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Suicide genes have been broadly used in gene therapy. They can serve as safety tools for conditional elimination of infused cells or for directed tumor therapy. To date, the Herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase/ ganciclovir (HSVtk/GCV) system is the most prominent and the most widely used suicidegene/prodrug combination. Despite its promising performance, the system displays limitations, which include relatively slow killing kinetics and toxicity of the prodrug GCV. Consequently, several groups have either developed new suicide-gene/prodrug combinations or attempted to improve the established HSVtk/GCV suicide system. The present study also aimed towards optimization of the HSVtk/GCV system. To do so, a novel, codon-optimized point mutant (A168H) of HSVtk was developed. The novel mutant was named TK.007. It was extensively tested for its efficiency in two relevant settings: (1) control of severe graft-versus-host disease (GvHD) after adoptive immunotherapy with Tlymphocytes, and (2) direct elimination of targeted tumor cells. TK.007 was compared to the broadly used wild-type, splice-corrected scHSVtk and to a codon-optimized HSVtk (coHSVtk) not bearing the above point mutation. (1) For experiments related to the adoptive immunotherapy approach, HSVtkvariants were expressed from a γ-retroviral MP71 vector as a fusion construct with the selection and marker gene tCD34. Expression levels for TK.007 in transduced lymphoid and myeloid cell lines were significantly higher at initial transduction and over a 12 week period compared to the commonly used scHSVtk and coHSVtk indicating reduced toxicity of TK.007. Killing kinetics of transduced cell lines (PM1 and K562) and primary human T cells were significantly faster for TK.007 in comparison to scHSVtk and coHSVtk in vitro. In vivo-functionality of TK.007 was assessed in an allogeneic transplantation model. T cells derived from C57BL/6J.Ly5.1 donor mice were transduced with MP71 vectors expressing scHSVtk or TK.007. Transduced cells were selected and transplanted into Balb/c Rag2-/- γ-/- immune-deficient recipient mice. Acute, severe GvHD occurred and was effectively abrogated in all mice transplanted with TK.007- transduced T cells, and in five out of six mice transplanted with scHSVtk-transduced cells. In a slightly modified quantitative allogeneic transplantation mouse model, significantly faster and more efficient in vivo killing was demonstrated for TK.007 as compared to scHSVtk, especially at low doses of GCV. (2) In order to assess TK.007 functionality in cells derived from solid tumors, HSVtk-variants were expressed from lentiviral gene ontology (LeGO) vectors in combination with an eGFP/neo-opt selection cassette. Transduced and selected tumor cell lines that derived from several tissues were eliminated at significantly lower GCV doses and to higher extents when transduced with TK.007 compared to scHSVtk. Moreover, a significantly stronger bystander effect of TK.007 was demonstrated. The superior in vitro efficiency of TK.007 was confirmed in an in vivo subcutaneous xenograft mouse model for glioblastoma in NOD/SCID mice. Mice transplanted with TK.007 transduced cells stayed tumor-free after treatment with different GCV-doses. On the contrary, mice of the scHSVtk group either demonstrated only transiently reduced tumor growth in the low-dose GCV group (10 mg/kg) compared to the control groups or suffered from relatively fast relapses after initial tumor shrinking in the standarddose (50 mg/kg) GCV group. As a result, all mice in the scHSVtk group died from vigorous tumor growth. In summary, in two different applications for suicide gene therapy the present study has demonstrated superior functional performance of the novel suicide gene TK.007 as compared to the broadly used wild-type scHSVtk. Differences became particularly pronounced at low doses of GCV. It can be concluded that the new TK.007-gene represents a promising alternative to the commonly used scHSVtk for gene therapeutic applications.
