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Die Fähigkeit der spezifischen und kontextabhängigen zellulären Adaption auf intrinsische und/oder extrinsische Signale ist das Fundament zellulärer Homöostase. Verschiedene Signale werden von Membranrezeptoren oder intrazellulären Rezeptoren erkannt und ermöglichen die molekulare Anpassung zellulärer Prozesse. Komplexe, ineinandergreifende Proteinnetzwerke sind dabei elementar in der Regulation der Zelle. Proteine und deren Funktionen werden dabei nach Bedarf reguliert und unterliegen einem ständigen proteolytischen Umsatz.
Die stimulusabhängige Gentranskription und/oder Proteintranslation nimmt hier eine zentrale Stellung ein, da die zugrundeliegende Maschinerie die Komposition und Funktion der Proteinnetzwerke entsprechend anpassen kann. Zusätzlich zur Regulation der Proteinabundanz werden Proteine posttranslational modifiziert, um deren Eigenschaften rasch zu ändern. Zu posttranslationalen Modifikationen zählen die Ubiquitinierung und/oder Phosphorylierung, welche die Proteinfunktionen hochdynamisch regulieren. Deregulierte Proteinnetzwerke werden oft mit Neurodegeneration und Autoimmun- oder Krebserkrankungen assoziiert. Auch Infektionen mit humanpathogenen Bakterien greifen stark in den Regulierungsprozess von Proteinnetzwerken und deren Funktionen ein. Die zelluläre Homöostase wird dadurch herausgefordert.
Bakterien der Gattung Salmonella sind zoonotische, gramnegative, fakultativ intrazelluläre Pathogene, welche weltweit millionenfach Salmonellen-erkrankungen hervorrufen. Von besonderer Bedeutung ist dabei Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (hiernach Salmonella), welches im Menschen, meist durch mangelnde Hygienemaßnahmen, Gastroenteritis auslöst.
Immunität in Epithelzellen wird über das angeborene Immunsystem vermittelt und dient der Pathogenerkennung und -bekämpfung. Die Toll-like Rezeptoren (TLR) gehören zu den Mustererkennungsrezeptoren (pattern recognition receptors), welche spezifische mikrobielle Strukturen detektieren und eine kontextabhängige zelluläre Antwort generieren. Danger-Rezeptoren erkennen hingegen nicht direkt das Pathogen, sondern zelluläre Perturbationen, welche durch Zellschäden oder bakterielle Invasionen verursacht werden. Die intrinsische Fähigkeit der Wirtszelle, sich gegen Infektionen/Gefahren zu wehren wird dabei als zellautonome Immunität bezeichnet. Dabei nehmen induzierte proinflammatorische Signalwege und zelluläre Stressantworten eine wichtige Stellung ein. Die zelluläre Stressantwort aktiviert unter anderem die selektive Autophagie. Diese kann spezifisch aberrante Organelle, Proteine und invasive Pathogene abbauen. Ein weiterer Stresssignalweg ist die integrated stress response (ISR), welche eine selektive Proteintranslation erlaubt und damit die Auflösung des proteintoxischen Stresses ermöglicht.
Zur Penetration von Epithelzellen benötigt Salmonella ein komplexes System an Virulenzfaktoren, welches die bakterielle Internalisierung und Proliferation in der Wirtszelle ermöglicht. Salmonella nutzt dazu ein Typ-III-Sekretionssystem. Das System sekretiert bakterielle Virulenzfaktoren in die Zelle, sodass eine hochspezifische Modulierung des Wirtes erzwungen wird.
Die Virulenzfaktoren SopE und SopE2 spielen dabei eine Schlüsselrolle, da sie die Pathogenität von Salmonella maßgeblich vermitteln. Durch molekulare Mimikry von Wirts GTP (Guanosintriphosphat) -Austauschfaktoren aktivieren SopE und SopE2 die Rho GTPasen CDC42 und Rac1. GTP-geladenes CDC42 und Rac1 wiederum aktivieren das Aktinzytoskelett und stimulieren die Polymerisierung von Aktinfilamenten über den Arp2/3-Komplex an der Invasionsstelle. Das Pathogen wird dadurch in ein membranumhülltes Vesikel, die sogenannte Salmonella-containing Vakuole (SCV), aufgenommen. Die SCV stellt eine protektive, replikative, intrazelluläre Nische des Pathogens dar und wird permanent durch verschiedene Virulenzfaktoren moduliert.
Im Allgemeinen führt die Aktivierung von Mustererkennungsrezeptoren und Danger-Rezeptoren also zu einer zellulären Stressantwort und Entzündungsreaktion, wodurch es zur Bekämpfung der Infektion kommt. Inflammatorische Signalwege werden meist über den zentralen Transkriptionsfaktor NF-κB (nuclear factor 'kappa-light-chain-enhancer' of activated B-cells) vermittelt. NF-κB bewirkt die Induktion von proinflammatorischen Effektoren und Stressgenen. Zellautonome Immunität wird zusätzlich durch antibakterielle Autophagie ermöglicht, wobei Salmonella selektiv über das lysosomale System abgebaut werden. Das bakterielle Typ-III-Sekretionssystem verursacht an einigen wenigen SCVs Membranschäden, sodass Salmonella das Wirtszytosol penetrieren. Zytosolische Bakterien werden dabei spezifisch ubiquitiniert. Dies erlaubt die Erkennung durch die Autophagie-Maschinerie.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die zellautonome Immunität von Epithelzellen während einer akuten Salmonella Infektion durch quantitative Proteomik untersucht...
Lysosomes are major degradative organelles that contain enzymes capable of breaking down proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids. In the last decade, new discoveries have traced also important roles for lysosomes as signalling hubs, affecting metabolism, autophagy and pathogenic infections. Therefore, maintenance of a healthy lysosome population is of utmost importance to the cell to respond to both stress conditions and also homeostatic signalling. For example, for minor perturbations to the lysosomal membrane, the cell activates repair processes which seal membrane nicks. For more extensive damage, autophagy is activated to remove damaged organelles from the cell. on the other hand, during pathogen invasion host cells have also evolved mechanisms to hijack the endolysosomal pathway to facilitate their own growth and replication in host cells.
The first part of the thesis work focuses on a lysosomal regeneration program which is activated under conditions where the entire lysosomal pool of the cell is damaged. Upon extensive membrane damage induced by the lysosomotropic drug LLOMe, the cell activates a regeneration pathway which helps in the formation of new functional lysosomes by recycling damaged membranes. I have identified the molecules important for this novel pathway of lysosomal regeneration and showed how the protein TBC1D15 orchestrates this process to regenerate functional organelles from completely damaged membrane masses in the first 2 hours following lysosomal membrane damage. This process resembles the process of auto- lysosomal reformation (ALR)- involving the formation of lysosomal tubules which are extended along microtubules and cleaved in a dynamin2 dependent manner to form proto-lysosomes which develop into fully functional mature lysosomes. These lysosomal tubules are closely associated with ATG8 positive autophagosomal membranes and require ATG8 proteins to bind to the lysophagy receptor LIMP2 on damaged membranes. This process is physiologically important under conditions of crystal nephropathy where calcium oxalate crystals induce damage to lysosomal membranes in nephrons in kidney disease.
The second part of the thesis shows how the endolysosomal system of the cell is hijacked by the bacteriaLegionella pneumophila. During Legionella infection the formation of conventional ATG8 positive autophagosomes are blocked due to the protease activity of the bacterial effector protein RavZ which cleaves lipidated ATG8 proteins from autophagosomal membranes. The SidE effectors of Legionella modify STX17 and SNAP29 by the process of non-canonical ubiquitination called phosphoribose-linked serine ubiquitination (PR-Ub). These proteins are essential for the formation of the autophagosomal SNARE complex which is used for fusion of the autophagosome with the lysosome. Upon Legionella infection, PR-UB of STX17 aids in formation of autophagosome-like replication vacuoles. ThesevacuolesdonotfusewiththelysosomebecauseSNAP29isalsoPR-Ubmodified. PR-UbofSTX17 and SNAP29 sterically blocks the formation of the autophagosomal-SNARE complex thereby preventing fusion of the autophagosome with the lysosome. As a result, Legionella can replicate in autophagosome- like vacuoles which do not undergo lysosomal degradation. In absence of PR-Ub modified STX17, bacterial replication is compromised when measured by bacterial replication assays in lung epithelial (A549) cells.
Taken together, this thesis highlights two important aspects of the autophagy-lysosomal system- how it responds to extensive membrane damage and its importance in Legionella pneumophila infection. Extensive damage to lysosomal membranes triggers a rapid regeneration process to partially restore lysosomal function before the effects of TFEB dependent lysosomal biogenesis becomes apparent. On the other hand, Legionella pneumophila infection segregates the lysosomes from the rest of the endo-lysosomal system by blocking autophagosome-lysosome fusion. Though lysosomes remain active, they are incapable of degrading pathogens since pathogen containing vacuoles do not fuse with the lysosome.
This thesis is concerned with protein structures determined by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and the text focuses on their analysis in terms of accuracy, gauged by the correspondence between the structural model and the experimental data it was calculated from, and in terms of precision, i.e. the degree of uncertainty of the atomic positions. Additionally, two protein structure calculation projects are described...
Das Hauptziel dieser Dissertation lag in der Verbesserung einzelner Schritte im Prozess der automatischen Proteinstrukturbestimmung mittels Kernmagnetischer Resonanz (NMR). Dieser Prozess besteht aus einer Reihe von sequenziellen Schritten, welche zum Teil bereits erfolgreich automatisiert wurden. CYANA ist ein Programmpaket, welches routinemäßig zur automatischen Zuordnung der chemischen Verschiebungen, der Nuclear Overhauser Enhancement (NOE) Signalen und der Strukturrechnung von Proteinen verwendet wird. Einer der Schritte, der noch nicht erfolgreich automatisiert wurde, stellt die Signalidentifizierung von NMR Spektren dar. Dieser Schritt ist besonders wichtig, da Listen von NMR-Signalen Grundlage aller Folgeschritte sind. Fehler in den Signallisten pflanzen sich in allen Folgeschritten der Datenauswertung fort und können am Ende in falschen Strukturen resultieren. Daher war ein Ziel dieser Arbeit, einen robusten und verlässlichen Algorithmus zur Signalidentifizierung von NMR Spektren in CYANA zu implementieren. Dieser Algorithmus sollte mit dem in FLYA implementierten Ansatz zur automatischen Resonanzzuordnung, der automatischen NOE-Zuordnung und der Strukturrechnung mit CYANA kombiniert werden. Der in CYANA implementierte CYPICK Algorithmus ahmt den von Hand durchgeführten Ansatz nach. Bei der manuellen Methode schaut sich der Wissenschaftler zweidimensionale Konturliniendarstellungen der NMR Spektren an und entscheidet anhand verschiedener Geomtrie- und Ähnlichkeitskriterien, ob es sich um ein Signal des Proteins oder um einen Artefakt handelt. Proteinsignale sind ähnlich zu konzentrischen Ellipsen und erfüllen bestimmte geometrische Kriterien, wie zum Beispiel ungefähr kreisförmiges Aussehen nach entsprechender Skalierung der spektralen Achsen und gänzlich konvexe Formen, die Artefakte nicht aufzeigen. CYPICK bewertet die Konturlinien lokaler Extrema nach diesen Bedingungen und entscheidet anhand dieser, ob es sich um ein echtes Signal handelt oder nicht. Das zweite Ziel dieser Arbeit war es ein Maß zur Quantifizierung der Information von strukturellen NMR Distanzeinschränkungen zu entwickeln. Der sogenannte Informationsgehalt (I) ist vergleichbar mit der Auflösung in der Röntgenkristallographie. Ein weiteres Projekt dieser Dissertation beschäftigte sich mit der strukturbasierten Medikamentenentwicklung (SBDD). SBDD wird meist von der Röntgenkristallographie durchgeführt. NMR hat jedoch einige Vorteile gegenüber der Röntgenkristallographie, welche interessant für SBDD sind. Daher wurden Strategien entwickelt, die NMR für SBDD zugänglicher machen sollen.
Das Steroid-Hormon 17ß-Estradiol ist maßgeblich an der Entstehung und Entwicklung von Brustkrebs beteiligt. Die intrazelluläre Verfügbarkeit des aktiven Estrogens, 17ß-Estradiol, wird durch die 17ßHydroxysteroiddehydrogenase (17ßHSDl) reguliert, die die NADPH-abhängige Reduktion von Estron zu Estradiol katalysiert. Damit stellt die 17ßHSD1 einen interessanten Ansatzpunkt für die Entwicklung neuer Inhibitoren im Hinblick auf potente Wirkstoffe gegen Brustkrebs dar. Die 17ß-Hydroxysteroiddehydrogenase 2 bevorzugt hingegen die oxidative Aktivität und wandelt die biologisch aktiven Hydroxysteroide wie Estradiol in ihre inaktiven Ketoformen um. Ein möglicher Inhibitor der 17ß-HSD1 sollte demnach die Funktion der 17ß-HSD2 nicht beeinträchtigen. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden Strategien und Methoden entwickelt, die 17ßHSD1 durch heterologe Expression erstmals in E. coli darzustellen. Durch NMR-Spektroskopie in Kombination mit Docking konnten detaillierte Aussagen über die Bindungsepitope der untersuchten Liganden gemacht werden. Diese Informationen sind für eine gerichtete Optimierung von Leitstrukturen von großer Bedeutung.
