten, die zeigen konnten, dass ST911 an Tubulin bindet und die Polymerisation zu Mikrotubuli verhindert. Weiterhin bestätigen unsere Daten, dass die Methylierung von Resveratrol zu einer grundlegenden Veränderung des Wirkmechanismus dieser Substanzen führt, die von einem kompletten Verlust der metabolischen Aktivität begleitet wird. Dies sollte bei zukünftigen Leitstrukturoptimierungen mit Resveratrol berücksichtigt werden. Im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit konnte außerdem gezeigt werden, dass Resveratrol die Gentranskription des nukleären Rezeptors SHP (aus dem Englischen: small heterodimer partner) stark induziert. Der Mechanismus dieser Induktion scheint von der Aktivität von AMPK und SIRT1 abhängig zu sein. Diese Ergebnisse konnten unser Verständnis der vielseitigen biologischen Wirkungen von Resveratrol erweitern. Dennoch sollte die Relevanz der SHP-Induktion für die Effekte von Resveratrol auf metabolische Krankheiten und Tumorwachstum noch weiter untersucht werden. Während der Experimente für den ersten Teil der Arbeit stellten wir fest, dass der AMPK-Inhibitor Compound C (CC) in der Lage war, die wachstumshemmende Wirkung von ST911 signifikant zu reduzieren. Die Untersuchung dieses sogenannten „Rescue-Effektes“ wird durch die Tatsache bestärkt, dass eine steigende Anzahl von Tumoren resistent gegenüber Chemotherapeutika ist. Außerdem fehlen spezifische Antidota für akute Intoxikationen mit Mitosehemmern. Daher zielten die folgenden Experimente darauf ab den Rescue-Effekt näher zu charakterisieren und die zugrundeliegenden Wirkmechanismen aufzuklären. Zunächst zeigten Knockdown-Experimente, dass der Rescue-Effekt unabhängig von der AMPK-inhibierenden Wirkung von CC vermittelt wird. Da CC ein ATP-kompetitiver Inhibitor der AMPK ist und zuvor bereits gezeigt wurde, dass es auch eine große Zahl anderer Kinasen inhibieren kann, vermuteten wir, dass der Rescue-Effekt mit diesen Off-Target-Effekten von CC zusammenhängt. Als nächstes testeten wir, ob die wachstumshemmenden Effekte von anderen Mitosehemmern auch durch CC aufgehoben werden können. Wir wählten verschiedene etablierte Substanzen, die dafür bekannt sind mit Mikrotubuli zu interagieren: Colchicin, das Vinca-Alkaloid Vinblastin, Disorazol A und das aus Taxus-Arten isolierte Paclitaxel. Die ersten drei dieser Substanzen haben eine depolymerisierende Wirkung auf die Mikrotubuli, während Paclitaxel zu einer stärkeren Polymerisierung führt. Zudem binden diese Substanzen an drei verschiedenen Bindestellen am Tubulin. Interessanterweise zeigten unsere Versuche, dass CC die antiproliferative Wirkung aller getesteten Mitosehemmer auf HT-29-Zellen, unabhängig von der Bindestelle, abschwächen kann. Des Weiteren konnte CC die Wirkung der pro-apoptotischen Substanz Staurosporin nicht reduzieren. Diese Ergebnisse weisen darauf hin, dass eher die tubulinbindenden, als die pro-apoptotischen Eigenschaften, von ST911 für den Rescue-Effekt verantwortlich sind. Um zu untersuchen, ob der Rescue-Effekt mit einer kompetitiven Bindung von CC und Mitosehemmern an Mikrotubuli erklärt werden kann, führten wir eine Immunfluoreszenzfärbung von ?-Tubulin durch. Wir konnten beobachten, dass die Tubulinpolymerisation und die Funktion des Spindelapparates in Zellen, die mit Mitosehemmern behandelt wurden, deutlich eingeschränkt waren. Außerdem stellten wir fest, dass CC nicht in der Lage ist die Zerstörung des Tubulingerüstes durch die Mitosehemmer zu verhindern. Eine Einzelbehandlung mit CC hatte keine Wirkung auf die Polymerisation des Tubulin zu Mikrotubuli. Insgesamt legen diese Daten nahe, dass CC nicht direkt an Mikrotubuli binden kann, um mit den Mitosehemmern um eine Bindung zu kompetitieren. Um diese Hypothese zu stärken, führten wir, in Kooperation mit Dr. Jennifer Herrmann (Helmholtz Institut für Pharmazeutische Forschung, Saarbrücken) SPR-Experimente mit Chips durch, auf denen Tubulin immobilisiert wurde. Die Messungen zeigten, das CC nicht in der Lage war gebundenes Disorazol A von der Bindestelle am Tubulin zu verdrängen. Dies zeigte nun deutlich, dass der Rescue-Effekt nicht auf einer Kompetition von CC und Mitosehemmern um Tubulinbindestellen beruht. Zellzyklusanalysen zeigten, dass die kombinierte Behandlung mit ST911 und CC zu einer Abschwächung des durch ST911 verursachten G2/M-Arrestes führt. Da wir zuvor bereits eine Beeinflussung der direkten Targets von CC und Mitosehemmern, AMPK oder Tubulin, ausgeschlossen hatten, schlussfolgerten wir, dass CC vermutlich mit anderen zellulären Signalwegen interagiert, die zu den beschriebenen Veränderungen des Zellwachstums und der Zellzyklusprogression führen. Eine Literaturrecherche ergab, dass ein erhöhter intrazellulärer Polyaminspiegel, die Aktivierung des PI3K/Akt-Signalweges oder eine erhöhte Aktivität des Transkriptionsfaktors c-Myc zu einer Abschwächung eines G2/M-Arrestes führen können. Daher fokussierten wir die weiteren Experimente auf die Untersuchung einer möglichen Beteiligung dieser Targets an der Vermittlung des Rescue-Effektes. Wir zeigten, dass CC die Expression der Spermidin/Spermin-N1-Acetyltransferase (SSAT) erhöhen kann. Die SSAT ist ein Enzym, das an der Biosynthese der Polyamine beteiligt ist. Zusätzlich beobachteten wir, dass die Behandlung mit CC nach 4 h zu einer Erhöhung von phosphoryliertem und damit aktiviertem Akt (pAkt) führt. Die zusätzliche Behandlung mit Wortmannin, einer Substanz, welche die Phosphorylierung von Akt hemmen kann, führte zu einer Abschwächung des Rescue-Effektes. Insgesamt weisen diese Ergebnisse darauf hin, dass eine Aktivierung von Akt-Signalwegen und ein Einfluss auf die Polyaminbiosynthese, zumindest teilweise, mit dem Rescue-Effekt zusammenhängen können. Die Überexpression von c-Myc, einem Transkriptionsfaktor, der eng mit dem Akt-Signalweg und der Biosynthese von Polyaminen zusammenhängt, ist oft mit einer erhöhten Zellproliferation verbunden. Wir untersuchten die zellulären Proteinmengen von c-Myc mittels Western Blot und entdeckten, dass nach der Behandlung mit Mitosehemmern zusätzliche Banden für c-Myc auf den Blots auftauchten. Diese Ergebnisse geben einen Hinweis auf eine posttranslationale Modifikation von c-Myc nach der Behandlung mit Mitosehemmern. Durch Kombination mit CC wurden die zusätzlichen Banden abgeschwächt und die Gesamtmenge an c-Myc-Protein nahm nach längeren Inkubationszeiten rapide ab. Dies legt nahe, dass die posttranslationale Modifikation von c-Myc zum Abbau des Proteins führt und, dass CC dies abschwächen kann. Verschiedene Arbeiten zeigten bereits, dass c-Myc phosphoryliert wird und nach Konjugation mit Ubiquitin vom Proteasom abgebaut wird. Daher überprüften wir, ob eine Inhibition des Proteasoms mit MG-132 zu einem ähnlichen Rescue-Effekt führt wie mit CC. Tatsächlich führte die Behandlung mit ST911 in Kombination mit MG-132 zu einer Zunahme der Zellproliferation, wie sie vorher bereits für CC beobachtet wurde. Dies bestärkte die Theorie, dass der proteasomale Abbau