Die größte Gruppe der Krebserkrankungen bei Kindern sind die Leukämien. Die größte Untergruppe stellen dabei die Leukämien unter Beteiligung des MLL-Gens auf Chromosom 11q23 dar. Die bei MLL-Translokationen gefundenen Partnergene sind äußerst vielfältig. Der häufigste Partner ist jedoch das AF4-Gen auf Chromosom 4. Die bei der t(4;11)-Translokation entstehenden Fusionsproteine MLL-AF4 und AF4-MLL sind die Auslöser der Leukämie, wobei in unterschiedlichen Forschungsarbeiten beiden Fusionsproteinen eine Transformatorische Wirkung bescheinigt werden konnte. Das Wildtyp MLL-Protein liegt in der Zelle in einem Multiproteinkomplex vor, der durch seine Histon-Methyltransferase-Aktivität an Lysin 4 des Histon H3, zu einer offenen Chromatinstruktur führt und dadurch für die Transkriptionsinitiierung essentiell ist. Eine besondere Rolle kommt den MLL-Protein bei der Aufrechterhaltung von epigenetischen Signaturen beispielsweise bei der Embryogenese oder dem Durchlaufen des Zellzyklus zu. Im Gegensatz dazu nimmt der F4-Multiproteinkomplex eine wichtige Stellung in der Transkriptionselongation ein und ermöglicht der RNA-Polymerase II zusammen mit seinen Komplexpartnern die Elongation der mRNA. Die Taspase1 wurde als das Protein entdeckt, dass für die Prozessierung des MLL-Proteins verantwortlich ist und es an den Schnittstellen CS1 bzw. CS2 proteolytisch spaltet. Die hierbei entstehenden Fragmente N320 und C180 können daraufhin dimerisieren und werden gegenüber einem proteasomalen Abbau stabilisiert. Diese Taspase1-Schnittstellen sind auch in dem Fusionsprotein AF4-MLL enthalten und ermöglichen die Stabilisierung des AF4-MLLs nach proteolytischer Spaltung gegenüber seinem proteasomalen Abbau. Die Taspase1 ist eine Threonin-Aspartase aus der Familie der Typ-2 Asparaginasen zu deren weiteren Vertretern die L-Asparaginase sowie die Glycosylasparaginase zählen. Als einziger Vertreter dieser Gruppe ist die Taspase1 jedoch eine Protease. Gemein ist allen Vertretern der Familie, die autoproteolytische Aktivierung des exprimierten Proenzyms hin zu einer katalytisch aktiven Form. Im Falle der Taspase1 kommt es dabei zu einer Spaltung in die als Heterodimer vorliegenden α- und β-Untereinheiten. Das katalytische Nukleophil der aktiven Taspase1 ist dabei das N-terminale Thr234 der β-Untereinheit. Neben ihrer Rolle als Protease des AF4-MLLs und der damit verbundenen Stabilisierung des Onkogens, wird der Taspase1 auch bei den soliden Tumoren eine Rolle als für die Transformation wichtiges Protein zugewiesen, was sich in ihrer häufigen Überexpression in verschiedenen Tumorarten widerspiegelt. Die Taspase1 ist demnach ein interessantes Ziel für die Wirkstoffentwicklung. Hierfür ist die Generierung eines quantitativen Aktivitätstest besonders wichtig und war Ziel dieser Arbeit. Der entwickelte Aktivitätstest basiert auf einem Reporter bestehend aus den beiden Fluoreszenzproteinen TagBFP sowie TagGFP2, die über eine Taspase1 Schnittstelle verbunden wurden. Dieses FRET-Paar lässt dabei die kontinuierliche Beobachtung der Reaktion zu und ermöglicht eine Auswertung der kinetischen Parameter der Reaktion. Von den beiden FRET-Reportern mit den unterschiedlichen Schnittstellen CS1 und CS2,konnte nur der mit der CS2 Schnittstelle exprimiert werden. Dieser Reporter konnte dann für die Validierung des Aktivitätstests eingesetzt werden und ließ die Bestimmung der kinetischen Parameter der Taspase1 für diese Reaktion zu. Die erhaltenen Parameter bewegen sich in einer ähnlichen Größenordnung wie schon publizierte kinetische Parameter eines Peptid-basierten Aktivitätstests. Ausgehend hiervon wurden die dnTaspase, eine dominant negative Taspase1-Mutante, kinetisch untersucht und ihre Inhibition der Taspase1-Aktivität beschrieben. Der Aktivitätstest ließ die Bestätigung der Konzentrationsabhängigen Inhibition der Taspase1-Aktivität durch die dnTaspase zu. Diese Beobachtung konnte auch in einer Zell-basierten Variante des Aktivitätstests bestätigt werden und zeigte sich ferner auch in einer Wachstumsverlangsamenden Wirkung der dnTaspase in der t(4;11)-Zelllinie SEM, wobei dieser Effekt nicht auf einer Zunahme der Apoptose der Zellen zurückzuführen war. Desweiteren wurde der Aktivitätstest benutzt, um eine Reihe von gegen das aktive Zentrum der Taspase1 gerichtete Substanzen auf ihre inhibitorische Wirksamkeit zu untersuchen.Hierbei gelang es einen Kandidat als Leitsubstanz zu identifizieren, der eine konzentrationsabhängige Inhibition der Taspase1 zeigte. Eine Bindung dieser Substanz an die Taspase1 konnte jedoch durch einen Thermal Shift Assay nicht nachgewiesen werden und ein Einfluss auf die Viabilität von proB-ALL Zelllinien konnte nicht beobachtet werden.
Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) have the unique abilities of life-long self-renewal and multi-lineage differentiation. They are routinely used in BM or stem cell transplantations to reconstitute the blood system of patients suffering from malignant or monogenic blood disorders. For an adequate production of each blood cell lineage in homeostasis and under stress conditions, the fate choice of HSCs to either self-renew or to differentiate must be strictly controlled. The incomplete understanding of the molecular mechanisms that control this balance makes it still impossible to maintain or expand undifferentiated HSCs in culture for advanced regenerative medical purposes.
The aim of this thesis was the identification and molecular characterisation of mechanisms that control the decision of HSCs to self-renew or to differentiate, and how they are connected to extrinsic cytokine signaling control. Prior to this thesis, a screening for genes upregulated under self-renewal promoting thrombopoietin (TPO) signaling via the transcription factors STAT5A/B in HSCs was conducted, and Growth arrest and DNA damage inducible 45 gamma (Gadd45g) was one of the regulated genes. GADD45G was described as stress sensor, DNA-damage response and tumor suppressor gene, that is epigenetically silenced in many solid tumors and leukemia. Furthermore, Gadd45g is upregulated in aged HSCs with impaired multi-lineage reconstitution abilities, and it is induced by differentiation promoting cytokines in GM-committed cells. However, the function of GADD45G in LT-HSCs was unknown. All these points warrant further investigation to unravel the function of GADD45G on early cell fate decisions of HSCs in hematopoiesis.
The expression of Gadd45g was stimulated by hematopoietic cytokines TPO, IL3 and IL6 both in HSCs and MPPs, making GADD45G an interesting target to focus on. To simulate the cytokine-induced expression GADD45G was lentivirally transduced in HSCs. Surprisingly, GADD45G did not induce cell cycle arrest or cell death in hematopoietic cells neither in vitro nor in vivo, as reported in many cell lines. Instead GADD45G revealed an enhanced and markedly accelerated differentiation of HSCs into mainly myelomonocytic cells, similar as observed for IL3 and IL6 containing cultures. Also in vivo, GADD45G rapidly initiates the differentiation program in HSCs at the expense of self-renewal and long-term engraftment, as shown by serial HSC transplantation experiments. Along the same line, HSCs from Gadd45g-knock out mice exhibited an increased self-renewal. In vitro, Gadd45g-/- progenitors showed higher and prolonged colony formation potential and slower expansion after cytokine stimulation. The loss of Gadd45g increased HSC self-renewal and improved repopulation in secondary recipients, determined by serial competitive transplantations. Taken together, GADD45G could be identified as molecular link between differentiation-promoting cytokine signaling and rapid differentiation induction in murine LT-HSCs.