Zusammenfassung Die Alzheimersche Krankheit (AD) ist mit 60% die am häufigsten auftretende Art der Demenz. Weltweit sind ca. 24 Mio. Menschen von der neurodegenerativen Krankheit betroffen, welche sich durch den Verlust der kognitiven Fähigkeiten auszeichnet. Es gibt zwei Ausprägungen der Demenz, zum einen die sporadische Verlaufsform, die bei Menschen in einem Alter ab 65 Jahren auftritt und zum anderen die familiäre Alzheimersche Krankheit (FAD), die schon weitaus jüngere Menschen betrifft und auf genetische Mutationen zurück zu führen ist. Beide Formen der Demenz zeigen den gleichen neuropathologische Phänotyp, der zur Ausbildung von extrazellulären Plaques und intrazellulären Neurofibrillen führt. Durch die Entstehung der Plaques und der Neurofibrillen werden die Verbindungen zwischen den einzelnen Neuronen verringert und die Neuronen sterben ab. Für das Auftreten der FAD sind Mutationen in den Genen des Amyloid Vorläufer Proteins (APP, Substrat) sowie der Aspartatprotease Einheit des γ-Sekretase Komplexes, Presenilin 1 (PS1) oder Presenilin 2 (PS2), verantwortlich. Die γ-Sekretase ist ein membranständiger Komplex bestehend aus den vier Untereinheiten PS1 oder PS2, Nicastrin (Nct), Aph-1 und Pen-2. Um ausreichende Informationen über den γ-Sekretase Komplex bezüglich seiner Interaktionsflächen, seines Katalysemechanismus und seiner Substraterkennung zu erhalten, wäre es hilfreich seine 3 Dimensionale Struktur aufzuklären, wozu große Mengen der sauberen und homogenen Proteine benötigt werden. Die Herstellung von ausreichenden Proteinmengen stellt derzeit aber einen Engpass für die strukturelle und funktionelle Charakterisierung des γ-Sekretase Komplexes in-vitro dar. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia, which affects 24 million people worldwide. It is a neurodegenerative disorder, which occurs either in its most common form in people over 65 years or in the rare early-onset familial AD (FAD). Responsible for the autosomal dominant FAD are mutations in the genes encoding for the β-amyloid precursor protein (APP) and the two homologues integral membrane proteins Presenilin 1 (PS1) and Presenilin 2 (PS2). The two PSs are major but alternative components of the intramembrane aspartyl protease γ-secretase. Further components are the membrane proteins Nicastrin (Nct), Aph-1 and Pen-2. Production of sufficient amounts of protein samples is still the major bottleneck for the detailed functional and structural in-vitro characterization of the γ-secretase complex. Due to toxicity, stability and targeting problems, the overproduction of MPs in conventional in-vivo systems often has only limited success. Therefore, efficient expression protocols using the cell-free (CF) system were established in this work. After optimization, I was able to produce up to milligram amounts of the single proteins PS1 and PS2, the cleavage products PS1-NTF and PS1-CTF, and Pen-2. The in-vitro produced γ-secretase subunits were further characterized, concerning their purity, secondary fold, thermal stability and homogeneity. Highest purities with over 90% after affinity chromatography could be achieved for PS1-CTF and Pen-2. Reconstitution of PS1, PS1-NTF, PS1-CTF and Pen-2 into E. coli liposomes results in a homogeneously distribution, which gives evidence for a structural folding. This was confirmed by CD spectroscopy of PS1-CTF and Pen-2. The thermal stability of Pen-2 shows a transition at 68°C, whereas PS1-CTF is stable up to 95°C. Both proteins show in addition homogeneous elution profiles investigated by analytical SEC and exhibit a monomeric (Pen-2) or dimeric (PS1-CTF) character analyzed by blue native PAGE. Different methods were performed to get evidence about the assembly of the complex, like pull-down experiments, immunoprecipitation, co-expression of radioactive labeled subunits and titration assays by liquid-state NMR. First hints for an interaction of the CF synthesized proteins could be observed by co-expression. Supplemental, Pen-2 and CTF could be purified in sufficient amounts and to apparent homogeneity that allow structural approaches by X-ray crystallography and liquid-state NMR spectroscopy. First conditions for protein crystals were achieved for Pen-2 and structural investigations of PS1-CTF by liquid-state NMR could be performed after optimization of the expression-, purification- and detergent conditions.
Biochemical and functional analysis of the ubiquitin binding properties of the NF-κB regulator NEMO
(2012)
Posttranslationale Modifikationen regulieren wesentliche Eigenschaften von Proteinen, wie z. B. Lokalisation, Konformation, Aktivität, Stabilität und Interaktionsfähigkeit. Eine besondere Form der Proteinmodifikation ist die Ubiquitylierung, bei der das kleine Protein Ubiquitin mit seinem C-Terminus kovalent an ein Substratprotein gebunden wird.
Die am besten untersuchte Funktion der Ubiquitylierung ist die Markierung eines Substrates für den Abbau durch das Proteasom. In den letzten Jahren wurde jedoch entdeckt, dass Ubiquitylierung in vielen Bereichen der Zelle eine wichtige Rolle spielt. Dazu gehören der Transport von Vesikeln, die Reparatur von DNA-Schäden und zelluläre Signalübertragung. Ubiquitin kann verschieden-artige Ketten bilden, indem ein Ubiquitin an eines der sieben Lysine (K6, K11, K27, K29, K33, K48, K63) oder den N-Terminus eines anderen gebunden wird. Diese unterschiedlichen Kettentypen regulieren verschiedene Prozesse. Z. B. dienen K48-verknüpfte Ubiquitinketten als Signal für den proteasomalen Abbau, wohingegen über K63 verknüpfte Ketten hauptsächlich eine Rolle bei Signalübertragungen spielen.
Die meisten Funktionen die durch Ubiquitylierung reguliert werden, werden durch Ubiquitinrezeptoren vermittelt, die eine Ubiquitinbindedomäne (UBD) besitzen. Manche UBDs binden selektiv nur einen Ubiquitinkettentyp und sind somit in der Lage gezielt Prozesse regulieren zu können, indem sie nur durch diesen speziellen Kettentyp aktiviert werden.
Das Protein NEMO ist ein Ubiquitinrezeptor, dessen UBD UBAN selektiv bestimmte Ubiquitinketten bindet. NEMO spielt eine zentrale Rolle bei der Aktivierung der Transkriptionsfaktorfamilie NF-κB, indem es den IKK-Kinasekomplex reguliert. Dieser Kinasekomplex sorgt durch die Phosphorylierung des NF-κB-Inhibitors IκBα für dessen proteasomalen Abbau, wodurch schließlich NF-κB aktiviert wird. Die NF-κB-Aktivierung kann u. a. durch den TNF-Rezeptor (TNFR) induziert werden. Am aktivierten TNFR werden viele Proteine durch verschiedene Ubiquitinketten modifiziert. Bisher wurde angenommen, dass die spezifische Bindung von NEMO an K63-verknüpfte Ubiquitinketten ausschlaggebend für die Aktivierung von IKK ist. Jedoch spielen lineare Ubiquitinketten, die über den N-Terminus verknüpft sind, auch eine wichtige Rolle bei der Aktivierung von NF-κB und die UBAN von NEMO hat eine sehr hohe Affinität zu linearen Ubiquitinketten.
Um die genauen Vorgänge zu verstehen, die zur Aktivierung von NF-κB am TNFR führen, ist es nötig, zu analysieren, welche Proteine mit welchen Ubiquitinketten modifiziert werden und welche Ubiquitinrezeptoren daran binden.
In dieser Studie sollte detailliert untersucht werden, mit welchen Ubiquitin-ketten NEMO bevorzugt interagiert. Dazu wurden in vitro-Bindungsstudien mit bakteriell aufgereinigtem NEMO und verschiedenen Ubiquitinketten durchgeführt. Des Weiteren sollte geprüft werden, wie die Bindung von NEMO an bestimmte Ubiquitinketten die Aktivierung von NF-κB reguliert.
Dabei ergab sich, dass sowohl NEMO in voller Länge, als auch die UBAN, bevorzugt mit linearen Ubiquitinketten interagieren, wohingegen die Interaktion von NEMO mit anderen Ubiquitinketten relativ schwach ist. Ausgehend von einer Kristallstruktur eines Komplexes aus der NEMO-UBAN und linearem di-Ubiquitin, wurden NEMO-Mutanten generiert, die seletkiv die Bindung von NEMO an lineare Ubiquitinketten verhindern, während die schwache Bindung von NEMO an längere K63-verknüpfte Ketten erhalten blieb. Um die Relevanz der Interaktion von NEMO mit linearen Ubiquitinketten für die Aktivierung von NF κB zu überprüfen, wurden diese NEMO-Mutanten dann verwendet um Zellen die kein NEMO exprimieren zu rekonstituieren. Nach Stimulation dieser Zellen mit TNFα wurde NF-κB kaum aktiviert, womit gezeigt werden konnte, dass NEMO gezielt an lineare Ubiquitinketten binden muss, um NF-κB zu aktivieren. Zusätzlich zu seiner Rolle bei der Aktivierung von NF-κB ist NEMO ein wichtiger Inhibitor der durch den TNFR induzierten Apoptose. In dieser Studie wurde gezeigt, dass diese Apoptoseinhibierung abhängig von der Bindung von NEMO an lineare Ubiquitinketten ist, da die Zellen die NEMO-Mutanten exprimierten, die keine linearen Ketten binden können, durch Apoptose starben, währen Wildtyp-Zellen überlebten.
Zusammenfassend konnte in dieser Studie gezeigt werden, dass NEMO bevorzugt und mit vergleichsweise hoher Affinität an lineare Ubiquitinketten bindet und dass diese spezifische Bindung wichtig für die Inhibierung von TNFR-induzierter Apoptose sowie für die Aktivierung von NF-κB ist.
G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the key players in signal perception and transduction and one of the currently most important class of drug targets. An example of high pharmacological relevance is the human endothelin (ET) system comprising two rhodopsin-like GPCRs, the endothelin A (ETA) and the endothelin B (ETB) receptor. Both receptors are major modulators in cardiovascular regulation and show striking diversities in biological responses affecting vasoconstriction and blood pressure regulation as well as many other physiological processes. Numerous disorders are associated with ET dysfunction and ET antagonism is considered an efficient treatment of diseases like heart failure, hypertension, diabetes, artherosclerosis and even cancer. This study exemplifies strategies and approaches for the preparative scale synthesis of GPCRs in individual cell-free (CF) systems based on E. coli, a newly emerging and promising technique for the production of even very difficult membrane proteins. The preparation of high quality samples in sufficient amounts is still a major bottleneck for the structural determination of the ET receptors. Heterologous overexpression has been a challenge now for decades but extensive studies with conventional cell-based systems had only limited success. A central milestone of this study was the development of efficient preparative scale expression protocols of the ETA receptor in qualities sufficient for structural analysis by using individual CF systems. Newly designed optimization strategies, the implementation of a variety of CF expression modes and the development of specific quality control assays finally resulted in the production of several milligrams of ETA receptor per one millilitre of reaction mixture. The versatility of CF expression was extensively used to modulate GPCR sample quality by modification of the solubilization environment with detergents and lipids in a variety of combinations at different stages of the production process. Downstream processing procedures of CF synthesized GPCRs were systematically optimized and sample properties were analysed with respect to homogeneity, protein stability and receptor ligand binding competence. Evaluation was accomplished by an array of complementary and specifically modified techniques. Depending on its hydrophobic environment, CF production of the ETA receptor resulted in non-aggregated, monodisperse forms with sufficient long-term stability and high degrees of secondary structure thermostability. The obtained results document the CF production of the ETA receptor in two different modes as an example of a class A GPCR in ligand-binding competent and non-aggregated form in quantities sufficient for structural approaches. The presented strategy could serve as basic guideline for the production of related receptors in similar systems.
The universal biological energy currency adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is synthesized by the F1Fo-ATP synthase in most living organisms. The overall structure and function of F-type ATPases is conserved in the different organisms. The F1Fo-ATP synthase consist of two domains; the soluble F1 complex has the subunit stoichiometry α3β3γδε and the membrane embedded Fo complex consists of subunits ab2c10-15 in its simplest form found in bacteria. F1 and Fo both function as reversible rotary motors that are connected by a central stalk (γε) and a peripheral stalk (b2δ).
For ATP synthesis, the electrochemical energy formed by a proton or sodium ion gradient is required. The ion translocation across the Fo subcomplex induces torque in the motor part of the enzyme (cnγε), which causes conformational changes in the α3β3 domain leading to ATP synthesis from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) catalyzed in the β-subunits. ATP hydrolysis causes a reverse torque in the Fo subcomplex triggering uphill ion translocation from cytoplasm to periplasm, and the enzyme functions as an ion pump.