von c-Myc eine Rolle beim Rescue-Effekt spielen kann. Als nächstes untersuchten wir die Phosphorylierungen von c-Myc am Ser62 und Thr58. Diese Phosphorylierungen spielen eine wichtige Rolle beim Abbau von c-Myc, indem Sie das Protein für die Konjugation mit Ubiquitin markieren. Die densitometrische Auswertung der Western Blots ergab, dass die Behandlung mit ST911 initial zu einem Anstieg von phospho-c-Myc führt, dem eine schnelle Abnahme zu späteren Zeitpunkten folgt. Außerdem konnte gezeigt werden, dass dieser Anstieg von phospho-c-Myc durch Kombination mit CC reduziert wurde. Dies unterstützt die Hypothese, dass ST911 den proteasomalen Abbau von c-Myc begünstigt und CC dies verhindern kann. Dies ist eine mögliche Erklärung für die erhöhte Zellproliferation, die für die durch CC „geretteten“ Zellen beobachtet wurde. Allerdings konnte das direkte Target, das für die Vermittlung des Rescue-Effektes durch CC verantwortlich ist, bisher nicht identifiziert werden. DYRKs (aus dem Englischen: Dual-specificity tyrosine-phosphorylation-regulated kinases) sind wichtige Regulatoren von Proteinstabilität und –abbau während der Zellzyklusprogression. Vor kurzem wurde gezeigt, dass DYRK1A und DYRK2 c-Myc am Ser62 phosphorylieren können und es dadurch für den proteasomalen Abbau markieren. Interessanterweise wurde CC bereits in einer früheren Publikation als potenter Inhibitor verschiedener DYRKs beschrieben. Allerdings wurde die Hemmung der DYRKs durch CC in diesem Artikel nur in einer einzelnen Konzentration getestet. Daher bestimmten wir in einem in-vitro-Kinaseassay in Kooperation mit Dr. Matthias Engel (Universität des Saarlandes, Saarbrücken) die IC50-Werte für CC gegenüber DYRK1A, DYRK1B und DYRK2. Unsere Ergebnisse zeigten deutlich, dass CC ein bevorzugter Inhibitor von DYRK1A und DYRK1B (IC50-Wert von etwa 1 µM) ist, aber auch DYRK2 hemmen kann (IC50-Wert von etwa 5 µM). Da sich die vermutete Bindestelle von CC in der stark konservierten Kinasedomäne befindet, ist eine unspezifische Inhibition verschiedener DYRKs nicht überraschend. Genexpressionsanalysen zeigten, dass HT-29 und HepG2 vergleichbare Mengen an DYRK1A exprimieren, während DYRK1B und DYRK2 deutlich weniger in HepG2 vorhanden sind. Vorige Experimente hatten gezeigt, dass HepG2 weniger sensitiv für ST911 und den durch CC vermittelten Rescue-Effekt waren. Wir schlussfolgerten, dass die unterschiedliche Expression der DYRK-Formen eine mögliche Erklärung für diese Unterschiede sein könnte. Daher entschieden wir uns für eine nähere Untersuchung von DRK1B und DYRK2. Experimente mit verschiedenen Inhibitoren der DYRKs zeigten, dass diese Substanzen, ähnlich wie CC, in der Lage waren die antiproliferative Wirkung von ST911 abzuschwächen. Diese Ergebnisse wurden in nachfolgenden Knockdown-Experimenten bestätigt. Dies legt nahe, dass die DYRKs zumindest teilweise für die Vermittlung des Rescue-Effektes verantwortlich sind. Zusammenfassend man kann sagen, dass der Rescue-Effekt vermutlich mit der Biosynthese von Polyaminen, dem Akt-Signalweg und dem proteasomalen Abbau von c-Myc zusammenhängt. Des Weiteren scheint die direkte Inhibition von DYRKs durch CC ein vielversprechender Ansatz für die Erklärung des Effektes zu sein. Allerdings konnte in keinem der Experimente eine kompletten Aufhebung des Rescue-Effektes durch CC gezeigt werden. Daher gehen wir davon aus, dass verschiedene Targets in die Vermittlung des Rescue-Effektes involviert sind. Dies ist höchstwahrscheinlich auf eine unspezifische, ATP-kompetitive Hemmung verschiedener Kinasen durch CC zurückzuführen. Nichtsdestotrotz, sind eine nähere Untersuchung von DYRKs im Rahmen der Therapieresistenz von Tumoren und eine genauere Aufklärung der am Rescue-Effekt beteiligten Signalwege eine interessantes Feld für weitere Untersuchungen.
The tumor suppressor programmed cell death 4 (Pdcd4) exerts its function by inhibiting protein translation initiation. Specifically, it displaces the scaffold protein eukaryotic initiation factor 4G (eIF4G) from its binding to the eukaryotic initiation factor 4A (eIF4A). Thereby, Pdcd4 inhibits the helicase activity of eIF4A, which is necessary for the unwinding of highly structured 5’ untranslated regions (UTRs) of messenger RNAs (mRNAs) often found in oncogenes like c-myc to make them accessible for the translation machinery and subsequent protein production. Overexpression of Pdcd4 inhibits tumorigenesis in vitro and in vivo and inversely, Pdcd4 knockout mice show enhanced tumor formation. In line, Pdcd4 is lost in various tumor types and proposed as prognostic factor in colon carcinomas. Unlike most other tumor suppressors that are rendered nonfunctional by mutations (e.g., p53), Pdcd4 loss is not attributable to mutational inactivation. It is regulated via translational repression by microRNAs and increased degradation of the protein under tumor promoting, inflammatory conditions and mitogens. Specifically, proteasomal degradation of Pdcd4 is controlled by p70 S6 Kinase (p70S6K)-mediated phosphorylation in its degron sequence (serines 67, 71 and 76). Stimulation of the PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway by growth factors, hormones and cytokines initiates p70S6K activity. Phosphorylated Pdcd4 is subsequently recognized by the E3 ubiquitin ligase beta-transducin repeats-containing protein (β-TrCP) and marked with a polyubiquitin tail to be detected by the 26S proteasome for degradation. β-TrCP represents the substrate specific recognition subunit of the ubiquitin ligase complex responsible for protein-protein interaction with Pdcd4 as substrate for ubiquitin transfer and subsequent proteasomal disassembly.
The first part of the present work aimed at identifying novel stabilizers of the tumor suppressor Pdcd4 in a high throughput screen (HTS). As assay design, a fragment of Pdcd4 from amino acid 39 to 91, containing the phosphorylation sensitive degron sequence, was fused to a luciferase reporter gene construct. Stable expression of this Pdcd4(39-91)luciferase (Pdcd4(39-91)luc) fusion protein in HEK 293 cells served as read-out for the Pdcd4 protein amount to be detected in a high throughput compatible cell-based assay. Loss of Pdcd4(39-91)luc was induced by treatment with 12-O-
tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA), a phorbolester, which activates the PI3K signaling cascade leading to degradation of Pdcd4. The cut-off for hit definition was set at >50% activity in rescuing the Pdcd4(39-91)luc signal from TPA-induced degradation. Activity was calculated relative to the difference of DMSO- and TPA-treated cells (ΔDMSO-TPA = RLUDMSO-RLUTPA). Initial screening of a protein kinase inhibitor library (PKI) revealed hit substances expected to show Pdcd4 stabilizing activity by inhibition of kinases involved in Pdcd4 downregulation, e.g., the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin, the PI3K inhibitors wortmannin and LY294002 and the PKC inhibitors GF 109203X and Ro 31-8220.