As presented in this thesis the differentiation induction of GADD45G was mediated by the activation of the cascade of MAP3K4 – MKK6 –p38 MAPK. Small molecule inhibition of p38, but not JNK, blocked the GADD45G-induced differentiation. GADD45G binds to MAP3K4 and releases its auto-inhibitory loop by a change in confirmation, initiating this cascade. Phosphoflow cytometry demonstrated the activation of p38 and a downstream kinase MK2 by GADD45G expression in MPPs. Furthermore, the expression of constitutive active MAP3K4 and MKK6 were able to phenocopy GADD45G-induced differentiation, which could be blocked by p38 inhibition.
The other two family members GADD45A and B also induced accelerated differentiation in LT-HSCs. Interestingly, only GADD45G suppressed the differentiation into megakaryocyte and erythrocyte (Mek/E) lineage cells suggesting a role of GADD45G in lineage choice. Long-term time-lapse microscopy-based cell tracking of single LT-HSCs and their progeny revealed that, once GADD45G is expressed, the development of LT-HSCs into granulocyte-macrophage-committed progeny occurred within 36 hours, and uncovered a selective lineage choice with a severe reduction in Mek/E cells. Furthermore, no megakaryocytic-erythroid progenitors (MEPs) could develop from HSPCs in BM 2 weeks after transplantation suggesting a very early selection against Mek/E cell fates. In line with these findings, GADD45G-transduced MEPs could not expand or form colonies in vitro, demonstrating that the differentiation program induced by GADD45G is not compatible with Mek/E lineage fate. Gene expression profiling of HSCs indicated that GADD45G promotes myelomonocytic differentiation programs over programs for self-renewal or megakaryo-/ erythropoiesis. The here identified differentiation induction potential of GADD45G is so strong that the expression of GADD45G in primary acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cells inhibited their expansion accompanied by enhanced differentiation and increased apoptosis.
The here presented work shows that IL3 and IL6 induce a differentiation program in HSCs via GADD45G and p38 closing the link of extrinsic cytokine signaling and differentiation induction. Since the loss of Gadd45g increased the self-renewal and slowed HSC differentiation, this may be utilized, i.e. by p38 inhibition, to ex vivo maintain and expand HSCs by preventing cytokine-induced differentiation. Furthermore, Re-expression of GADD45G may overcome the differentiation block in leukemia to eliminate these cells by driving them into terminal differentiation and apoptosis.
The liver as the biggest endocrine gland of the human body plays a central role in many metabolic pathways such as detoxification, storage of carbohydrates and distribution of lipids. As the liver receives blood supply from the gut by the portal vein, liver cells are often challenged with high concentrations of nutrients and components of our commensal microbiota. Therefore, the immune system of the liver induces a tolerant state, meaning no or low inflammatory reactions to those constant stimuli. Yet, as various pathogens target the liver, the hepatic immune system also needs the capability to induce strong immune responses quickly. Chronical damage to the liver, which can be caused by alcohol, pathogens or toxins, might lead to liver cirrhosis, where the amount of functional liver tissue is decreased dramatically. This pathology can worsen and lead to acute-on-chronic liver failure, whose high mortality is due to high inflammation and multi-organ failure. Interleukin-7 is a cytokine known for its pro-survival functions especially in lymphopoiesis. However, it is also very important for maintenance of mature immune cells in the liver. As mouse experiments have demonstrated an induction of Interleukin-7 in the liver as a response to bacterial lipopolysaccharide, we aimed to characterize the role of Interleukin-7 in hepatic immunoregulation in both health and disease.
The experiments were mostly based on in vitro approaches. Induction of Interleukin-7 in liver cells was analyzed using ELISA, quantitative PCR, and Immunoblotting. Knockdown of signal transduction components was performed by siRNA transfection. Primary immune cells isolated from healthy donor buffy coat were studied for their ability to respond to Interleukin-7. Activation of downstream signal transduction was assessed by Immunoblotting. Functional consequences of Interleukin-7 signaling, such as alterations in cellular metabolism, cellular survival and endotoxin tolerance, were studied in monocyte-derived macrophages. Finally, serum concentrations of Interleukin-7 and frequencies of Interleukin-7 receptor positive immune cells were quantified in patients with compensated or decompensated liver cirrhosis or acute-on-chronic liver failure.