The ATP synthesis mechanism is well understood, since several high-resolution structures of F1 are available. In contrast, the ion translocation mechanism across the membrane, mediated by the Fo subcomplex, is not understood in its structural detail.
Subunit a and the c-ring form an ion pathway, but subunit b is needed to form an active ion translocation pathway in both H+- and Na+-dependent systems. Several high-resolution structures of c-rings have provided insights in the ion translocation mechanism. The different ion translocation models based on biochemical, biophysical and structural analysis are in agreement in the fact that ions are translocated through a periplasmic ion access pathway in subunit a to the middle of the membrane and there to the binding site of a c-subunit. After almost a whole rotation of the c-ring the ion returns into the a-c interface, where it can be released to the cytoplasm. In the different models the cytoplasmic access pathway has been proposed to be located in subunit a, at the a-c interface or within the c-ring. The driving force of torque generation has been proposed to be the pH gradient or membrane potential. Several biochemical studies show that a conserved arginine in helix four of subunit a (R226 in Ilyobacter tartaricus or R210 in Escherichia coli)plays a critical role in the ion translocation. The arginine has been proposed to function as an electrostatic separator between the cytoplasmic and periplasmic pathways and as a mediator of the ion exchange into the c-ring ion-binding site.
Structural data of a related enzyme (V1Vo-ATPase from Thermus thermophilus) has provided insight into the helical arrangement of the ion translocating subunits I and Lring (related to subunit a and the c-ring). These structures indicated a small interface between subunit I and the L-ring, and two four-helix bundles in the N-terminal domain of subunit I were proposed to build the periplasmic and cytoplasmic ion pathways. To comprehend the ion-translocation and torque generation mechanism in F1Fo-ATP synthase, structural data of an intact a-c complex is needed.
The goal of this work was to obtain structural data of subunit a, most preferably in a complex with the c-ring or additionally with subunit b. Therefore, a new purification procedure for the I. tartaricus Fo-subcomplex, heterologously expressed in E. coli cells, was established. The purified Fo was characterized biochemically and by Laserinduced liquid bead ion desorption mass spectrometry (LILBID-MS). These analyses showed that pure and completely assembled Fo containing all its subunits in the correct stoichiometry (ab2c11) was obtained. The purified Fo complex was stable at 4°C for several months and at room temperature in the presence of lipids for several weeks. A lipid analysis was performed by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) to investigate the qualitative lipid composition of I. tartaricus whole lipid extract and various I. tartaricus F1Fo isolates. The whole lipid extract contained PC, PG and PE lipids and probably cardiolipin. PC, PG and PE lipids were bound to wild type I. tartaricus F1Fo, whereas recombinant I. tartaricus F1Fo did not have any bound lipids, but was able to bind the synthetic lipids POPC and POPG if they were provided during the purification.
For subsequent structural studies the purified Fo was subjected to two-dimensional (2D) crystallization trials. Vesicles and sheets tightly packed with protein and crystals with a rare plane group for I. tartaricus c11 (p121) were obtained. The c-ring was visible in the CCD images, and immunogold-labeling revealed the presence of the His-tagged a-subunit in the reconstituted vesicles. Furthermore, atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging showed protein densities next to the c-rings, which protruded less from the membrane (0.4±0.1 nm) than the c-ring (0.7±0.1 nm). These protein densities presumably belonged to subunit a.
Cryo-electronmicroscopy (cryo-EM) was used to collect data of the p121 crystals and a merged projection density map was calculated to 7.0 Å resolution. The unit cell of the crystals (81 × 252 Å) contained two asymmetric units with three c-rings in each and next to the c11-rings new prominent densities were visible. In each extra density up to 7 transmembrane helices were visible, belonging to the stator subunit a and/or subunit b. To elucidate whether there are conserved elements in the three extra densities non-crystallographic averaging was applied using a single-particle approach.
Six possible arrangements for the c-rings and the extra densities were identified and used for the averaging. The extra densities were enhanced only in one of the possible arrangements. The average showed a four-helix bundle and a fifth helix in close proximity to the c-ring. Two more helices were present in each position but their position was ambivalent. The data obtained in this work provides the first insight in the helical arrangement in the a-c interface of F1Fo-ATP synthase.
Bispezifische transmembrane Antikörperfragmente zur Inhibierung von ErbB-Wachstumsfaktor-Rezeptoren
(2014)
Der epidermale Wachstumsfaktor-Rezeptor (EGFR) und das ErbB2 Molekül sind Mitglieder der ErbB-Rezeptortyrosinkinase-Familie. Die Bindung von Peptidliganden an die extrazelluläre Domäne (ECD) von EGFR führt zu einer Konformationsänderung, die den Dimerisierungs-kompetenten Zustand des Rezeptors stabilisiert und eine Homodimerisierung oder Heterodimerisierung mit anderen ErbB-Rezeptoren erlaubt. ErbB2 liegt dagegen ohne Ligandenbindung dauerhaft in einer Dimerisierungskompetenten Konformation vor. Die Rezeptordimerisierung stimuliert die intrazelluläre Kinaseaktivität, was zu einer Autophosphorylierung distinkter Tyrosine im C-terminalen Schwanz der Rezeptoren führt. Diese Phosphotyrosine dienen als Bindungsstellen unterschiedlicher intrazellulärer Substrate und Adaptorproteine, die Zellwachstums-, Migrations- und Überlebens-fördernde Signalkaskaden auslösen. Eine Über- oder Fehlfunktion dieser Rezeptoren wurde in vielen Karzinomen epithelialen Ursprungs sowie in Glioblastomen beschrieben und mit einem aggressiven Krankheitsverlauf in Verbindung gebracht.
Der therapeutische Antikörper Cetuximab inhibiert das Tumorwachstum, indem er an die ECD von EGFR bindet und dabei die Ligandenbindung und Rezeptoraktivierung unterbindet. Dieselben Eigenschaften weist das single chain fragment variable (scFv) 225 auf, das die gleiche Antigenbindungsdomäne besitzt. Ein weiteres scFv-Antikörperfragment, scFv(30), wurde in vorangegangenen Arbeiten der Gruppe aus einer scFv-Bibliothek isoliert und bindet als zytoplasmatisch stabil exprimierbares Molekül an die intrazelluläre Domäne (ICD) des EGFR.
Im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit wurde das bislang unbekannte Epitop des scFv(30) Antikörperfragments mittels Peptid-Spotting Experimenten bestimmt. Die Bindungsstelle des scFv(30) Proteins wurde dabei am C-terminalen Ende der EGFR Sequenz lokalisiert und umfasst die Aminosäuresequenz GIFKGSTAE (AS 1161-1169 des reifen EGFR Proteins).
Die Expression von Antikörperfragmenten als sogenannte Intrabodies in Tumorzellen stellt einen wirkungsvollen Ansatz zur selektiven Interferenz mit wichtigen physiologischen und pathophysiologischen Prozessen dar. Im zweiten Teil der vorgelegten Arbeit wurde das EGFR-ECD-spezifische Antikörperfragment scFv(225) über eine Transmembrandomäne und eine flexible Gelenkregion mit dem EGFR-ICD-spezifischen scFv(30) Molekül zu einem neuartigen bispezifischen Antikörper verbunden. Die konstitutive Expression dieses 225.TM.30 Intrabodies und der monospezifischen Variante 225.TM nach lentiviraler Transduktion von EGFR-überexprimierenden MDA MB468 und A431 Tumorzellen resultierte in einer substanziellen Reduktion der EGFR-Oberflächenexpression und einer Blockierung der Liganden-induzierten EGFR-Autophosphorylierung, begleitet von einer deutlichen Inhibition des Zellwachstums. Eine weitere Analyse der 225.TM.30-induzierten molekularen Prozesse in diesen Tumorzellen im Vergleich zu den beiden monospezifischen Varianten 225.TM und TM.30 erfolgte mittels eines Tetracyclin-induzierbaren Expressionssystems. Dazu wurden A431, MDA-MB468 und EGFR-negative MDA-MB453 Zellen zunächst mit retroviralen Vektorpartikeln transduziert, die für den optimierten reversen Tetracyclin-kontrollierten Transaktivator (M2) kodieren. Anschließend erfolgte die Tansduktion mit retroviralen transmembranen Antikörperkonstrukten, kontrolliert von einem Tetracyclin-induzierbaren Promoter (T6). Die Doxycyclin (Dox)-induzierte Expression von 225.TM.30 und 225.TM bestätigte die im konstitutiven Expressionssystem beobachteten Ergebnisse. TM.30-exprimierende Zellen zeigten dagegen keinen Unterschied in der Oberflächenexpression oder Aktivierbarkeit von EGFR zu parentalen Zellen, wiesen aber dennoch eine deutliche Inhibition des Wachstums auf. Konfokale Laserscanning Mikroskopie Studien zeigten eine Co-Lokalisation von 225.TM und EGFR hauptsächlich an der Zelloberfläche, während 225.TM.30 und TM.30 im endoplasmatischen Retikulum detektiert wurden und EGFR in diesem Kompartiment festhielten. Die TM.30/EGFR-Komplexe im ER könnten eine ER-Stress-Antwort auslösen und damit das reduzierte Wachstum TM.30-exprimierender Zellen erklären. Tatsächlich wurden in MDA MB468/M2/iTM.30 und A431/M2/iTM.30 Zellen erhöhte Proteindisulfidisomerase (PDI) und teilweise GRP78/BiP Proteinmengen detektiert, die auf eine ER-Stress-Antwort hindeuten. Das bispezifische 225.TM.30 Molekül vereinte die Eigenschaften der monospezifischen Antikörpervarianten. Es hielt wie TM.30 Anteile des EGFR im ER zurück und war wie 225.TM in der Lage, die EGFR-Oberflächenexpression zu reduzieren und die EGFR-Autophosphorylierung zu inhibieren.
Die Expression der drei transmembranen Antikörper in EGFR-negativen MDA-MB453/M2 Zellen hatte dagegen keinen Einfluss auf das Wachstum dieser Zellen, was die EGFR-Spezifität der vorgestellten Moleküle unterstreicht.
Im letzten Teil der vorgelegten Arbeit wurde die scFv(225) Domäne in 225.TM.30 gegen das ErbB2-ECD-spezifische scFv(FRP5) Molekül ausgetauscht, und somit ein ErbB2-ECD- und EGFR-ICD-spezifischer Intrabody generiert (5.TM.30). Nach der Dox-induzierten Expression des 5.TM.30 Moleküls in EGFR- und/oder ErbB2-exprimierenden Tumorzellen wurde die Funktionalität beider Bindungsdomänen verifiziert. Die 5.TM.30 Expression resultierte dabei in ErbB2-positiven Tumorzellen in einer verringerten Oberflächen- und Gesamtexpression von ErbB2 und in EGFR-positiven Zellen in einer Reduktion der EGFR-Gesamtproteinmenge. Dies lässt auf eine erhöhte, 5.TM.30-induzierte Degradation der beiden Rezeptoren schließen. Die Expression des 5.TM.30 Proteins führte zudem zu einer Inhibition des Wachstums EGFR- und/oder ErbB2-positiver Zellen. Weiterhin wurde auch in 5.TM.30-exprimierenden MDA-MB468/M2 Zellen, wie für 225.TM.30 und TM.30 beschrieben, eine Co-Lokalisation des transmembranen Antikörperfragments mit EGFR im ER gezeigt.
Die in dieser Arbeit vorgestellten Ergebnisse weisen erstmals die Funktionalität von membranverankerten mono- und bispezifischen Antikörpermolekülen als Intrabodies nach, und zeigen ihr Potenzial zur gerichteten Interferenz mit der Wachstumsfaktor-abhängigen Signaltransduktion. Durch den Austausch der extra- und intrazellulären Antikörperdomänen könnte diese Strategie ebenso zur Analyse oder Blockade weiterer Signalmoleküle und Signalkomplexe eingesetzt werden.
Small molecule drug discovery is strongly supported by biophysical data. In the reach of this thesis, cell free protein expression was used to produce human target proteins for ligand binding assays using Surface Plasmon Resonance spectroscopy (SPR). In the second step the binding and interaction characteristics of small molecules and fragments were analyzed using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy (NMR).
The first target protein was the human acid sensing channel 1 (ASIC1a). ASIC1a was expressed in a cell free expression system based on E.coli lysate. To optimize the expression, several parameters including fusion tags, ion concentrations and different hydrophobic environments were tested.
The adaption of the folding environment for ASIC1a needed more optimization, because it is a very challenging target to express in an in vitro system. Three different expression modes were employed to find a suitable folding environment.
SPR binding studies with ASIC1a were performed with chicken ASIC1a expressed in insect cells. The immobilization of cASIC1a and the used buffer conditions were tested using Psalmotoxin 1, a naturally occurring peptide venom which binds strong to the trimeric form of ASIC1a. Compound characterization experiments were performed with a variety of different ligands including amiloride, a general blocker of the whole ENaC protein family. None of the used ligands showed titration curves that would match a simple 1:1 binding model. The experiments either show no binding signal or signal that could be interpreted as unspecific binding. Even amiloride that should be binding the protein shows no signals that fit a simple binding model.