The Molecular Targets Laboratory (MTL) of the National Cancer Institute (NCI) in Frederick, USA, hosts one of the largest collections of crude natural product extracts as well as a big substance libraries from pure synthetic sources. Screening of over 15 000 pure compounds and over 135 000 natural product extracts identified 46 pure and 42 extract hits as Pdcd4 stabilizers. For nine synthetic and six natural product derived compounds (after bioassay-guided fractionation), dose-dependent activities for recovering the TPA-induced Pdcd4(39-91)luc loss defined IC50s in the low micromolar range. Most importantly, these compounds were confirmed to stabilize endogenous Pdcd4 protein levels from forced degradation as well. This result proved the assay design to be highly representative for endogenous cellular mechanisms regulating Pdcd4 protein stability. The next step was to stratify the hit substances according to their likely mechanism of action to be located either up- or downstream of the p70S6K-mediated phosphorylation of Pdcd4. Therefore, phosphorylation of S6, as proto-typical p70S6K target, was analyzed and uncovered two natural derived compounds to influence p70S6K activity. Four substances did not affect p70S6K phosphorylation activity and were therefore considered to stabilize Pdcd4 by acting downstream, i.e. on the β-TrCP-mediated proteasomal degradation.
In the second part of this work, one of these compounds, namely the sesquiterpene lactone erioflorin, isolated by bioassay-guided fraction from the active extract of Eriophyllum lanatum, Asteraceae, was further characterized in detail with respect to its molecular mechanism of action. Erioflorin dose-dependently protected both Pdcd4(39-91)luc and endogenous Pdcd4 protein from TPA-induced degradation with IC50s of 1.28 and 2.64 μM, respectively. Pdcd4 stabilizing activity was maximal at 5 μM erioflorin. Up to this concentration, erioflorin was verified not to inhibit p70S6K activity. In addition, it was observed that erioflorin rescued Pdcd4(39-91)luc from both, wild type and constitutively active p70S6K-mediated downregulation. Only wild type p70S6K was inhibitable by the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin which served as an upstream acting control. To study the next section of Pdcd4 regulation, i.e. recognition by the E3 ubiquitin ligase β-TrCP, Pdcd4(39-91)luc and endogenous Pdcd4 were immunoprecipitated from whole cell extracts with the corresponding antibodies. In this key experiment, treatment with TPA increased overexpressed β-TrCP binding to both and this coimmunoprecipitation could be strongly reduced by erioflorin treatment. This result strongly pointed to an inhibitory mechanism of the β-TrCP specific binding to Pdcd4 by erioflorin. In addition, erioflorin disrupted the binding of in vitro transcribed/translated β-TrCP to Pdcd4 in an in vitro interaction assay to exclude nonspecific intracellular signals. Furthermore, polyubiquitination of Pdcd4 was decreased by erioflorin treatment as well. To clarify questions regarding specificity of erioflorin for the E3 ubiquitin ligase β-TrCP, stability of another important β-TrCP target was explored, i.e. the tumor suppressor inhibitor of kappa B alpha (IκBα). Indeed, the tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα)-mediated loss of IκBα could be prevented by erioflorin cotreatment. On the other hand, the E3 ubiquitin ligase von Hippel Lindau protein (pVHL) was left unaffected as its target hypoxia inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF-1α) could not be stabilized from oxygen-dependent degradation by erioflorin treatment. These results argued strongly for erioflorin being a specific inhibitor of β-TrCP-mediated protein degradation. Functional consequences of erioflorin treatment were investigated by observing its influence on the transcriptional activities of the transformation marker activator protein 1 (AP-1, an indirect downstream target of Pdcd4) and nuclear factor κB (NF-κB which is directly inhibited by IκBα). Indeed, erioflorin showed significant inhibition of AP-1 and NF-κB reporter constructs at 5 μM, a concentration for which an impact on cell viability was excluded. Finally to characterize the significance of erioflorin in a cell-based tumorigenesis assay, the highly invasive colon carcinoma cell line RKO was tested in a two dimensional migration assay. Erioflorin was discovered to significantly lower cell migration in a wound closure assay.
In conclusion, development of a high throughput compatible cell-based reporter assay successfully identified novel substances from pure synthetic and natural product derived background as potent stabilizers of the tumor suppressor Pdcd4. In addition, this work aimed at elucidating the detailed mechanism of action of the sesquiterpene lactone erioflorin from Eriophyllum lanatum, Asteraceae. Erioflorin was discovered to inhibit the E3 ubiquitin ligase β-TrCP, thereby preventing protein degradation of tumor suppressors like Pdcd4 and IκBα. This may offer the possibility to more specifically target protein degradation and generate less adverse side effects by blocking a particular E3 ubiquitin ligase compared to general proteasome inhibition.
Tumor development usually follows predictable paths where tumor cells acquire common characteristics and features known as the hallmarks of cancer. Recently, additional characteristics have been added to these hallmarks since solid tumors are composed of a very heterogeneous population of transformed, formerly normal tissue cells and stromal cells, e.g. immune cells and fibroblasts. Compelling evidence suggests that stromal cells and tumor cells maintain a symbiotic relationship to build up the tumor microenvironment and to fuel tumor growth. In cancer therapies, common features of tumors such as unrestricted cell growth, suppression of immunological responses, and the ability to form new blood vessels (angiogenesis) have emerged as the main targets of interest. The lipid mediator prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is known to promote all these features and thus, is connected to cancer progression in general. Its synthesis is triggered in response to stress factors or during inflammation. Inducible PGE2 production relies on the enzymes cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) and microsomal prostanglandin E synthase 1 (mPGES-1), which are simultaneously expressed in response to a variety of different stimuli and are functionally coupled. Inhibition of COX-2 with non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for cancer treatment is, however, limited by cardiovascular risks, since selective COX-2 inhibition disrupts the prostacyclin/thromboxane balance. Therefore targeting mPGES-1 downstream of COX-2 for PGE2 inhibition was evaluated in this work in different steps of carcinogenesis. Knockdown of mPGES-1 in DU145 prostate cancer cells revealed that the mPGES-1 status did not affect growth of monolayer tumor cells, but significantly impaired 3D growth of multi-cellular tumor spheroids (MCTS). Spheroid formation induced COX-2 in DU145 and other prostate cancer spheroids. High levels of PGE2 were detected in supernatants of DU145 MCTS as opposed to monolayer DU145 cells. Pharmacological inhibition of COX-2 and mPGES-1 confirmed the pivotal role of PGE2 for DU145 MCTS growth. Besides promoting spheroid growth, MCTS-derived PGE2 also inhibited cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) activation. When investigating the mechanisms of COX-2 induction during spheroid formation, the typical tumor microenvironmental factors such as glucose deprivation, hypoxia or tumor cell apoptosis failed to enhance COX-2. Interestingly, when interfering with apoptosis in DU145 spheroids, the pan-caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-FMK triggered a Summary 12 shift towards necrosis, thus enhancing COX-2 expression. Coculturing viable DU145 monolayer cells with isolated heat-shocked-treated necrotic DU145 cells, but not with necrotic cell supernatants, induced COX-2 and PGE2, confirming the impact of necrosis for MCTS growth and CTL inhibition. As mentioned, in vivo tumors are very heterogenous mixtures of tumor cells and stromal cells e.g. immune cells. Hence, the interaction of the immune system with tumors was investigated in further experiments. When coculturing MCF-7 breast cancer spheroids with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), only low levels of PGE2 were detected, since MCF-7 cells did not upregulate COX-2 during spheroid formation and did not induce PGE2 production by PBMCs. Under inflammatory conditions, by adding the toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) agonist lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to cocultures, PGE2 production was triggered, spheroid sizes were reduced, and numbers of high levels of granzyme B expressing (GrBhi) CTLs were increased, while CD80 expression by tumor-associated phagocytes was also elevated. Inhibition of CD80 but not CD86 diminished numbers of GrBhi CTLs and attenuated spheroid lysis. To determine the role of ctivation-induced PGE2 production, use of the COX-2 inhibitor celecoxib and the experimental mPGES-1 inhibitor C3 further increased CD80 expression. Addition of PGE2, the prostaglandin E2 (EP2) receptor agonist butaprost, and the phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) inhibitor rolipram reduced LPS/C3-triggered CD80 expression, confirming the impact of COX- 2/mPGES-1-derived PGE2 on shaping phagocyte phenotypes in an EP2/cAMP-dependent manner. In a spontaneous breast cancer model (MMTV-PyMT), mPGES-1-deficiency significantly delayed tumor growth in mice, confirming an overall protumorigenic role of mPGES-1 in breast cancer development in vivo. However in tumors of mPGES-1-/- mice, tumor-infiltrating phagocytes expressed low levels of CD80 similar to their wildtype counterparts. These data suggest that the immunosuppressive microenvironment does not allow for immunostimulatory effects by mPGES-1 inhibition without an activating stimulus. Evidences in this study recommend the application of mPGES-1 inhibitors for treating cancer diseases, since mPGES-1 promotes tumor growth in multiple steps of carcinogenesis, ranging from well-characterized effects of tumor cell growth to immune suppression of CTL activity and phagocyte polarization. Regarding the latter, blunting PGE2 during immune activation may limit the tumor-favoring features of inflammation and improve the efficiency of TLR4 based immune therapies.