Interleukin-7 expression could be observed in human hepatic cell lines and primary hepatic sinusoidal endothelial cells when stimulated with IFNα or IFNγ, but not IFNλ. IRF-1 was identified as a key regulator of Interleukin-7 expression, as its transcription, translation and nuclear translocation were induced and enhanced upon IFNα or IFNγ, but not IFNλ treatment. We identified LPS-primed macrophages as innate immune target cells of Interleukin-7, which responded by an inhibitory phosphorylation of GSK3. This signal transduction led to enhanced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and abolished endotoxin tolerance. In parallel, cellular fitness was reduced as demonstrated by reduced intracellular ATP concentration and intracellular WST-1 staining. Finally, we could identify components of the in vitro signal transduction also in liver cirrhosis patients. However, Interleukin-7 serum concentrations were significantly in liver cirrhosis patients compared to healthy controls. In addition, the frequencies of Interleukin-7 receptor positive immune cell populations differed in patients and controls.
We identify Interleukin-7 as a pro-inflammatory cytokine in hepatic immunoregulation. It is part of a cascade where its induction is regulated by type I and type II Interferons and mainly restricted by the presence of IRF1. We demonstrate the importance of Interleukin-7 also for innate immune cells, where the abolishment of endotoxin tolerance may provide an interesting strategy of liver cirrhosis patients. In addition, reduced viability of macrophages in response to Interleukin-7 is a striking contrast to the well-described survival functions in lymphocytes. The decrease of serum Interleukin-7 levels and alterations of Interleukin-7 receptor positive immune cell populations suggest an important role for Interleukin-7 also in the diseased liver. Due to the identified mechanisms of action, Interleukin-7 may be an interesting candidate for immunotherapeutic approaches of liver cirrhosis and acute-on-chronic liver failure.
Human MSCs are currently deployed in a wide range of clinical applications and disease models, because of their regenerative and immune modulatory potential. Unfortunately, the fate of MSCs after systemic administration and the related interactions within the blood circulation are still not fully understood. The majority of i.v. or i.a administered MSCs accumulate in the lungs and loose traceability after 3-4 days in vivo144. Since engraftment rate and long term persistence of injected MSCs seems rather low, we tried to improve in vivo kinetics by using hyperosmolaric injection media (HyperHAES) in order to describe the impact on biodistribution, cell morphology and survival rate. In vitro culture related changes in morphology and surface expression patterns were analysed using flow cytometry and brightfield morphology scan in correlation with calibrated microbeads. In vivo tracking of male PKH67 labeled human MSCs in an immunecompetent mouse model were achieved using SRY-gene qRT-PCR analysis and flow cytometry/fluorescence microscopy at different time points. Kinetics, viability and cell-cell interaction of HyperHAES coinjected MSCs in comparison to NaCl 0.9% injection media were assessed with a combination of altering mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), caspase 3/7-activity, additional survival and surface markers. Incubation of human MSCs in hyperosmolaric injection media (HyperHAES) shortly before i.v. injection decreased average diameter of culture expanded MSCs about 30% (from 48.7±2.29μm to 34.6±2.04μm) and improved viability and retrieval rate of injected MSCs within 24h. HyperHAES decreased significantly the loss of MMP and the signal intensity of the dead cell marker PI in comparison to isotonic control. HyperHAES treated MSCs are detected at higher frequencies in most murine tissues but didn`t result in alterations of interaction with the host immune system or caspase activation. Additionally, HyperHAES seemed to enable MSCs to reach organs with smaller microcirculation like the spleen. Functional impairment of MSC in HyperHAES was analysed with Phalloidin A staining for cytoskeletal activation and showed no signs of disturbed actin polymerization, whereas nuisance of migration and immunemodulatory characteristics were not addressed. PKH67 labeled MSCs decrease in size after i.v. injection in mice, acquire apoptotic and phagocytic cell markers, and accumulate in lungs and liver. This process could be delayed but not reverted by preincubation of MSCs in HyperHAES. Our findings help to explain the rapid loss of traceable MSCs after systemic delivery.