Another target protein that was investigated is the soluble prolyl cis/trans isomerase Cyclophilin D (or peptidyl prolyl isomerase F – PPIF). This protein is involved in the regulation of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore and therefore a potential drug target to treat neurodegenerative diseases. Small molecule binding was tested with CypD using SPR. Following the kinetic analysis of small molecule ligands, the binding position of different binding fragments was analyzed. These fragments originated from a SPR based fragment screen and gave no co-crystal structures with CypD. Therefore NMR was used to investigate the binding position of these fragments. An analysis of the chemical shift perturbations upon ligand addition revealed that the NMR analysis was in line with the results gathered by x-ray crystallography. The fragments with unknown binding position however, all bind to a specific patch slightly outside the binding pocket.
The ligand CL1 showed a special behavior in the NMR experiments. Upon addition to CypD, it produced large shifts on many signals of the protein, accompanied by a severe line broadening. The shift perturbations were so numerous and large that the spectrum had to be reassigned in complex with the ligand. Triple selective labeling was applied to allow a fast and nearly complete signal assignment. The possibility to use highly sophisticated labeling schemes, is one of the advantages of cell free protein expression. After the assignment of the complex spectrum, the chemical shift perturbations were analyzed and quantified. The residues showing the strongest CSPs are also identified in the crystal structure to be involved in the binding of CL1, giving a consistent picture. The numerous and large shift perturbations, produced by CL1 led to the assumption, that the ligand induces a conformational change in CypD, which is not represented in the co-crystal structure. This conformational change was characterized by a NMR based structure determination. CypD apo yielded a defined bundle, whose folded regions overlap well with the corresponding crystal structure.
For the calculation of the CypD-CL1 complex structure, the sidechain resonances were assigned using an automated assignment approach with the software FLYA. The calculation of the CypD-CL1 complex structure did not result in a defined bundle. While parts of the protein converge in a well folded state, the region around the active site shows no defined folding. Careful analysis of the structure calculation suggests that the problems during structure calculation did not originate from an incorrect resonance assignment, but rather from a lack of NOE crosspeaks. This might be due to a broadening of the corresponding NOE crosspeaks or the coexistence of many different conformations. This leads to the conclusion, that the protein conformation is not defined by the NMR data and could be in a dynamic interchange between multiple structures.
This hypothesis is supported by other observations. The line broadening of the signals in the complex is pronounced in the area around the active site and the substrate binding pocket, hinting to a connection between catalytic activity and protein dynamics. In addition many NMR signals are sensitive to changes in the measurement field strength and the temperature. This field dependent signal splitting suggests dynamic conformational changes in the protein between at least two different conformations on a millisecond timescale.
The current working model is that CL1 binds to CypD and induces the catalytic cycle and the connected conformational changes in CypD. As a result the proline like moiety in CL1 is constantly switching between the cis and the trans conformation. Due to the high affinity of CL1, the inhibitor does not leave the binding pocket after successful catalysis, but stays bound in the pocket stimulating further catalytic cycles. These findings as well as the working model are well in line with data published for Cyclophilin A, another member of the cyclophilin family, thereby supporting the model.
Alzheimer’s disease (AD), which was first reported more than a century ago by Alhzeimer, is one of the commonest forms of dementia which affects >30 million people globally (>8 million in Europe). The origin and pathogenesis of AD is poorly understood and there is no cure available for the disease. AD is characterized by the accumulation of senile plaques composed of amyloid beta peptides (Ab 37-43) which is formed by the gamma secretase (GS) complex by cleaving amyloid precursor protein. Therefore GS can be an attractive drug target. Since GS processes several other substrates like Notch, CD44 and Cadherins, nonspecific inhibition of GS has many side effects. Due to the lack of crystal structure of GS, which is attributed to the extreme difficulties in purifying it, molecular modeling can be useful to understand its architecture. So far only low resolution cryoEM structures of the complex has been solved which only provides a rough structure of the complex at low 12-15 A resolution Furthermore the activity of GS in vitro can be achieved by means of cell-free (CF) expression.
GS comprises catalytic subunits namely presenilins and supporting elements containing Pen-2, Aph-1 and Nicastrin. The origin of AD is hidden in the regulated intramembrnae proteolysis (RIP) which is involved in various physiological processes and also in leukemia. So far growth factors, cytokines, receptors, viral proteins, cell adhesion proteins, signal peptides and GS has been shown to undergo RIP. During RIP, the target proteins undergo extracellular shredding and intramembrane proteolysis.
This thesis is based on molecular modeling, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, cell-free (CF) expression, mass spectrometry, NMR, crystallization, activity assay etc of the components of GS complex and G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs).
First I validated the NMR structure of PS1 CTF in detergent micelles and lipid bilayers using coarse-grained MD simulations using MARTINI forcefield implemented in Gromacs. CTF was simulated in DPC micelles, DPPC and DLPC lipid bilayer. Starting from random configuration of detergent and lipids, micelle and lipid bilyer were formed respectively in presence of CTF and it was oriented properly to the micelle and bilyer during the simulation. Around DPC molecules formed micelle around CTF in agreement of the experimental results in which 80-85 DPC molecules are required to form micelles. The structure obtained in DPC was similar to that of NMR structure but differed in bilayer simulations showed the possibility of substrate docking in the conserved PAL motif. Simulations of CTF in implicit membrane (IMM1) in CHAMM yielded similar structure to that from coarse grained MD.
I performed cell-free expression optimization, crystallization and NMR spectroscopy of Pen-2 in various detergent micelles. Additionally Pen-2 was modeled by a combination of rosetta membrane ab-initio method, HHPred distant homology modeling and incorporating NMR constraints. The models were validated by all atom and coarse grained MD simulations both in detergent micelles and POPC/DPPC lipid bilayers using MARTINI forcefield.
GS operon consisting of all four subunits was co-expressed in CF and purified. The presence of of GS subunits after pull-down with Aph-1 was determined by western blotting (Pen-2) and mass spectrometry (Presenilin-1 and Aph-1). I also studied interactions of especially PS1 CTF, APP and NTF by docking and MD.
I also made models and interfaces of Pen-2 with PS1 NTF and checked their stability by MD simulations and compared with experimental results. The goal is to model the interfaces between GS subunits using molecular modeling approaches based on available experimental data like cross-linking, mutations and NMR structure of C-terminal fragment of PS1 and transmembrane part of APP. The obtained interfaces of GS subunits may explain its catalysis mechanism which can be exploited for novel lead design. Due to lack of crystal/NMR structure of the GS subunits except the PS1 CTF, it is not possible to predict the effect of mutations in terms of APP cleavage. So I also developed a sequence based approach based on machine learning using support vector machine to predict the effect of PS1 CTF L383 mutations in terms of Aβ40/Aβ42 ratio with 88% accuracy. Mutational data derived from the Molgen database of Presenilin 1 mutations was using for training.
GPCRs (also called 7TM receptors) form a large superfamily of membrane proteins, which can be activated by small molecules, lipids, hormones, peptides, light, pain, taste and smell etc. Although 50% of the drugs in market target GPCRs , only few are targeted therapeutically. Such wide range of targets is due to involvement of GPCRs in signaling pathways related to many diseases i.e. dementia (like Alzheimer's disease), metabolic (like diabetes) including endocrinological disorders, immunological including viral infections, cardiovascular, inflammatory, senses disorders, pain and cancer.
Cannabinoid and adrenergic receptors belong to the class A (similar to rhodopsin) GPCRs. Docking of agonists and antagonists to CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors revealed the importance of a centrally located rotamer toggle switch, and its possible role in the mechanism of agonist/antagonist recognition. The switch is composed of two residues, F3.36 and W6.48, located on opposite transmembrane helices TM3 and TM6 in the central part of the membranous domain of cannabinoid receptors. The CB1 and CB2 receptor models were constructed based on the adenosine A2A receptor template. The two best scored conformations of each receptor were used for the docking procedure. In all poses (ligand-receptor conformations) characterized by the lowest ligand-receptor intermolecular energy and free energy of binding the ligand type matched the state of the rotamer toggle switch: antagonists maintained an inactive state of the switch, whereas agonists changed it. In case of agonists of β2AR, the (R,R) and (S,S) stereoisomers of fenoterol, the molecular dynamics simulations provided evidence of different binding modes while preserving the same average position of ligands in the binding site. The (S,S) isomer was much more labile in the binding site and only one stable hydrogen bond was created. Such dynamical binding modes may also be valid for ligands of cannabinoid receptors because of the hydrophobic nature of their ligand-receptor interactions. However, only very long molecular dynamics simulations could verify the validity of such binding modes and how they affect the process of activation.
Human N-formyl peptide receptors (FPRs) are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) involved in many physiological processes, including host defense against bacterial infection and resolving inflammation. The three human FPRs (FPR1, FPR2 and FPR3) share significant sequence homology and perform their action via coupling to Gi protein. Activation of FPRs induces a variety of responses, which are dependent on the agonist, cell type, receptor subtype, and also species involved. FPRs are expressed mainly by phagocytic leukocytes. Together, these receptors bind a large number of structurally diverse groups of agonistic ligands, including N-formyl and nonformyl peptides of different composition, that chemoattract and activate phagocytes. For example, N-formyl-Met-Leu-Phe (fMLF), an FPR1 agonist, activates human phagocyte inflammatory responses, such as intracellular calcium mobilization, production of cytokines, generation of reactive oxygen species, and chemotaxis. This ligand can efficiently activate the major bactericidal neutrophil functions and it was one of the first characterized bacterial chemotactic peptides. Whereas fMLF is by far the most frequently used chemotactic peptide in studies of neutrophil functions, atomistic descriptions for fMLF-FPR1 binding mode are still scarce mainly because of the absence of a crystal structure of this receptor. Elucidating the binding modes may contribute to designing novel and more efficient non-peptide FPR1 drug candidates. Molecular modeling of FPR1, on the other hand, can provide an efficient way to reveal details of ligand binding and activation of the receptor. However, recent modelings of FPRs were confined only to bovine rhodopsin as a template.
To locate specific ligand-receptor interactions based on a more appropriate template than rhodopsin we generated the homology models of FPR1 using the crystal structure of the chemokine receptor CXCR4, which shares over 30% sequence identity with FPR1 and is located in the same γ branch of phylogenetic tree of GPCRs (rhodopsin is located in α branch). Docking and model refinement procedures were pursued afterward. Finally, 40 ns full-atom MD simulations were conducted for the Apo form as well as for complexes of fMLF (agonist) and tBocMLF (antagonist) with FPR1 in the membrane. Based on locations of the N- and C-termini of the ligand the FPR1 extracellular pocket can be divided into two zones, namely, the anchor and activation regions. The formylated M1 residue of fMLF bound to the activation region led to a series of conformational changes of conserved residues. Internal water molecules participating in extended hydrogen bond networks were found to play a crucial role in transmitting the agonist-receptor interactions. A mechanism of initial steps of the activation concurrent with ligand binding is proposed.
I accurately predicted the structure and ligand binding pose of dopamine receptor 3 (RMSD to the crystal structure: 2.13 Å) and chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4, RMSD to the crystal structure 3.21 Å) in GPCR-Dock 2010 competition. The homology model of the dopamine receptor 3 was 8 th best overall in the competition.
The human endothelin receptors, ETA and ETB, are two members of the G-protein coupled receptors family (GPCRs) and they are key players in cardiovascular regulation. The characterization of their functionality in vitro has been limited by the possibility to obtain high quality samples using conventional expression systems. The Cell-Free expression system is an alternative technique for the production of membrane protein as well as GPCRs and can overcome some of the limitations that are commonly encountered using an in vivo approach. Cell-Free expression protocols for the two receptors ETA and ETB have been optimized by implementing post- and co-translational association to lipid bilayers. The efficiency of the reconstitution or association to liposomes and nanodiscs has systematically been studied and the ligand binding properties of the two receptors have been analyzed using a set of different complementary techniques. In several different conditions a high affinity binding of the peptide ligand ET-1 to both endothelin receptors could be obtained and the highest activity values were detected in sample prepared using a co-translational approach in presence of nanodiscs. Furthermore, the characteristic differential binding pattern of selected agonists and antagonists to the two receptors was confirmed. In samples obtained from several Cell-Free expression conditions, two intrinsic properties of the functionally folded ETB receptor, such as the proteolytic processing based on conformational recognition as well as the formation of SDS-resistant complexes with the peptide ligand ET-1, were detected. ETA and ETB are able to induce in vivo the activation of hetrotrimeric G proteins upon stimulation with an agonist, leading to the dissociation of the heterotrimeric complex and the exchange of GDP to GTP in the Galpha subunit. The Cell-Free expression system was chosen for the production of two G alpha subunit, Galpha s and Galpha q. Soluble expression of the two proteins was achieved and the production of active Galpha s was confirmed using fluorescent as well as radioactive assays. In conclusion, the obtained results document a new process for the production of ligand binding competent endothelin receptors, as well as Galpha proteins, using a Cell-Free expression system. The combination of this expression system and the nanodiscs technology appears to be a promising tool for the further characterization of membrane proteins as well as GPCRs.