The importance of RNA in molecular and cell biology has long been underestimated. Besides transmitting genetic information, studies of recent years have revealed crucial tasks of RNA especially in gene regulation. Riboswitches are natural RNA-based genetic switches and known only for ten years. They directly sense small-molecule metabolites and regulate in response the expression of the corresponding metabolic genes. Within recent years, artificial riboswitches have been developed that operate according to user-defined demands. Hence, they represent powerful tools for synthetic biology.
This study focused on the development of engineered catalytic riboswitches for conditional gene expression in eukaryotes. A self-cleaving hammerhead ribozyme was linked to a tetracycline binding aptamer in order to regulate ribozyme cleavage allosterically with tetracycline. By integrating such a hybrid molecule into a gene of interest, mRNA cleavage and thereby gene expression is controllable in a ligand dependent manner. The linking domain between ribozyme and aptamer was randomised. Tetracycline inducible ribozymes were isolated after eleven cycles of in vitro selection (SELEX). 80% of the analysed ribozymes show cleavage that strongly depends on tetracycline. In the presence of 1 μM tetracycline, their cleavage rates are comparable to that of the parental hammerhead ribozyme. In the absence of tetracycline, cleavage rates are inhibited up to 333-fold. The allosteric ribozymes bind tetracycline with similar affinity and specificity as the parental aptamer. Ribozyme cleavage is fully induced within minutes after addition of tetracycline. Interestingly, the isolated linker domains exhibit structural consensus motives rather than consensus sequences.
When transferred to yeast, three switches reduced reporter gene expression by 30 - 60% in the presence of tetracycline; none of them controlled gene expression in mammalian cells. In vitro selected molecules do not necessarily retain their characteristics when applied in a cellular context. Therefore, high throughput screening and selection systems have been developed in mammalian cells. The screening system is based on two fluorescent reporter proteins (GFP and mCherry). 1152 individual constructs of the selected ribozyme pool were tested, but none of them reduced reporter gene expression significantly in the presence of tetracycline. The selection system employs a fusion peptide encoding two selection markers (Hygromycin B phosphotransferase and HSV thymidine kinase) facilitating both negative and positive selection. 6.5 x 104 individual constructs of the selected ribozyme pool are currently under investigation.
5-Lipoxygenase (5-LO) catalyzes the two initial steps in the biosynthesis of leukotrienes, a group of inflammatory lipid mediators derived from arachidonic acid. Here, the regulation of 5-LO mRNA expression by alternative splicing and nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) was investigated. In the present study, the identification of two truncated transcripts and four novel 5-LO splice variants containing premature termination codons (PTC) was reported. The characterization of one of the splice variants, 5-LOΔ3, revealed that it is a target for NMD since knockdown of the NMD factors UPF1, UPF2 and UPF3b in the human monocytic cell line Mono Mac 6 (MM6) altered the expression of 5-LOΔ3 mRNA up to 2-fold in a cell differentiation-dependent manner suggesting that cell differentiation alters the composition or function of the NMD complex. In contrast, the mature 5-LO mRNA transcript was not affected by UPF knockdown. Thus, the data suggest that the coupling of alternative splicing and NMD is involved in the regulation of 5-LO gene expression.
RT-PCR analysis of different cell types revealed the existence of a large number of 5-LO splice variants. The most interesting splice variants were observed in BL41-E95A cells, which give a raise to novel 5-LO protein isoforms. This leads to the hypothesis of a novel regulatory mechanism in which the dimerization of 5-LO with 5-LO isoforms might regulate the 5-LO activity.
The 5-LO protein expression was reduced on translational level in UPF1 knock down cells, suggesting that UPF1 has a positive influence on 5-LO translation. Therefore, a mass spectrometry based proteomics study was started to identify compartment specific protein expression changes upon UPF1 knockdown in differentiated and undifferentiated MM6 cells. The proteomics analysis demonstrated that the knockdown of UPF1 results in numerous protein changes in the microsomal fraction (~ 21%) but not in the soluble fraction (< 1%). Western blot data confirmed the trend of the proteomics analysis. This data suggest that UPF1 is a critical gene expression regulator in a compartment specific way. During differentiation by TGFβ and calcitriol the majority of UPF1 regulated proteins was adjusted to normal level. It appears that that not only the NMD mechanism alters its composition during differentiation. Also the gene expression regulation on translational level by UPF1 seems to be also cell differentiation dependent. An interesting group of UPF1 target genes represent the downregulated proteins. qRT-PCR analysis of randomly chosen genes revealed no effect on mRNA expression upon UPF1 knockdown, suggesting that UPF1 positively influences the translation of these genes. Computational sequence analysis identified a conserved C-rich sequence which might be a hnRNP E2-binding site. hnRNP E2 has been characterized as a translational repressor in myeloid cells. Western blot analysis revealed a differentiation independent up regulation of hnRNP E2 by UPF1 knockdown. Additionally, microRNA-328 (miR-328) has been described as an RNA decoy modulating hnRNP E2 regulation. Due to this, stem loop qRT-PCR showed an up regulation of miR-328 in TGFβ and calcitriol differentiated MM6 cells. Based on this data we suggest a model in which downregulation of UPF1 increases hnRNP E2 expression, leading to translation inhibition. During differentiation, miRNA-328 is upregulated thereby competing with hnRNP E2 leading to an efficient translation
5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) catalyzes the first two steps in leukotriene (LT) biosynthesis. In a two step reaction the enzyme oxygenates arachidonic acid (AA) to form the highly unstable epoxide leukotriene A4 (LTA4) in dehydrating a hydroperoxide intermediate (20). LTA4 can then be further metabolized by two terminal synthases yielding either the potent chemoattractant leukotriene B4 (LTB4) or the cysteinyl leukotrienes (CysLTs). 5-LO enzyme expression is primarily found in mature leukocytes (22) where it can either reside in the cytoplasm or in the nucleus associated with euchromatin (29). Its enzymatic activity is embedded in a complicated network in intact cells regulating LT synthesis by various factors dependent on the cell type and nature of stimulus. Factors such as the amount of free AA released by phospholipase A2 enzymes, levels of enzymes involved, catalytic activity per enzyme molecule and availability of different small molecules influence 5-LO activity (36).