HIV vaccine preclinical testing is difficult because HIV’s only relevant hosts are humans and no correlates of protection are known. To this end, we are working on the humanization of different mouse strains with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) as well as human hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) to generate a useful small animal model.
We generated immune deficient mice (NOD Scid IL2gc -/- /NOD Rag1-/- IL2gc -/-) expressing human MHC class II (HLA-DQ8) on a mouse class II deficient background (Ab-/-). Here, the human HLA-DQ8 should interact with the matching T cell receptors of transferred matching human PBMCs and therefore could support the functionality of the transferred human CD4+ cells in the mice.
Mice that were adoptively transferred with human HLA-DQ8 PBMCs only showed engraftment of CD3+ T cells. Surprisingly, the presence of HLA class II did not significantly change the repopulation rates in the mice. Also, the presence of HLA class II did not advance B cell engraftment, such that humoral immune responses were undetectable. However, the overall survival of DQ8-expressing mice was significantly prolonged, compared to mice expressing mouse MHC class II molecules, and correlated with an increased time span until onset of GvHD.
To avoid GVHD and to increase and maintain the level of human cell reconstitution over a long period of time, the same mouse strains were reconstituted with human HSC. Compared to PBMC-repopulated mice, HSC-reconstituted mice develop almost all subpopulations of the human immune system detectable at week 12 after HSC transfer. These mice developed adaptive immune responses after Tetanus Toxoide (TT) immunizations. In addition, we are testing the susceptibility of these humanized mice to different HIV strains with a detailed look at immune responses.
"Protein Associated with Myc" (PAM) hat aufgrund seiner enormen Größe von 510 kD und der Vielzahl an Proteinbindungsstellen das Potential viele regulatorische und physiologische Prozesse zu regulieren. Mit der Funktion als E3-Ubiquitinligase und davon unabhängigen Proteininteraktionen reguliert es beispielsweise Prozesse der Synaptogenese und der spinalen Schmerzverarbeitung, wie auch die Regulation des Pteridin Stoffwechsels und des cAMP-Signalweges. Im Gegensatz zur spinalen Schmerzverarbeitung war eine Beteiligung von PAM an der peripheren Nozizeption bisher unbekannt und sollte im Rahmen dieser Arbeit untersucht werden. Dazu wurden konditionale PAM-Knockout Mäuse generiert und charakterisiert. Zum einen wurde PAM in Vorläuferzellen von Neuronen und Gliazellen und zum anderen in allen nozizeptiven und thermorezeptiven Neuronen der Dorsalganglia und der Ganglia trigeminale deletiert. Der Knockout in Neuronen und Gliazellen führte zu einer pränatalen Letalität und unterstreicht so die Bedeutung von PAM während der Neuronenentwicklung. Mit Hilfe des spezifischen Knockouts in nozizeptiven Neuronen konnte eine Rolle von PAM bei der Regulation der thermischen Hyperalgesie gezeigt werden. Keinen Einfluss hatte die Deletion von PAM auf basale thermische und mechanische Schmerzschwellen, sowie auf Formalin-induzierte akute Schmerzen. Als potentieller Mechanismus wurde der mTOR- und der p38 MAPK-Signalweg untersucht. Dabei konnte eine Vermittlung der S1P-induzierten mTOR-Aktivierung durch PAM nachgewiesen werden und Rheb als eine Komponente dieser Aktivierung ermittelt werden. Der p38 MAPK Signalweg war in Abwesenheit von PAM konstitutiv aktiviert und einige Proteine des Rezeptortraffickings waren verstärkt exprimiert. Als ursächlich für die beobachtete verlängerte Hyperalgesie in PAM-defizienten Mäusen konnte die Unterbindung der Internalisierung des TRPV1-Rezeptors nachgewiesen werden. Dieser Effekt ist spezifisch für TRPV1, da der verwandte Ionenkanal TRPA1 durch die PAM-Deletion nicht beeinträchtigt wurde. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte so zum ersten Mal gezeigt werden, dass PAM in peripheren nozizeptiven Neuronen über die p38 MAPK-vermittelte Internalisierung von TRPV1 die Dauer der thermischen Hyperalgesie reguliert.