G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) are a predominant class of cell-surface receptors in eukaryotic life. They are responsible for the perception of a broad range of ligands and involved in a multitude of physiological functions. GPCRs are therefore of crucial interest for biological and pharmaceutical research. Molecular analysis and functional characterisation of GPCRs is frequently hampered by challenges in efficient large-scale production, non-destructive purification and long-term stability. Cell-free protein synthesis (CFPS) provides new production platforms for GPCRs by extracting the protein synthesis machinery of the cell in an open system that allows target-oriented modulations of the synthesis process and direct access to the nascent polypeptide chain. CFPS is fast, reliable and highly adaptable. Unfortunately, highly productive cell-free synthesis of GPCRs is often opposed by low product quality. This thesis was aimed to adapt and improve some of the new possibilities for the cell-free production of GPCRs in high yield and quality for structural and pharmaceutical analysis. An E. coli based CFPS system was applied to synthesise various turkey and human Beta-adrenergic receptor (Beta1AR) derivatives as well as human Endothelin receptors type A and B (ETA and ETB) constructs. Both receptor families are important drug targets and pharmacologically addressed in the treatment of several cardiovascular diseases. CF-synthesis was mainly performed in presence of nanodiscs (ND), which are reconstituted high density lipoprotein particles forming discoidal bilayer patches with a diameter varyring from 6 to approx. 15 nm. The supplementation of ND in the CF-synthesis reaction caused the co-translational solubilisation of the freshly synthesised GPCRs. The fraction of the solubilised GPCR that was correctly folded was analysed by the competence to bind its ligand alprenolol or Endothelin-1, respectively. Both the solubilisation efficiency and the ability to fold in a ligand binding competent state was strongly affected by the lipid composition of the supplied ND. Best results were generally achieved with lipids having phosphoglycerol headgroups and unsaturated fatty acid chains with 18 carbon atoms. Furthermore, thermostabilisation by introduction of point mutations had a large positive impact on the folding efficiency of both Beta1AR and ETB receptor. Formation of a conserved disulphide bridge in the extracellular region was additionally found to be crucial for the function of the ETB receptor. Disulphide bridge formation could be enhanced by applying a glutathione-based redox system in the CFPS. Further improvements in the quality of ETB receptor could be made by the enrichment of heat-shock chaperones in the CF-reaction. Depending on the receptor type and DNA-template, roughly 10 – 30 nmol (350 – 1500 µg) of protein could be synthesised in 1 ml of CF-reaction mixture. After the applied optimisation steps, the fractions of correctly folded receptor could be improved by several orders of magnitude and were finally in between 35% for the thermostabilised turkey Beta1AR, 9% for the thermostabilised ETB receptor, 6.5% for the non-stabilised ETB receptor, 1 - 5% for non-stabilised turkey Beta1AR and for human Beta1AR isoforms and 0.1% for ETA receptor. Therefore, between 2 and 120 µg of GPCR could be synthesised in a ligand binding competent form, depending on the receptor and its modifications. Correctly folded turkey Beta1AR and ETB receptors were thermostable at 30°C and could be stored at 4°C for several weeks after purification. Yields of the thermostabilised turkey Beta1AR were sufficient to purify the receptor in a two-step process by ligand-binding chromatography to obtain pure and correctly folded receptor in the lipid bilayer of a ND. Furthermore, a lipid dependent ligand screen could be demonstrated with the turkey Beta1AR and significant alterations in binding affinities to currently in-use pharmaceuticals were found. The established protocols are therefore suitable and highly competetive for a variety of applications such as screening of GPCR ligands, analysis of lipid effects on GPCR function or for the systematical biochemical characterisation of GPCRs. Most promising for future approaches appears to address the suspected bottlenecks of intial insertion of the GPCR-polypeptide chain in the ND bilayer and the thermal stability of the receptors. Nevertheless, the estabilised protocols for the analysed targets in this thesis are already highly competitive to previously published production protocols either in cell-based or cell-free systems with regard to yield of functional protein, speediness and costs. Moreover, the direct accessibility and other general characteristics of cell-free synthesis open a large variety of possible applications and this work can therefore contribute to the molecular characterisation of this important receptor type and to the development of new pharmaceuticals.
Cell-free-synthesized voltage-gated proton channels: Approaches to the study of protein dynamics
(2018)
We often only realize how important health is when diseases manifest themselves through their symptoms and, ultimately, in a diagnosis. Over time, we suffer from many diseases starting with the first childhood disease to colds to gastrointestinal infections. Most diseases pass harmlessly and symptoms fade away. However, not all diseases are so harmless. Alzheimer’s disease, breast cancer, Parkinson’s disease, and colorectal cancer usually cause severe illness with high mortality rates. In pharmaceutical research, efforts are therefore being made to determine the molecular basis of them in order to provide patients with potential relief and, at best, healing. A special group of regulators, involved in the previously mentioned diseases, are voltage-gated proton channels. Thus, the understanding of their structure, function, and potential drug interaction is of great importance for humanity.
Voltage-gated proton channels are localized in the cell membrane. As their name indicates, they are controlled by voltage changes. Depolarization of the cell membrane induces conformational changes that open these channels allowing protons to pass through. Here, the transfer is based on a passive process driven by a concentration gradient between two individual compartments separated by the cell membrane. Voltage-gated proton channels are highly selective for protons and show a temperature- and pH-dependent gating behavior. However, little is known about their channeling mechanism. Previous experimental results are insufficient for understanding the key features of proton channeling.
In this thesis, for the first time, the cell-free production of voltage-sensing domains (VSD) of human voltage-gated proton channels (hHV1) and zebrafish voltage-sensing phosphatases (DrVSP) is described. Utilizing the cell free approach, parameters concerning protein stability, folding and labeling can be easily addressed. Furthermore, the provision of a membrane mimetic in form of detergent micelles, nanodiscs, or liposomes for co-translational incorporations of these membrane proteins is simple and efficient. Both VSDs were successfully produced up to 3 mg/ml. Furthermore, the cell-free synthesis enabled for the first time studies of lipid-dependent co-translational VSD insertions into nanodiscs and liposomes. Cell-free produced VSDs were shown to be active, and to exist mainly as dimers. In addition, also their activation was stated to be lipid-dependent, which has not been described so far. Solution-state NMR experiments were performed with fully and selectively labeled cell-free produced VSDs. With respect to the development of potential drug candidates, I could demonstrate the inhibition of the VSDs by 2-guanidinobenzimidazole (2GBI). Determined KD values were comparable to literature data for the human construct. For the first time, a low affinity for 2GBI of the zebrafish VSD could be described.
In future, the combination of a fast, easy and cheap cell-free production of fully or selectively labeled VSDs and their analysis by solution state NMR will enable structure determinations as well as inhibitor binding studies and protein dynamic investigations of those proteins. The results of these investigations will serve as a basis for example for the development of new drugs. In addition, a detailed description of the lipid-dependent activity might be helpful in controlling the function of voltage-gated proton channels in cancer cells and thereby reducing their growth or disturbing their cell homeostasis in general.
HDAC inhibitors (HDACI), a new class of anticancer agents, induce apoptosis in many cancer entities. JNJ-26481585 is a second generation class І HDACI that displays improved efficacy in preclinical studies compared to the established HDACI SAHA (Vorinostat). Therefore, this study aims at evaluating the effects of JNJ-26481585 on human rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) and at identifying novel synergistic interactions of JNJ-26481585 or the more common HDACI SAHA with different anticancer drugs in RMS cells. Indeed, we show that JNJ-26481585 and SAHA significantly increase chemotherapeutic drug-induced apoptosis in embryonal and alveolar RMS cell lines, when used in combination with chemotherapeutic agents (i.e. doxorubicin, etoposide, vincristine, and cyclophosphamide) which are currently used in the clinic for the treatment of RMS.
We demonstrate that JNJ-26481585 as single agent and in combination with doxorubicin induces apoptosis, which is characterized by activation of the caspase cascade, PARP cleavage, and DNA fragmentation. Induction of caspase-dependent apoptotic cell death is confirmed by the use of the broad-range caspase inhibitor zVAD.fmk, which significantly decreases both JNJ-26481585-triggered and combination treatment-mediated DNA fragmentation, and in addition completely abrogates loss of cell viability. Importantly, JNJ-26481585 significantly inhibits tumor growth in vivo in two preclinical RMS models, i.e. the chicken chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) model and a xenograft mouse model, supporting the notion that JNJ-26481585 hampers tumor maintenance. Also, in combination with doxorubicin JNJ-26481585 significantly reduces tumor growth in in vivo experiments using the CAM model.
Mechanistically, we identify that JNJ-26481585-induced apoptosis is mediated via the intrinsic apoptotic pathway, since we observe increased loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and activation of the proapoptotic Bcl-2 family members Bax and Bak. Interestingly, we find that JNJ-26481585 triggers induction of Bim, Bmf, Puma, and Noxa on mRNA level as well as on protein level, pointing to an altered transcription of BH3-only proteins as important event for the Bax/Bak-mediated loss of mitochondrial membrane potential as well as mitochondrial apoptosis induction upon JNJ-26481585 treatment. JNJ-26481585-initiated activation of Bax and Bak is not prevented with the addition of zVAD.fmk, suggesting that JNJ-26481585 first disrupts the mitochondria and subsequently activates the caspase cascade. When JNJ-26481585 is used in combination with doxorubicin, we observe not only an increase of proapoptotic Bcl-2 proteins, but also a decrease in the level of the antiapoptotic mitochondrial proteins Bcl-2, Mcl-1, and Bcl-xL. This indicates that Bax, Bak, Bim, and Noxa are crucial for JNJ-26481585-induced as well as JNJ/Dox treatment-induced apoptosis, since RNAi mediated silencing of Bax, Bak, Bim, and Noxa significantly impedes DNA fragmentation upon those treatments.
Furthermore, ectopic overexpression of Bcl-2 profoundly impairs both JNJ-26481585 and combination treatment-mediated apoptosis, abrogates caspase cleavage, and reduces activation of Bax and Bak, underlining the hypothesis that JNJ-26481585 initially targets the mitochondria and then activates caspases.
With the more commonly used HDACI SAHA we confirm the results obtained with the HDACI JNJ-26481585, since combination treatment with SAHA and doxorubicin also induces intrinsic apoptosis, which can be significantly diminished by zVAD.fmk or ectopic overexpression of Bcl-2. Treatment with SAHA and doxorubicin also affects expression levels of pro- and antiapoptotic mitochondrial proteins, thus shifting the balance towards the proapoptotic mitochondrial machinery, resulting in Bax/Bak activation, caspase activation, and subsequently apoptosis.
Taken together, we provide evidence that the HDACIs JNJ-26481585 and SAHA are promising therapeutic agents for the treatment of RMS and that combination regimens with HDACIs represent an efficient strategy to prime RMS cells for chemotherapy-induced apoptosis. These findings have important implications for mitochondrial apoptosis-targeted therapies of RMS.
The focus of this research was to understand the molecular mechanism that lies behind the insertion of tail-anchored membrane proteins into the ER membrane of yeast cells. State-of-art instruments such as LILBID, and Cryo-EM, combined with the introduction of direct electron detectors, were used to analyze the proteins that capture tail-anchored proteins near the ER membrane and help their releases from a chaperone, an ATPase named Get3. Get3 escorts TA proteins to the ER membrane, where both Get3 and the TA proteins interact sequentially to Get3 membrane bound receptors Get1 and Get2. Get1 and Get2 are homologs of mammalian WRB and CAML.
The native host was used to separately produce Get1, Get2, and the Get2/Get1 single chain constructs. The studies showed that when Get1 is expressed alone, Get1 does not seems to be located in the ER membrane but rather in microbodies like shape organelles (or peroxisome). Interestingly, Get1 seems to be located in the ER membrane when it is linked to Get2 as single chain construct.
The localization study of Get2/Get1 fused to GFP shows from the fluorescence intensity that Get2/Get1.GFP has a tube-like morphology or membrane-enclosed sacs (cisterna), implying that Get2/Get1 is actually targeted to the ER membrane and is likely functional. In other words, Get1 and Get2 stabilize each other in the ER membrane.
The expression of Get2/Get1 was found to be already optimum when expressed as single chain construct because the fluorescence counts did not improve when additives such as DMSO or histidine were added. However, when Get1 and Get2 are expressed separately, additives improve their protein production yield. In 1 liter culture, Get1 yield is increased by about 3 mg and Get2 by 1.8 mg. This can be explained by the space that Get1 and Get2 should occupy within the ER membrane as they must coexist with other membrane components to maintain the homeostasis of the cell. Hence, if there were no gain for single chain construct expression, it meant that Get2/Get1 was already well expressed on its own in ER membrane and has reached its optimum expression without the help of additives. The Get2/Get1 overexpression is more stable, tolerated and less toxic for the cells to express it at a high level.
DDM has proved to be the best detergent from the detergents tested to solubilize Get1, Get2, and Get2/Get1.