The 5-LO derived LTs are lipid mediators which were shown to primarily mediate inflammatory and allergic reactions and their role in the pathogenesis of asthma is well defined. CysLTs are among the most potent bronchoconstrictors yet studied in man and play an important role in airway remodeling. LTB4 has no bronchoconstrictory effects in healthy and asthmatic humans but displays potent chemoattractant properties on neutrophils and increases leukocyte adhesion to the vessel wall endothelium (22). Therefore, LTB4 enhances the capacity of macrophages and neutrophils to ingest and kill microbes. In concert with LTB4, histamine and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) CysLTs are thought to maintain the tone of the human airways (82).
Besides their well studied role in asthma, 5-LO derived LTs have also been implicated to play a role in cardiovascular diseases and cancer. In contrast to healthy tissues, LT pathway enzymes and receptors were found to be abundantly expressed in cancer tissues, atherosclerotic lesions in the aorta, heart and carotid artery (86). Pharmacological inhibition of 5-LO potently suppressed tumour cell growth by inducing cell cycle arrest and triggering cell death via the intrinsic apoptotic pathway (92, 93). In several studies LTs were found to exhibit cardiovascular actions by promotion of plasma leakage in postcapillary venules, coronary artery vasoconstriction and impaired ventricular contraction leading to reduced coronary blood flow and cardiac output (24). Unfortunately, the precise molecular mechanisms through which LTs influence carcinogenesis and cardiovascular diseases are still incompletely understood.
In contrast, an increasing number of studies questions the correlation between 5-LO and cancer (95-97) since extreme LT concentrations were applied to induce proliferative effects in the majority of the publications. A few studies exist which show susceptibility towards 5-LO products in physiological concentrations or achieve anti-proliferation by applying low concentrations of 5-LO inhibitors (98) ...
The enzyme 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) occupies a central role in the biosynthesis of inflammatory leukotrienes and thus takes part in the pathogenesis of related diseases. Its occurrence is mainly restricted to cells of the immune system including granulocytes, monocytes/macrophages or B-lymphocytes and can be induced by cell differentiation of myeloid cells after treatment with differentiating agents, such as DMSO, retinoic acid or the combination of TGFβ/1,25(OH)2D3. The latter contribute to the highest level of induction of mRNA and protein expression. Its cell specific occurrence is at least partly due to DNA methylation in cells that do not exhibit 5-LO activity and genetic regulation is further dependent on histone acetylation. 5-LO expression is controlled by transcription factors binding to the promoter sequence of the ALOX5 gene that induce basal promoter activity, as well as promoter independent effects including transcript initiation and elongation, which are mostly attributed to TGFβ/1,25(OH)2D3 signaling. The ALOX5 gene resembles a typical housekeeping gene, hence lacks TATA- or CAAT-boxes for transcriptional regulation, but displays a high GC-content with eight GC-boxes, five of which are arranged in tandem, that provide binding sites for transcription factors Sp1, Sp3 and Egr-1.
The proximal ALOX5 promoter is furthermore a target for additional factors, such as TGFβ effector proteins SMADs or the vitamin D receptor and possesses additional consensus sequences for transcriptional regulators, including NF-κB or PU.1. However, as yet no actual binding of these proteins to the promoter sequence was demonstrated and an unbiased screening for identifying further ALOX5 promoter interacting proteins, which might have impact on 5-LO expression, is still lacking. For this purpose, the present study focused on the identification of significantly interacting proteins, employing DNA-affinity enrichment coupled to label-free quantitative proteomics, spanning a sequence of about 270 base pairs of the proximal ALOX5 promoter. For the elucidation of potential cell specific differences in protein patterns and compositions, DNA pulldowns were performed by using oligonucleotide stretches comprising the core promoter sequence including the 5-fold GC-box, which were incubated with different cell lines and differentiation states of myeloid, as well as B-lymphocytic lineages. In order to compare different mass spectrometric quantification strategies that would allow for identification of interactors, dimethyl labeling and label-free techniques were used. Since the label-free approach outperformed the label-based one in initial experiments, it was established as standard quantification strategy in all DNA pulldowns performed. The pulldowns of myeloid cell lines in both undifferentiated and differentiated state and B-lymphocytes resulted in a cell-unspecific protein pattern whose composition was similar, regardless of cell lineage. Additionally, further DNA sequences comprising either a vitamin D response element or a SMAD binding element were investigated in the promyelocytic model cell line HL-60 in both undifferentiated and differentiated state. The identified proteins confirmed known interaction partners and furthermore revealed novel potential regulators of the 5-LO promoter. Out of these, the most prominently identified and promising proteins included transcription factors of the KLF- and CCAAT/enhancer binding protein-family. In this context, KLF5 and KLF13 are both involved in the regulation of inflammatory processes, the former additionally being an effector protein of TGFβ-signaling, whose functional characterization is of utmost interest in terms of regulation of 5-LO expression. Further protein characterization will be inevitable for the CCAAT/enhancer binding proteins C/EBPα, C/EBPβ and C/EBPε. These transcription factors are involved in the regulation of inflammatory processes and heterodimers thereof (C/EBPα/β) are known to control TGFβ/1,25(OH)2D3-mediated effects of the CD14 gene.
Several of the identified proteins of the pulldowns containing the tandem GC-box represented interactors of G-quadruplex DNA, including the helicases BLM and DHX36, the ribonucleoproteins hnRNP D and hnRNP K and transcription factor MAZ. Since G-quadruplexes form in G-rich DNA sequences as secondary DNA structures and exhibit substantial regulatory effects on the transcription of their target genes, the potential formation thereof in the ALOX5 core promoter sequence was investigated in a second project. Out of the proteins mentioned above, MAZ is shown to exert resolving effects on G4-DNA and synergistically induce Sp1-dependent gene activation of oncogene h-RAS, which displays analogous promoter characteristics to the ALOX5 gene. A DNA stretch comprising the tandem GC-box was used for elucidating the potential of secondary DNA structure formation. Intriguingly, both immune-based and spectroscopic methods provided clear evidence for the in vitro G-quadruplex formation of the proximal promoter sequence for the first time. In order to provide additional information on a possible regulatory effect of existing G-quadruplex structures on 5-LO transcription, differentiated HL-60 cells were subsequently treated with two distinct G4-DNA stabilizing agents. A porphyrin analogon (TMPyP4) did not exhibit any effects on 5-LO mRNA and protein expression after cell treatment. A second G4-DNA stabilizing agent (pyridostatin) on the other hand revealed significant reduction on 5-LO protein expression after cellular treatment. These mixed results render further experiments inevitable, in order to provide a clear assertion as to whether 5-LO expression is regulated by G-quadruplex structures or not.
Altogether, this study enlarges the knowledge of ALOX5 proximal promoter interacting proteins by corroborating the binding of already known transcription factors and identifying novel interactors. It yields essential groundwork for subsequent functional studies of proteins involved in 5-LO transcription and introduces G-quadruplexes as a new potential mechanism in ALOX5 gene regulation.