Thereafter, Get1, Get2 (data not shown), and Get2/Get1 were successfully purified in DDM micelles.
Furthermore, for the first time using LILBID, the actual study has shown that Get1 and Get2 are predominantly a heterotetramer (2xGet1 and 2xGet2) but higher oligomerization may exist as well.
Get3 binds to Get1 in a biphasic way with a specific strong binding of an affinity of 57 nM and the second of 740 nM nonspecific indicative of heterogeneity within the interaction between Get1 and Get3. This heterogeneity is caused by the presence of different conformation of either protein. However, in order to characterize a high-resolution structure model of a specific target one needs highly homogenous and identical molecules of the target protein or complex in solution. The homogeneity increases the chances of growing crystals during crystallography as the good homogeneity will likely generate a perfect packing of unit cells stack (also known as crystal lattice) in the three-dimensional spaces. The same truth goes for the single particles analysis Cryo-EM, especially for smaller complexes where having less or no conformation alterations of specific targets will enable the researcher to classify the particles in 2D and 3D, therefore improving the signal-to-noise-ratio that will ultimately lead to high-resolution structure determination.
Get1, Get2/Get1 and chimeric variants (tGet2/Get1, T4l.Get2/Get1, T4l.Get2.apocyte.Get1) were crystallized but none of the crystals could diffract due to heterogeneity.
This heterogeneity was not only occurring upon the binding of Get3 to its membrane receptors, but seems to be already present within the receptors themselves through possibly different conformation.
In this Ph.D. thesis, the heterogeneity of purified Get2 and Get1 as complex or individually in detergent is then, so far, the limiting factor for obtaining a high-resolution structure model of Get1 and Get2. As mentioned above, the heterogeneity observed was not due to the quality of the sample preparation but rather to the effect of different conformations that could have been native, or just because of the micelle used, as it was proven by the 3-D heterogeneity classification by Cryo-EM.
In general, crosslinking is one way to keep the integrity of protein complexes, however it appeared not to improve the sample quality when it was analyzed in micelles. Often the integrity of some membrane proteins is affected when they are solubilized and purified in detergents.
Finally, in this study, the structural map of Get2 and Get1 complex linked with chimeric protein T4 lysozyme and apocytochrome C b562RIL gene was obtained at 10 Å. However, this single chain construct has a density map corresponding to heterodimer species (one Get1 and Get2). Therefore, based on those data the tertiary structure of Get2/Get1 in micelle is poorly defined. It could be that the membrane extraction in DDM and the purification destabilizes the structure of the complex.
The multistep-processes leading to the formation of tumors have been extensively studied in the past decades, leading to the identification of “hallmarks of cancer”. They are characteristic changes in biological processes that discriminate tumor cells from healthy cells. Increasing knowledge on the molecular structures associated with tumorigenesis allowed their specific inhibition in targeted anti-cancer therapy. However, successful targeted anti-cancer therapy is only available for a limited subset of diseases, so the continuous investigation of tumorigenic mechanisms is required to tackle the immense diversity of neoplastic entities.
AVEN and FUSE binding protein 1 (FUBP1) display the ability to regulate apoptosis and cell cycle progression. Thus, the proteins are associated with hallmarks of cancer (resisting cell death and uncontrolled proliferation). Indeed, aberrant expression of AVEN and FUBP1 could be demonstrated in multiple cancers. In contrast, there is only little knowledge on the physiological function of AVEN and FUBP1. The lack of knowledge results in part from the embryonic lethality of the homozygous knockout of Aven and Fubp1 in mouse models, limiting the gain of information by analyzing these animals.
In this study, I generated conditional Aven and Fubp1 knockout mice to investigate their physiological function.
By analyzing reporter mice expressing β-galactosidase under the control of the endogenous Aven promoter, I identified Aven promoter activity to be both tissue- and cell type-specific and dependent on the developmental stage. Detecting apoptotic cell death by immunohistochemistry did not reveal increased apoptosis in Aven knockout mice, suggesting a functional role of AVEN besides apoptosis inhibition during embryogenesis.
Basing on the significant Aven promoter activity detected in the adult brain and in the mammary gland, I generated and characterized conditional Aven knockout mice with Aven deletion restricted to cells within the brain or the mammary gland. AVEN depletion in these tissues was not embryonic lethal and the affected tissues displayed a normal histology.
Since aberrant Aven expression had been associated with hematologic malignancies, I also analyzed mice with an Aven knockout in the hematopoietic system. Depletion of AVEN in the blood cells had no effect on hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell frequencies. Consequently, AVEN seems to be dispensable for the maintenance and differentiation of stem, progenitor and mature blood cells, at least as far as the expression of particular differentiation markers was concerned.
As loss of AVEN in the analyzed tissues did not affect the viability of mice and did not produce any other obvious phenotype, the exact role of AVEN that is essential for embryo survival remains to be identified.
To study the oncogenic potential of AVEN, I investigated the role of AVEN in a mouse model for breast carcinogenesis. While AVEN expression seemed to be increased in breast tumors, tumor onset and progression were not altered in mice with depleted AVEN expression in the mammary gland. Consistently, Aven knockout tumor cells were neither less proliferative nor more prone to undergo apoptosis than Aven wildtype tumor cells. Cell culture experiments demonstrated that AVEN expression is upregulated by estrogen. Knockdown of AVEN in the breast cancer cell line MCF-7 slightly increased UV irradiation-induced apoptosis and accelerated metabolism. So while AVEN does not promote development or progression of breast tumors, enhanced AVEN expression in ER+ breast cancers might contribute to chemotherapy resistance.
To study the physiological role of FUBP1, I generated a conditional Fubp1 knockout mouse model. While the insertion of loxP sites into the Fubp1 locus was occasionally embryonic lethal, some mice with a cell type-specific deletion of Fubp1 in hematopoietic cells or EPO receptor expressing cells were born alive. In these mice, frequencies of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells as well as erythrocytes were unaltered. These results conflict with previous publications. However, compensating mechanisms might be responsible for the discrepancies between the observed phenotypes and reported FUBP1 function.
In cell culture studies, I could demonstrate that the previously reported upstream regulation of FUBP1 by TAL1 depended on an intact GATA motif in the FUBP1 promoter and that binding of GATA1 to the FUBP1 promoter increased during erythropoiesis.
To identify new FUBP1 target genes with relevance for erythropoiesis, I performed differential gene expression analysis in cells with wildtype and depleted FUBP1 expression. RNA-sequencing and PCR-arrays revealed only moderate differences in the expression of genes that are components of the EPO receptor signaling pathway as well as genes associated with apoptosis and proliferation of hematopoietic cells. By regulating the transcription of these genes, FUBP1 could contribute to efficient erythropoiesis.
Throughout their life cells of eukaryotic organisms can be confronted with a variety of proteotoxic stresses and in order to survive, corresponding resistance mechanisms had to evolve. Proteotoxic stresses can cause misfolding of proteins and accumulation of toxic protein aggregates. Failure to remove aggregates of misfolded proteins compromises cellular function and can ultimately cause cell death and disease. To deal with this challenge, cells utilize a complex network of protein quality control pathways, including chaperones, the ubiquitin-proteasome system and the autophagy system.
Another mechanism to cope with proteotoxic stresses is the stalling of translation initiation in order to save valuable resources and prevent faulty translation. Upon stress, intrinsically disordered RNA-binding proteins such as TIA-1 or G3BP1/2 are recruited to stalled preinitiation complexes and a network of multivalent interactions between RNAs and proteins is formed. These mRNP networks can merge with each other and phase separate into membraneless liquid-like structures called stress granules (SGs). Once stress is released, SGs are quickly resolved and translation continues. Yet, chronic stress or mutations of SG-associated proteins can cause persistent SGs, which can sequester misfolded proteins and have been linked to neurodegenerative diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or frontotemporal dementia.
In mammalian cells, three isoforms of the small ubiquitin-related modifier (SUMO), SUMO1, SUMO2 and SUMO3 are covalently attached to lysine residues of target proteins. SUMO conjugation is catalyzed via an enzymatic cascade of an heteromeric E1 activating enzyme, the E2 conjugating enzyme Ubc9 and in some cases one of a limited number of E3 SUMO ligases. SUMOylation is a dynamic modification and can be reversed by SUMO isopeptidases, the best characterized of which belong to the SENP family. Cellular stresses such as heat or oxidative stress strongly induce SUMOylation resulting in increased numbers of poly-SUMOylation (formation of SUMO2/3 chains) on nuclear proteins.
The SUMO-targeted ubiquitin ligase (STUbL) RNF4 harbors four SUMO interaction motifs in its N-terminal domain. This feature allows RNF4 to specifically bind poly-SUMOylated proteins and catalyze their proteolytic or non-proteolytic ubiquitylation.
A variety of substrate proteins have been shown to undergo SUMO-primed ubiquitylation by RNF4 in response to stress or DNA damage. RNF4-mediated ubiquitylation is often a signal for proteolytic degradation of these substrates.
In this work we aimed by identify novel RNF4 targets, in heat-stressed cells in order to gain a wider understanding of the nuclear proteotoxic stress response. Analysis by mass spectrometry revealed that a large fraction of RNF4-interacting proteins in heatstressed cells are nuclear RNA-binding proteins, many of which shuttle outside the nucleus and associate with SGs upon stress. We validated, that nuclear RNA-binding proteins, such as TDP-43 and hnRNP M are indeed heat-induced targets of SUMOprimed ubiquitylation by RNF4.
These initial results led us to further investigate the links between the SUMO/RNF4-mediated, nuclear protein quality control and the dynamics of cytosolic heat- or arsenite-induced SGs. SUMO2/3 and RNF4 are mainly nuclear proteins and we confirmed that they do not associate with SGs. Yet, we could demonstrate that depletion of SUMO2/3, the E3 SUMO ligase PML or RNF4 as well as chemical inhibition of SUMOylation strongly delayed SG clearance upon stress release, indicating that a functional STUbL pathway is essential for the timely clearance of SGs.
Next, we investigated how stress-induced poly-SUMOylation is regulated. Our data shows that SENP levels and activities are reduced in response to heat and arsenite stress, which allows the buildup of poly-SUMO chains on nuclear proteins. Limitation of poly-SUMOylation by overexpression of the SUMO chain-specific isopeptidases SENP6 and SENP7 induced SG formation. In contrast, poly-SUMO-priming by chemical depletion of SENP6 with the drug hinokiflavone drastically limited SG formation upon stress treatment. These results indicate a clear role of chain-specific SENPs in the regulation of stress-induced poly-SUMOylation and SG dynamics.
Last, we investigated whether the STUbL pathway could affect the phase separation of FUSP525 (an ALS-linked mutant of the SG-associated protein FUS) and observed that perturbations of the STUbL pathway lead to an increased phase separation of FUSP525L.
Thus, our work connects the SUMO/RNF4 protein quality control mechanism to the dynamics of SGs supporting the hypothesis that release of proteotoxic stress in the nucleus facilitates the clearance of cytosolic SGs. Thereby, we discovered a previously unknown link between the nuclear and cytosolic axis of proteotoxic stress response.
Die chromosomale Translokation t(4;11) ist mit einer aggressiven pro-B ALL im Kleinkindesalter assoziiert und stellt eine der häufigsten genetischen Veränderungen des MLL Gens dar. Bei bis zu 40 % der untersuchten Translokationen des MLL Gens wurde das AF4 Gen als Translokationspartner identifiziert. Durch Arbeiten in unserer Arbeitsgruppe konnte in Focus Formation Experimenten das wachstumstrans-formierende Potenzial sowohl des Wildtyp AF4 Proteins, als auch des bei der Translokation entstehenden AF4•MLL Fusionsproteins, nachgewiesen werden. Es kann somit als gesichert angesehen werden, daß es sich bei dem Wildtyp-AF4 Protein um ein Proto-Onkoprotein und bei dem AF4•MLL Fusionsprotein um ein Onkoprotein handelt. Der für beide Proteine identische Bereich beschränkt sich auf die ersten 360 Aminosäuren des AF4 Proteins, was der Hypothese führte, daß der N-Terminale Bereich des AF4 Proteins (AF4•N) für das beobachtete onkogene Potential in murinen embryonalen Fibroblasten verantwortlich ist. Ein mit dem AF4•N Protein durchgeführter Hefe-2-Hybrid Screen identifizierte die beiden E3-Ligasen SIAH1 und SIAH2 als Bindungspartner. Hierbei handelt es sich um Tumorsupressor- Proteine, die durch Ubiquitinylierung von Zielproteinen diese dem proteasomalen Abbau zuführen. Unter normalen physiologischen Bedingungen unterliegt das AF4 Protein einem raschen Abbau am Proteasom. Dies ist für das AF4•MLL Fusionsprotein nur noch eingeschränkt möglich, da es wie für das Wildtyp-MLL beobachetet proteolytisch gespalten wird, mit sich selbst dimerisiert und dann nicht mehr über das Proteasom abgebaut werden kann. Eine Bindung der beiden E3-Ligasen SIAH1 und SIAH2 konnte jedoch noch beobachtet werden, deshalb sollte die AF4 und SIAH Protein-Protein-Interaktion genauer untersucht werden. Hierzu wurden Hefe-2-Hybrid Experimente mit Deletionsmutanten durchgeführt, um die minimalen Kontakt-domänen zu identifiziert. Die Stärke der Interaktionen wurde durch ß-Galaktosidasetests ermittelt. Die identifizierte minimale AF4 Proteindomäne enthält das für die Erkennung durch die E3-Ligasen notwendige PxAxVxP Motiv und hat eine Länge von 25 Aminosäuren. Für die E3-Ligasen SIAH1 und SIAH2 konnte der für die Interaktion notwendige Kontaktbereich innerhalb der sogenannten Substrat-Bindungs-Domäne (SBD) lokalisiert werden. Interessanterweise ist nicht die große Furche des Dimerisierungsinterfaces der beiden SIAH Monomere der Kontaktbereich, sondern der proximale Zink-Finger Bereich. Die experimentell ermittelten Proteindomänen wurden in geeignete bakterielle Expressionssysteme kloniert und ihre in vitro Interaktion durch Pulldown-Experimente bestätigt. Die strukturelle Aufklärung der Kontaktdomäne erfolgte dann mit Hilfe der NMR-Fast-Mapping Methode. Mit dieser kombinatorischen Methode wurden die an der AF4 Bindung beteiligten Aminosäuren des SIAH Proteins durch Änderung ihrer chemischen Verschiebung im [15N,1H] HSQC-Spektrum nach Titration mit steigenden AF4 Konzentrationen identifiziert. Aus den erhaltenen Daten und anhand der bekannten SIAH Röntgenstruktur konnte ein Modell für die Bindung des AF4 Proteins an die E3-Ligase SIAH1 erstellt werden. Über die Funktion des Proto-Onkoproteins AF4 ist bis dato wenig bekannt. Es gibt Hinweise, daß alle Vertreter der ALF Proteinfamilie über transkriptionsaktivierende Eigenschaften verfügen. Da posttranslationale Modifikationen von Proteinen, wie z.B. Sumoylierung, häufig zur Regulation von Transkriptionsfaktoren beobachtet werden, wurden Untersuchungen auf posttranslationale Modifikationen des AF4 Proteins durchgeführt. Hierzu wurde durch Mutation der E3-Ligase Erkennungssequenz PxAxVxP eine stabilisierte AF4 Mutante hergestellt. Durch Immunopräzipitations Experimente nach Transfektion in 293T Zellen konnte sowohl die Sumoylierung, als auch Tyrosin Phosphorylierungen des AF4 Proteins nachgewiesen werden.
The detailed mechanism of the 20 S proteasome from Thermoplasma acidophilum is unknown. Substrates are degraded processively to small fragments without the release of intermediates, but the basis for this unique degradation mode remains obscure. The proteasome is a molecular machine, but how the different nanocompartments interplay and whether more than one substrate can be treated simultaneously has not been elucidated yet. To address these questions we had to disable the functionality of one aperture in order to dissect whether the other pore can compensate for the loss. As it is challenging to introduce mutations solely around one pore aperture of the highly symmetrical construct, we chose a novel approach by unique orientation of the proteasome at interfaces. For this purpose we purified recombinant 20 S proteasomes, where hexahistidine tags were fused either around the entrances or at the sides. According to electron microscopic studies we immobilized these constructs uniformly either end-on or side-on at metal-chelating interfaces (lipid vesicles, lipid monolayers and self-assembled thiol monolayers). Degradation of small fluorogenic peptides and large proteins like casein was analyzed. Small substrates were degraded with comparable activity by free and immobilized proteasomes, irrespective of their orientation. Thus it can be assumed that peptides can pass the sealed entrance of the 'dead-end' proteasome. However, larger substrates like fluorescently labeled casein were processed near the temperature optimum by side-on immobilized and soluble proteasomes with threefold activity compared to end-on immobilized proteasomes. Hence it can be concluded that one pore is sufficient for substrate entry and product release. In other words, the pore and antechamber can fulfil a triple function in the import and unwinding of substrates and the egress of products. With means of surface plasmon resonance the exact substrate/proteasome stoichiometry could be determined to ~1 for 'dead-end' proteasomes and ~2 for side-on immobilized (active and inactive) proteasomes. Most importantly, a fit with the Hill equation revealed positive cooperativity for side-on immobilized (Hill coefficient ~2) in contrast to end-on immobilized proteasomes (Hill coefficient ~1). Thus in case of soluble proteasomes two substrates bind presumably in opposite antechambers with positive cooperativity. The off-rate of casein as substrate is twofold for the active side-on immobilized proteasome in comparison to the end-on immobilized proteasome. The exact 2:1 stoichiometry of the off-rates equals the ratio of exit pathways amenable in case of side-on orientated versus 'dead-end' immobilized proteasomes. Thus crevices along the cylindrical body of the 20 S proteasome seem not to participate in the egress of small products. An inactive proteasome mutant displays a concentration-dependent off-kinetic against casein. Accordingly, the off-rate of the bisubstrate:proteasome complex can be attributed around half the value of the monosubstrate:proteasome complex. Consequently, substrates exit the inactive proteasome via the route of access due to obstruction of the trans side with an entering substrate. Hence the active proteasomes have to chop substrates down to small fragments prior to release through both pores. Thus the processive degradation mode might result from positive binding cooperativity. The on-rate constants for casein suggested that substrate association represents a two-step process comprising a rate-limiting translocation step and a fast binding step. As fluorescence cross-correlation revealed that two substrates can be co-localized in the proteasome and bind successively with increasing affinity (KD,1 = 8 µM versus KD,2 = 700 nM), an allosteric transition in the proteasome can be assumed. Combining our results with the data from other research groups led to a mechanistic model for the 20 S proteasome. Accordingly, the first substrate undergoes a slow translocation step, binds in the antechamber and diffuses subsequently to the catalytic centers, where it is degraded. By switching on the catalytic activity, the pores at both termini are dilated via conformational changes. Hence entry of the second substrate into the proteasome is facilitated due to omission of the rate-determining translocation step. The second substrate is either accommodated in the antechamber before it is processed (alternating degradation) or, most probably, is directly threaded into the central cavity (simultaneous degradation). As effusing peptides compete with entering proteins for binding in the antechamber, the pores are kept in an open state. After finishing digestion the pores are closed and a new degradation cycle can be reinitiated. In summary, substrate association with the proteasome underlies an ordered alternating binding mechanism in contrast to the random mode of degradation. Thus the two-stroke engine offers the advantage of speeding up degradation without enhancing complexity.
Verglichen mit normal progredierenden HIV-1 Infizierten weisen Langzeit Nicht-Progredierende (LTNP), trotz chronischer Infektion und ohne antivirale Therapie, keinerlei Anzeichen einer klinischen Progression sowie stabil hohe CD4+-Zellzahlen und eine geringe Viruslast auf. Für diesen ungewöhnlichen Infektionsverlauf wurden mehrere virologische, genetische und immunologische Ursachen in der Literatur beschrieben. Anhand einer gut charakterisierten LTNP-Kohorte und einer Kontrollgruppe mit vergleichbaren klinischen Markern, wurde hier der Einfluss der einzelnen Faktoren, vor allem der humoralen Immun-antwort, auf den Infektionsverlauf analysiert. Die Analyse viraler und patienteneigener Gene zeigt, dass keiner der LTNP die ccr5Delta32 Mutation aufweist und auch der Vergleich der viralen Proteine Env, Nef, Rev, Tat und Vpr ergab keine zwingende Ursache für ein Ausbleiben der Progression. So zeigt sich zwar eine Anreicherung von Insertionen in den Variablen Schleifen (v.a. V1/V2) in den Env der LTNP-Viren, die Funktionalität der viralen Hüllproteine wurde jedoch mit Hilfe HIV-1 Env-rekombinanter Reporterviren aufgezeigt. Die HIV-1 Env-rekombinanten Reporterviren der LTNP unterschieden sich weder in ihrer Infektiosität, noch in der Effizienz der frühen Replikationsschritte von den korrespondierenden Viren der HIV-1 Kontrollpatienten, was einen entscheidenden Einfluss der Hüllproteine auf den Infektionsverlauf nahezu aus-schließt. Seitens der zellulären Immunantwort wurden in einigen LTNP HLA-B Typen identifiziert, die in der Literatur mit einem verlangsamten Infektionsverlauf und einer aus-geprägten zellulären Immunantwort in Verbindung gebracht wurden. Die Untersuchung der zellulären Immunantwort der LTNP (außerhalb dieser Arbeit) ergab jedoch keine Besonder-heiten, was den Einfluss der identifizierten HLA-B Typen auf den nicht-progredierenden Infektionsverlauf relativiert. Die humorale Immunantwort der Patienten wurde in umfassen-den Neutralisationsstudien mit Hilfe der HIV-1 Env-rekombinanten Reporterviren analysiert. Hierbei zeigte sich, dass die LTNP, verglichen mit den HIV-1 Kontrollpatienten, eine signifikant bessere humorale Immunantwort besitzen. Zusammen mit den zuvor gewonnenen Erkenntnissen legt dies einen entscheidenden Einfluss neutralisierender Antikörper am Nicht-Progredieren der LTNP nahe. Durch den Einsatz HIV-1 Env-spezifischer Peptidphagen wurde die humorale Immunantwort der zwei Patientengruppen weiter untersucht, wobei einige Unterschiede zwischen der Antikörperantwort der LTNP und HIV-1 Kontrollpatienten aufgezeigt wurden. Mit Hilfe dieser Peptidphagen wurde in Versuchstieren eine HIV-1 Env-reaktive Immunant-wort induziert. Die Fusion von Myelomzellen mit den B-Zellen der immunisierten Tiere und die anschließende Selektion führten zur Isolierung HIV-1 Env-spezifischer Hybridomazellen. Um sich den Vorteil der langjährigen Antikörperreifung in den Patienten selbst zu Nutze zu machen und gezielt breit-neutralisierende Antikörper zu isolieren, wurden, ausgehend von B-Zell mRNA der LTNP, patienteneigene scFv Phagen Display Bibliotheken erstellt. Die in vitro Selektion dieser scFv Phagen Display Bibliotheken mit unterschiedlichen HIV-1 Env Varianten führte zur Isolierung einiger HIV-1 Env spezifischer scFv-Phagen. Die Untersuchung der Bindungseigenschaften des reaktivsten scFv-Phagens zeigte eine breite Reaktivität gegen unterschiedliche HIV-1 Env Varianten, die durch HIV-1 positives Serum kompetiert werden konnte. Das Epitop dieses scFv-Phagens wurde in der Variablen Schleife 3 von HIV-1 Env lokalisiert. Diese Arbeit zeigt den entscheidenden Einfluss der humoralen Immunantwort für die nicht-progredierende Infektion der hier untersuchten LTNP und gibt erste Hinweise auf mögliche Ursachen für die außergewöhnlich breite Serumreaktivität. Die Identifikation charakteristischer Eigenschaften in der humoralen Immunantwort, sowie die Identifizierung der hierfür verantwortlichen Antikörper kann bei der Entwicklung aktiver oder passiver Vakzine von entscheidendem Vorteil sein oder als Ausgangspunkt für neue therapeutische Ansätze dienen.
Membrane proteins are biological macromolecules that are located in a cell’s membrane and are responsible for essential functions within an organism, which makes them to prominent drug targets. The extraction of membrane proteins from the hydrophobic membrane bilayer to determine high-resolution crystal structures is a difficult task and only 2% of all solved proteins structures are membrane proteins. Computational methods may help to gain deeper insights into membrane protein structures and their functions. This study will give an overview of such computational methods on a representative set of membrane proteins and will provide ideas for future computational and experimental research on membrane proteins.
In a first step (chapter 2), I updated an earlier, manually-curated data set of homologous membrane proteins (HOMEP) to more recent versions in 2010 (HOMEP2) and 2013 (HOMEP3) using an automated clustering approach. High-resolution structures of membrane proteins listed in the PDB_TM database were structurally aligned and subsequently clustered using structural similarity scores. Both data sets were used as a standard gold reference set for subsequent work.
Subsequently, I have updated and applied the sequence alignment program AlignMe to determine protein descriptors that are suitable for detecting evolutionary relationship between homologous a-helical membrane proteins. Single input descriptors were tested alone and in combination with each other in different modes of AlignMe by optimizing gap penalties on the HOMEP2 data set. Most accurate alignments and homology models on the HOMEP2 data set were observed when using position-specific substitution information (P), secondary structure propensities (S) and transmembrane propensities (T) in the AlignMe PST mode. An evaluation on an independent reference set of membrane protein sequence alignments from the BAliBASE collection showed that different modes of AlignMe are suitable for different sequence similarity levels. The AlignMe PST mode improved the alignment accuracy significantly for distantly related proteins, whereas for closely-related proteins from the BAliBASE set the AlignMe PS mode was more suitable. This work was published in March 2013 in PLOS ONE. In order to allow also an easier usage of the AlignMe program, I have implemented a web server of AlignMe (chapter 4) that provides the optimized settings and gap penalties for the AlignMe P, PS and PST modes. A comparison to other recent alignment web server shows that the alignments of AlignMe are similar or even more accurate than those of other methods, especially for very distantly related proteins for which the inclusion of membrane protein information has been shown to be suitable. This work was published in the NAR web server issue in July 2014.