Lipid mediators have been referred as bioactive lipids, whose change in lipid levels resulted in functional or pathophysiological consequences. They are in the focus of biological research, nevertheless this is a late recognition due to the many difficulties of working with bioactive lipids due to their properties: hydrophobic, unstable and they occur in only in small quantities. Liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry have facilitated the work with them. Especially in this field, cardiovascular diseases and inflammatory mediated diseases and cancer are pathophysiological events where LMs are deregulated. Additionally, if the modulation of one LM pathway is not sufficient to overcome a disease, the combination of targeting two or more pathways could be effective. Needless to say, lipid signaling cascades are complicated pathways and possible shunting into other pathways when inhibiting or genetically deleting enzymes should be taken into consideration.
The first part of this work has focused on enzymes that metabolize eicosanoids, like mPGES-1 and 5-LO. mPGES-1 is an important enzyme metabolizing PGH2 and one of the key players of the AA cascade. Its product, PGE2 plays an important role in different inflammatory processes. Inhibition of the mPGES-1 might be a promising step to circumvent COX dependent side effects of NSAIDs. The class of quinazoline compounds around the lead structure FR20 has been investigated on isolated human and murine enzyme, in HeLa cells and in different human whole blood (HWB) settings to establish the possible effects of these compounds on eicosanoid profiling. Novel compounds with inhibitory activities in the submicromolar range (IC50: 0.13 µM - 0.37 µM on isolated enzyme) were obtained which were also effective in cells and HWB. Furthermore, pharmacological profiling of toxicity and lipid screening with LC/MS-MS revealed that compounds also reduce PGE2 levels in intact cells and whole blood; they do not impair cell viability but lack the ability to inhibit the murine mPGES-1 enzyme. This problem could be overcome by means of chemical synthesis varying the scaffold (quinoline, quinazoline) or introducing biosteric replacement in the phenyl moieties.
5-LO is a relevant enzyme that plays an important role in eicosanoid signaling in particular in leukotriene biosynthesis. Leukotrienes are involved in asthma, allergic rhinitis, glomerulonephritis, rheumatoid arthritis, sepsis, cancer and atherosclerosis. Moreover, genetic variants in the genes of the 5-LO pathway have been associated with the risk of development of acute myocardial infarction and stroke. Eicosanoids are increased in infectious exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). They are also elevated in the airways of stable COPD patients compared to healthy subjects. Therefore, 5-LO has attired the scientific community as a possible therapeutic target to treat the several disease conditions listed before. In this study an extensive evaluation of imidazo[1,2-a]pyridines as a suitable lead structure for novel 5-LO targeting compounds was presented Within the three publications, 5-LO inhibitory activity of synthesized compounds was investigated in intact PMNL, a cell-free assay, in human whole blood and rodent cells to both elucidate structure-activity relationships and compounds were in vitro pharmacological evaluated. Chemical modifications for lead optimization via straight forward synthesis were used to combine small polar groups (hydroxy, and methoxy groups) which led to a suitable candidate with desired in vitro pharmacokinetic profile in terms of solubility and intrinsic clearance without showing any cytotoxicity. More than 70 imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine derivatives have been synthesized, resulting in more than 50 active compounds. Although it was not possible to introduce a solubility group without impairing the 5-LO inhibitory activity, combination of small polar groups lead to a more favorable solubility and in vitro metabolic stability. Overall, the development of 5-LO inhibitors with high efficacy and selectivity in vivo will provide a possible treatment for patients having one of the diseases where leukotriene biosynthesis plays an important role.
Other types of 5-LO inhibitors have been synthesized during this work, NO-NSAIDs can be postulated as novel 5-LO inhibitors that could circumvent the undesired side-effects of inhibiting COX isoforms (ulcer perforation, gastrointestinal bleeding and in some cases death). It is suggested that NO group is released in situ or after compounds are metabolized. NO-NSAIDs maintain the same anti-inflammatory properties by inhibiting 5-LO in clinical relevant concentrations. NO-NSAIDs are currently under clinical trial for the treatment of diseases where inflammation plays an important role. Synthesis of NO-NSAIDs is straightforward and can be applied for most NSAIDs recently published. Among them, the most promising candidate is NO-sulindac that was able to inhibit 5-LO product formation in intact PMNL, purified 5-LO and HWB in micromolar concentration. Additional experiments regarding their mechanism are currently being performed.
The present study could show that dual inhibitors are an interesting approach that is practicable. It has been used in the recent years to overcome side-effects and diseases concerning more pathophysiological conditions. MetS is an example of a conjunction of symptoms: hyperglycemia, hypertriglyceridemia, hypertension and obesity. Due to its complex nature, the current treatment strategies of MetS require multiple pharmacological compounds regulating lipid and glucose homeostasis as well as blood pressure and coagulation. This study describes the first synthesis of dual sEH/PPAR modulators as potential agents for treatment of MetS. Following a combinatorial approach, an acidic head group known as a pharmacophore important for PPARα/γ dual agonistic activity was combined with different hydrophobic urea derivatives in order to introduce an epoxide mimetic (sEH pharmacophore). The resulting compounds yielded high inhibition of sEH and different patterns of PPAR agonistic activity. This study demonstrates that the pharmacophores of PPAR agonists and sEH inhibitors can be easily combined, resulting in a simplified blueprint of a dual sEH/PPAR modulator. Further in vivo pharmacological evaluation studies are needed in order to evaluate, which pattern of PPAR activation shows the most promising profile for treatment of metabolic syndrome.
Another example of dual pharmacology has been presented in this work. Natural products derived compounds were able to target sEH and exhibit promising antiproliferative properties. The principle of addressing multiple targets by natural products can be transferred to synthetic multi-target ligands. In conclusion, several (E)-styryl-1H-benzo[d]imidazoles were synthesized and evaluated on recombinant sEH after an initial hit (IPS) that lead to potent sEH inhibitors exhibiting antiproliferative activities. Following the natural product-inspired design, the desired biological activity from a bacterial secondary metabolite has been enhanced and transferred to a synthetic compound series. The resulting compounds were accessible via an easy synthetic route and offered a possibility to investigate the structure-activity relationships. The natural product inspired drug design extends the valuable role of natural products as drugs and drug precursors to templates for fully synthetic bioactive molecules. Simplification of natural products by means of chemical synthesis could lead to an interesting field in the treatment of cancer.
Affinity chromatography has been used to unravel unknown- and off-target effects which either contribute to the biological effect of the inhibitor or that counteract or lead to undesired side-effects. During this PhD work, two main projects related to this technique have been established. In the first one, related to an imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine inhibitor (EP6), it has been shown that epoxide-sepharose is a reliable material in order to couple compounds bearing an alcohol. Coupling of an analogue of EP6 to the sepharose has been accomplished and affinity towards 5-LO was demonstrated. The challenging step is to discern from unspecific protein binders and analysis via SDS-PAGE separation and mass spectrometry. Further experiments using other cell types or improving SDS-PAGE analysis (e.g. 2D gel analysis) should be useful to unravel EP6 off-target effect. During the second project related to off-target effects of celecoxib and DMC, the main problem was the coupling of the functional group to the sepharose. Affinity towards COX-2 could not be demonstrated pointing out the inefficient coupling method. Higher pH values during coupling reaction should be tested in further experiments. Nevertheless, affinity chromatography is a useful technique to unravel cellular mechanisms.
Sphingolipid metabolism is also a recent area that attired the attention of cancer researchers, due to their important roles in cell proliferation and apoptosis. Ceramide metabolism inhibitors were synthesized and evaluated on different assay systems in order to assess their efficacy on several cancer lines. Remarkably, 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dioxolan-4-yl)methanamine (32) was a useful scaffold to mimic the sphingoid base. This key intermediate was used to produce ceramide analogues that could enter the cell and target apoptosis machinery. EB143 (38) increased ceramide levels in an in vitro ceramide synthase assay in a dose-response manner meaning that ceramide synthase was not inhibited but the ceramide de novo synthesis was activated. This effect was due to the fact that EB143 is a cytotoxic compound with an interesting antiproliferative profile. Further chemical modifications should be carried out to modulate this effect.
COX and LO inhibitors are cancer-preventive not only by inhibiting specific antiapoptotic AA metabolites but also by facilitating accumulation of AA which promotes neutral SMase activity and increases the proapoptotic ceramide. Several 5-LO inhibitors have been evaluated on several cancer lines and sphingolipid levels were measured in order to obtain a relationship. A549, Capan-2 and MCF-7 cells line were incubated with synthetic 5-LO inhibitors and zileuton. Compounds were cytotoxic to all cancer cell lines except from A549. Needless to say, zileuton did not exhibit a cytotoxic profile. Synthetic 5-LO inhibitors were able to modify ceramide levels but were useless when coincubating with sphingolipid metabolism inhibitors (myoricin, amitryptiline etc.) and inconsistent results were obtained. On the contrary, zileuton selectively increased Cer-C16 levels and in less extend Cer-C24:1. When using a SPT inhibitor (myoricin) alone was able to reduce C24:1 and Cer-C16:0 levels below the control, a similar effect occurred when incubation the cells with zileuton and myriocin. Interestingly, treatment of zileuton together with either amitryptiline or desipramine led to a decrease in Cer-C24:1 and levels Cer-C16:0 but the inhibition was not complete indicating that probably the de novo pathway has an important role. Further investigations on mRNA level should be carried out in order to discern which CerS is activated.
The main objective of the present thesis was the synthesis of lipid signaling modulators and their evaluation in vitro as therapeutic strategy to overcome pathophysiological conditions (cancer, metabolic syndrome, etc). It has been accomplished on many relevant targets like 5-LO, mPGES-1, sEH and PPAR and these lipid signaling modulators could be used in the treatment of diseases conditions where lipid mediators play an important role.
Die Funktion nukleärer Rezeptoren (NR) beruht auf einem empfindlichen Zusammenspiel zwischen ihren Domänen, Coregulatoren und Liganden. Die meisten Rezeptoren binden die DNA als Homo- oder Heterodimere und transregulieren die Gentranskription in Folge von Ligandenbindung. Klassische Assay-Systeme, die sich auf die Untersuchung der NR-Funktion oder auf die Charakterisierung von Substanzen richten, bilden nur die Coregulator-Rekrutierung zu isolierten NR-Ligandenbindungsdomänen (LBDs) ab und vernachlässigen dabei die NR:NR-Interaktion. Damit klammern sie die NR:NR-Wechselwirkung aus, obwohl die Rekrutierung von Cofaktoren durch allosterischen Crosstalk mit der Oligomerisierung verbunden ist. Dies war die Motivation dafür, Assay-Systeme zu entwickeln, welche die Untersuchung von NR-Interaktionen,
insbesondere der NR-Dimerisierung, und deren Modulation durch verschiedene Arten von Liganden ermöglichen. Im Rahmen dieser Doktorarbeit wird ein vielfältiges modulares Set von Assays für die Untersuchung der NR-Dimerisierung und NR-Coregulator-Rekrutierung vorgestellt und deren Anwendbarkeit auf eine Vielzahl von NRs demonstriert. Die Verwendung einer
rekrutierungsunfähigen RXRα-Variante mit einer mutierten AF-2-Domäne ermöglichte den spezifischen Nachweis der Coaktivatorrekrutierung durch PPARγ im Kontext des Heterodimers mit seinem obligatorischen Dimerpartner RXRα. Außerdem konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Aktivierung der RXRα LBD mit ihrem Agonisten SR11237 zu einer Destabilisierung des RXRα-Homodimers, aber zu einer Förderung der Bildung des Heterodimers mit der PPARγ LBD führte.
Ein zentrales Ergebnis war das Phänomen, dass der Einbau von PPARγ in das Heterodimer zu einem erheblichen Anstieg an Affinität gegenüber Coaktivatoren führt, auch in Abwesenheit von Liganden. Somit fördert die RXRα-Aktivierung die Coaktivator-Rekrutierung von PPARγ indirekt durch eine Verschiebung der Oligomerisierungspräferenz von RXRα in Richtung des Heterodimers. Zusätzlich wurde die Wirkung von Tetrac, einem nicht-klassischen Schilddrüsenhormon, auf PPARγ und RXRα untersucht und dessen Aktivierungsvermögen gegenüber beiden Rezeptoren mit einer deutlich vervielfachten Wirkung auf das Heterodimer demonstriert. Mit Hilfe des neu etablierten Cofaktor-Rekrutierungsscreens konnte die Dynamik
zwischen dem Nurr1 NR und 29 kanonischen Coregulatoren, von denen einige ligandenabhängig hohe Affinitäten zum Rezeptor aufwiesen, beleuchtet werden. Diese Interaktionen wurden
bidirektional durch eine Reihe von strukturell unterschiedlichen nicht-steroidalen Antirheumatika moduliert, die auch die Affinitäten sowohl des Nurr1-Homodimers als auch des Heterodimers mit der RXRα LBD beeinflussen konnten. Die Nurr1-Dimere zeigten zudem auch eine hohe Empfindlichkeit gegenüber dem Endocannabinoid Anandamid. Zusätzlich zu PPARγ, RXRα und Nurr1 wurden erste Schritte zur Untersuchung der TLX NR-Funktion unternommen. Unter Anwendung der entwickelten Assays konnte die Heterodimerbildung der TLX und der RXRα LBD
beschrieben und die ligandenabhängige Rekrutierung des Corepressors SMRT beobachtet werden.
Zusammenfassend beschreibt diese Arbeit einen Satz von Werkzeugen für die Untersuchung von ligandenabhängiger NR-Coregulator-Interaktion und Oligomerisierung. Auf diese Weise trug sie zu einer umfassenderen Identifizierung und Charakterisierung von NR-Liganden bei und stellt eine valide Basis für die weitere Assayentwicklung und Ligandendesign dar.
Metabolites such as lactate and free fatty acids (FFAs) abundantly occur in high concentrations in tumor and stromal cells of solid malignancies. Their known functions comprise the allocation of nutrients and intermediates for the generation of cell components, the evasion of immune destruction, the induction of vessel formation and the stimulation of cell migration in order to promote tumor growth, progression and metastasis. However, the role of metabolites as signaling molecules and the downstream mechanisms of metabolite receptor mediated signaling in tumor and stromal cells is poorly understood. Our study confirms the expression of Hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 1 (HCA1) in solid human breast tumors and the expression of Free fatty acid receptor 4 (FFA4) in solid human colorectal tumors. In addition, the expression of HCA1 in human breast cancer cell lines as well as the expression of FFA4 in human colorectal cancer cell lines was proved. Moreover, our research reveals the expression HCA2, FFA2 and FFA4 in tumor associated macrophages (TAMs).
To test whether the loss of any of the metabolite receptors affects tumor growth and progression we utilized a syngeneic Lewis lung cancer (LLC1) tumor model, an azoxymethane (AOM) – dextran sulfate (DSS) colorectal cancer model and a Mouse mammary tumor virus Polyoma Virus middle T antigen (MMTV-PyMT) breast cancer model. The loss of HCA2 did not lead to a changed outcome compared to wild type littermates in any of the models. Likewise, the deletion of FFA4 had no influence on the LLC1 model and, surprisingly, tumor number and area in the AOM-DSS model also remained unaltered. The impact of HCA1 deficiency was investigated utilizing the MMTV-PyMT model and revealed a moderately improved tumor growth. The absence of FFA2 did not affect tumor growth in the LLC1 model but led to an increased number of colorectal tumors in the AOM-DSS model while the tumor area remained unchanged. The most compelling results were obtained upon the deletion of FFA2 in the MMTV-PyMT model. Here, we demonstrate that the loss of FFA2 significantly reduces tumor latency and also significantly improves tumor growth. Nevertheless, the formation of metastases in the LLC1 model and the MMTV-PyMT model did not show any changes upon the loss of any of the metabolite receptors.
Together, our results describe a tumor-protective effect of FFA2 with an unclear impact on metastatic processes. Considerations about putative mechanisms of short chain fatty acid (SCFA) mediated FFA2 signaling suggest potential targets for pharmacological interventions to treat mammary tumors.
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute an important class of integral membrane proteins that are involved in several signaling pathways. About 50% of the currently available drugs are targeted against these receptors and high-resolution structures of these receptors will be of immense importance from the perspective of designing specific and potent drugs. However, structure determination of these receptors and of membrane proteins in general, has been a very challenging task till date. A major limitation in the structure determination of these proteins is that they are present in minute amounts in the native tissues and therefore, they must be produced heterologously. Additionally, crystallization of GPCRs is difficult owing to their flexible nature and limited hydrophilic surface area available for crystal contacts. The aim of my Ph.D. thesis work is two fold, first, to address the problem of GPCR crystallization by using a fusion protein complex approach and second, to tailor Rhodobacter sphaeroides as an expression system for the heterologous production of GPCRs. In the first approach, R. sphaeroides was used as an expression system to generate a fusion protein complex of the photosynthetic reaction center (RC) with a GPCR, expecting that such a complex would be easier to crystallize than the receptor alone. The notion behind this approach is that the RC will act as a scaffold in providing surface area to create crystal contacts and at the same time, it will also reduce the flexibility of the receptor, hopefully without perturbing the functionality of the receptor. Based on the computational modelling experiments, two ways to generate a fusion complex were assigned. Long linkers were inserted between the subunits of the RC and the GPCR. The linkers were designed with a possibility of straightforward alteration of their length as they contained a number of restriction enzyme sites. A series of these constructs were designed and expressed in R. sphaeroides deletion strain, which did not possess the chromosomal RC genes. Though most of these fusion constructs could be successfully expressed, as analyzed by western blot, majority of them were not functional in terms of ligand binding of the GPCR component of the fusion complex. Interestingly, one of these constructs, where the M subunit of RC was directly fused to the human angiotensin II type 1a receptor (AT1aR), exhibited significant functional expression. Based on saturation binding analysis using [125I] iodotyrosyl4Sar1Ile8-angiotensin II (an AT1aR subtype specific antagonist), an expression level of 40+5 pmol/mg of total membrane protein was calculated. This expression level corresponds to approximately 0.3 mg of functional receptor per liter culture and it is significantly higher than the AT1aR expression in native tissues. Additionally, the binding affinity of the recombinant receptor for its endogenous ligand angiotensin II was found to be 1±0.1 nM, which is similar to that observed for the AT1aR in native tissues. More interestingly, the RC part of the fusion complex was structurally assembled in other words, properly folded as judged by the presence of the characteristic peaks at 760 nm, 800 nm and 850 nm by absorption spectroscopy. However, a slight change in the intensity of the peak at 800 nm was observed while comparing the spectra of native RC with that in the fusion protein complex. This slight variation might be due to the change in the protein environment. The fusion protein complex RC-AT1aR was functionally solubilized and purified using a decahistidine tag fused at the c-terminus of the AT1aR. Subsequently, the monodispersity and integrity of the complex was confirmed by size exclusion chromatography, which revealed a homogeneous peak. Additionally, it was also possible to solubilize and purify this complex in the presence of a fluorescein tagged angiotensin II ligand which provides a nice tool to judge the functionality of the AT1aR and integrity of the complex at the same time. The purified RC-AT1aR fusion complex was then subjected to three-dimensional (3-D) crystallization trials and it was possible to obtain reproducible crystals of this complex. The crystals were fluorescent (as the complex was purified in presence of fluorescently labelled angiotensin II) and needle or tetragonal in shape, but produced a powdery diffraction pattern. Further attempts to improve the crystallization condition and to optimize the cryo-conditions are underway. In addition, attempts are also being made to obtain the crystals of this complex with the antagonist (e.g. losartan) bound to the receptor. In view of several limitations in the heterologous expression of GPCRs, as the second part of my Ph.D. thesis, I decided to explore the possibilities of developing a novel expression system based on R. sphaeroides for production of recombinant GPCRs. The notion behind using this host is that lack of inclusion bodies and high concentration of membranes in R. sphaeroides would result in efficient functional overexpression of recombinant membrane proteins. For this purpose, a R. sphaeroides strain, modified by the deletion of the genes encoding the RC and the light harvesting proteins LH1 and LH2, was used. The genes for RC and LHs constitute about 85-90% of total membrane proteins in a R. sphaeroides cell. These membranes are normally housed in special membrane vesicles called intracytoplasmic membranes (ICMs) that can fill almost the entire cell volume under certain growth conditions. Synthesis of a heterologous protein under the control of the moderately strong photosynthetic superoperonic promoter should be coordinated with the synthesis of new membranes to harbour these proteins, thus acting as a natural induction system. Moreover, as most of the native membrane proteins are absent in this deletion strain, heterologously produced protein should not experience a shortage of molecular chaperones for proper folding and insertion. Additionally, the absence of inclusion bodies in this host should enhance the functional and homogenous population of the recombinant proteins. Three human GPCRs, namely the adenosine A2a receptor (A2a), the angiotensin II type 1a receptor (AT1aR) and the bradykinin subtype 2 receptor (B2R) were tested for expression and functionality in this system. Two different constructs were used to determine the optimal position and ribosome-binding site (RBS) in the superoperon for the highest expression level. Of these three receptors, the AT1aR and B2R were successfully produced, while the A2aR failed to express, producing green carotenoid free R. sphaeroides mutants, for unknown reasons. For the recombinant B2R, [3H] bradykinin binding analysis revealed a low functional expression level of 0.7-0.8 pmol/mg of total membrane protein. This expression level corresponds to 0.01 mg functional receptor per liter of culture and is not sufficient for large-scale expression of this receptor. However, for the recombinant AT1aR, [125I] iodotyrosyl4Sar1Ile8- angiotensin II binding analysis revealed an expression level of 12±1 pmol/mg of total membrane protein. This expression level corresponds to approximately 0.1 mg functional receptor per liter culture and this is significantly higher than the AT1aR expression in native tissues. This expression system is still in the nascent stages of development and there are several parameters, which are still to be assessed for the optimal use of this system for the production of GPCRs and other membrane proteins. In conclusion, my Ph.D. work presents a novel fusion protein complex based approach for obtaining crystallizable GPCRs and a novel expression system for producing heterologous GPCRs. It was possible, for the first time, to produce a functional RC-GPCR complex that could easily be crystallized, though further finetuning of the system is required. R. sphaeroides based novel expression system was successfully used to produce functional human GPCRs under the control of a moderately strong photosynthetic superoperonic promoter. This expression system represents a naturally induced system where the expression of a heterologous protein is coordinated with the synthesis of new membranes to harbour the recombinant protein. The fusion protein complex approach and the expression system presented here can hopefully be used as a general method to facilitate the expression and crystallization of other membrane proteins.