Although membrane-specific information has been shown to be suitable for aligning distantly related membrane proteins on a sequence level, such information was not incorporated into structural alignment programs making it unclear which method is the most suitable for aligning membrane proteins. Thus, I compared 13 widely-used pairwise structural alignment methods on an updated reference set of homologous membrane protein structures (HOMEP3) and evaluated their accuracy by building models based on the underlying sequence alignments and used scoring functions (e.g., AL4 or CAD-score) to rate the model accuracy (chapter 5). The analysis showed that fragment-based approaches such as FR-TM-align are the most useful for aligning structures of membrane proteins that have undergone large conformational changes whereas rigid approaches were more suitable for proteins that were solved in the same or a similar state. However, no method showed a significant higher accuracy than any other. Additionally, all methods lack a measure to rate the reliability of the accuracy for a specific position within a structure alignment. In order to solve these problems, I propose a consensus-type approach that combines alignments from four different methods, namely FR-TM-align, DaliLite, MATT and FATCAT and assigns a confidence value to each position of the alignment that describes the agreement between the methods. This work has been published 2015 in the journal “PROTEINS: structure, function and bioinformatics”.
Consensus alignments were then generated for each pair of proteins of the HOMEP3 data set and subsequently analyzed for single evolutionary events within membrane spanning segments and for irregular structures (e.g., 310- and p-helices) (chapter 6). Interestingly, single insertions and deletions could be observed with the help of consensus alignments in the conserved membrane-spanning segments of membrane proteins in four protein families. The detection of such single InDels might help to identify crucial residues for a proteins function.
Structural biology often employs a combination of experimental and computational approaches to unravel the structure-function paradigm of biological macromolecules. This thesis aims to approach this combination by the application of Pulsed Electron-Electron Double Resonance (PELDOR/DEER) spectroscopy and structural modelling. In this respect, PELDOR spectroscopy in combination with site-directed spin labelling (SDSL) of proteins is frequently used to gain distance restraints in the range from 1.8 to 8 nm. The inter-spin distance and the flexibility of the spin labelled protein domains are encoded in the oscillation and the dampening of the PELDOR signal. The intrinsic flexibility of the commonly used MTSSL (1-Oxyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethylpyrroline-3-methyl) spin label itself can be an obstacle for structural modelling if the flexibility of the label is large compared to the flexibility of the protein domains. In this thesis the investigation of two multi-domain proteins by the 4-pulse PELDOR sequence is presented. At first, the N-terminal polypeptide transport-associated (POTRA) domains of anaOmp85, a rigid three domain protein, giving well-defined PELDOR distance restraints, is investigated. The experimental restraints are used for structure refinement of the X-ray structure and reveal a strong impact of the intrinsic flexibility of MTSSL on the accuracy of structural refinement. The second example, K48-linked diubiquitin, is a highly flexible multi-domain protein on which the flexibility of MTSSL is of minor impact on structural modelling. In this case, the distance restraints are utilized to determine conformational ensembles. Due to the high intrinsic flexibility already characterizing diubiquitin the recently developed 7-pulse Carr-Purcell (CP) PELDOR sequence was applied to investigate longer ubiquitin chains. This sequence enables to measure dipolar oscillations with an extended time window, allowing a good separation between inter- and intramolecular contributions even for long distance and broad conformational distributions, thereby providing an increased accuracy of the obtained distance distributions.
SIVsmmPBj-derived lentiviral vectors are capable of efficient primary human monocyte transduction, a capacity which is linked to the viral accessory protein Vpx. To enable novel gene therapy approaches targeting monocytes, in this thesis it was aimed to generate enhanced lentiviral vectors that meet the required standards for clinical applications with respect to gene transfer efficiency and safety. The vectors were tested for their suitability in a relevant therapeutic gene transfer approach. At first, it was investigated whether vectors derived from another Vpx-carrying lentivirus reveal the same capacity for monocyte transduction as SIVsmmPBj-derived vectors. A transduction experiment using HIV-2-derived vectors in comparison to PBj-derived vectors revealed a comparable transduction capacity, thus disproving the assumed uniqueness of the PBj vectors. The further generation and analysis of expression constructs for the vpx genes of HIV-2 and SIVmac demonstrated a similar functionality in monocyte transduction as the Vpx of PBj. As VpxPBj, both Vpx proteins facilitated monocyte transduction of a vpx-deficient PBj-derived vector system. For the generation of enhanced SIVsmmPBj and HIV-2 vector systems, only the transfer vectors were optimized, since the packaging vectors available already meet current standards. At first, several modifications were introduced into an available preliminary PBj-derived transfer vector by conventional cloning. The modifications included insertions of cPPT/CTS and WPRE as well as the deletions of the remaining pol sequence, the second exons of tat end rev, and the U3-region within the 3’LTR to generate a SIN vector. Thus, beside safety enhancement, the vector titers were also increased from 9.1x105 TU/ml achieved after concentration with the initial transfer vector up to 1.1x107 TU/ml with the final transfer vector. The PBj vector retained its capability of monocyte transduction when supplemented with Vpx. This conventional method of vector enhancement is time-consuming and may result in only sub-optimal vectors, since it depends on the presence of restriction sites which may not allow deletion of all needless sequences. Moreover, mutations may accumulate during the high number of cloning and amplification steps. Therefore, a new and easier method for lentiviral transfer vector generation was conceived. Three essential segments of the viral genome (5‘ LTR, RRE, ΔU3-3’ LTR) are amplified on the template of the lentiviral wild-type genome and fused by Fusion-PCR. Further necessary elements namely the cPPT/CTS-element, MCS, and PPT are included into the resulting vector by extension of the nucleotide primers used for the PCRs. The amplified and fused vector-scaffold can easily be integrated into a plasmid backbone, followed by insertion of the expression cassette of choice. By applying this approach, two novel lentiviral transfer vectors, based on the non-human SIVsmmPBj and the human HIV-2, were derived. Vector titers achieved for PBj and HIV-2 vectors supplemented with Vpx reached up to 4.0x108 TU/ml and 5.4x108 TU/ml, respectively. The capacity for monocyte transduction was maintained. Thus, safe and efficient, state of the art HIV-2- and PBj-derived vector systems are now available for future gene therapy strategies. Finally, the new vectors were used to set up an approach for gene correction of gp91phox-deficient monocytes for the treatment of X-linked chronic granulomatous disease (xCGD). The administration of autologous, gene-corrected monocytes to counteract systemic and acute infections could lead to a decreased infection load, dissolve granulomas and therefore improve the survival rate of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) which is the current treatment of choice for this disease. First, methods for analysis of gp91phox function were established. Next, they were employed to demonstrate the capacity of monocytes, obtained from healthy humans or mice, for phagocytosis, oxidative burst, and Staphylococcus aureus killing. The in vivo half-life of murine monocytes in the bloodstream and their distribution to specific tissues was determined. Lastly, HIV-1 vectors were used to transfer the gp91phox gene into monocytes from gp91phox-deficient mice. This resulted in the successful restoration of the oxidative burst ability in the cells. In summary, the general suitability of the new vectors for treatment of CGD by monocyte transduction was demonstrated. The results of the mouse experiments provide the foundation for future challenge experiments to evaluate the capability of gene-corrected monocytes to kill off microbes in vivo.
Die zellfreie Proteinsynthese hat sich in den letzten Jahren zu einem potenten Werkzeug – auch in der Produktion von Membranproteinen – entwickelt. Da keine lebenden Zellen genutzt werden, kann der Prozess der präparativen Membranproteinproduktion vereinfacht und individuell optimiert werden. Im Gegensatz zu konventionellen zellbasierten Expressionssystemen gewährleistet die zellfreie Proteinsynthese die direkte Zugänglichkeit zum Reaktionsort und damit die Möglichkeit der unmittelbaren Kontrolle. Dies ermöglicht eine genaue Anpassung der Reaktionsbedingungen auf das Zielprotein. Die Verbesserung und Entwicklung neuer Modi der zellfreien Membranproteinsynthese war ein Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit. Setzt man dem Zellfrei-System von Außen keine hydrophobe Umgebung zu, so präzipitiert das neu-synthetisierte Membranprotein im Reaktionsmix (P-CF). Interessanter Weise unterscheiden sich diese Präzipitate von den aus der E.coli zellbasierten Proteinproduktion bekannten Einschlußkörperchen, da sie sich teilweise leicht in mildem Detergenz resolubilisieren lassen. Zudem konnte für verschiedene Transportproteine, die aus Präzpitat resolubilisiert und danach in Liposomen rekonstituiert wurden, spezifische Transportaktivität gezeigt werden (z.B. eukaryotische Ionentransporter, Multi-Drug Resistenzproteine von E.coli). Alternativ können die Membranproteine direkt, durch die Zugabe von Detergenzien in den Reaktionsmix, solubilisiert werden (D-CF). Um die einzelnen Expressionsmodi zu optimieren wurden 24 gebräuchliche Detergenzien auf ihre Eigenschaft hin gestestet, strukturell sehr unterschiedliche Membranproteine zu solubilisieren. Die Familie der langkettigen Polyoxyethylen-alkyl Ether hat sich dabei als sehr geeignet erwiesen um das prokaryotische α-helikale Multi-Drug Resistenzprotein EmrE, den bakteriellen vornehmlich aus ß-sheets bestehenden Transporter Tsx und den eukaryotischen G-Protein gekoppelten Vasopressin Rezeptor V2R direkt im D-CF Modus zu solubilisieren. Zudem konnte eine Abhängigkeit der spezifischen Aktivität von Tsx vom verwendeten Expressionsmodus bzw. des verwendeten Detergenz mit Hilfe der Black Lipid Membrane´ Methode gezeigt werden. Die Expression eines repäsentativen Teils von 134 Zielproteinen des inneren Membranproteoms von E.coli wurde in drei verschiedenen Zellfrei-Expressionsmodi getestet. Ein an jedes Zielprotein des Membranroteoms C-terminal fusioniertes GFP diente der Konzentrationsbestimmung im D-CF Expressionsmodus. Die Faltung von GFP ist in Anwesenheit von Detergenz signifikant reduziert. Zunächst wurden alle Zielproteine in einem batch´ System im D-CF Modus im Mikrotiterplatten Maßstab mit Hilfe eines Roboters hergestellt. Die Etablierung einer robotergestützten Plattform, welche das Pipettieren, Inkubieren und Detektieren kombiniert, diente als Grundlage für den Herstellungsprozess des Membranroteoms von E.coli in einem Medium-Durchsatz Verfahren in batch´ Konfiguration. In dieser ersten Stufe des Screens im D-CF Modus konnten 84 Zielproteine (63%) aufgrund der detektierten GFP-Fluoreszens in Mengen von 1 bis 60μg pro mL Reaktion als erfolgreich produziert identifiziert werden. Zudem wurde das Membranproteom in dem effektiveren continous exchange (CE) Verfahren im P-CF, wie auch im D-CF Modus wiederholt exprimiert. Im Vergleich zur batch´ Konfiguration konnten im CE D-CF Modus deutlich mehr Zielproteine (75%) als positiv identifiziert werden. 16 Zielproteine wurden dabei bereits in Expressionsmengen von mehr als 100μg solubilisierte Membranproteinfusion pro mL Reaktionsmix gewonnen. 99 Zielproteine (74%) konnten als positiv identifiziert werden, nachdem die unlösliche Fraktion der CE P-CF Reaktion elektrophoretisch getrennt und angefärbt wurde. Für 66 Kandidaten (49%) stellt das produzierte Protein nach Coomassie-Färbung eine dominante Bande, und damit (semi-)präparative Proteinmengen, dar. Der Erhalt von Detergenz-solubilisierten Membranproteinproben von hoher Qualität ist ein wichtiger Schritt zur Gewinnung struktureller sowie biochemischer Daten. Das E.coli α-helikale Multi- Drug Resistenz Protein SugE konnte im CE P-CF Verfahren in präparativen Mengen von mehr als 2mg Protein pro mL des Reaktionsansatzes gewonnen werden. Durchgeführte analytische Größenausschlusschromatographie zeigte, dass der Transporter unter optimierten Reaktionsbedingungen in einem homogenen, schlanken Peak eluiert. Mittels elektronenmikroskopischer Gefrierbruchanalysen konnte eine effiziente und homogene Rekonstitution von SugE in E.coli Liposomen gezeigt werden. Bindungsstudien unter der Verwendung fluoreszensbasierter Anisotropie-Messungen haben gezeigt dass Proflavin – im Gegenteil zu Ethidium – ein Substrat von SugE ist. YedZ ist ein 24kDa leucinreiches Membranprotein mit sechs putativen Transmembransegmenten und enthält zwei Kofaktoren, ein Häm b und ein Flavin-mononukleotid (FMN). Im P-CF Modus exprimiertes YedZ kann effizient in den Detergenzien LMPG, LPPG, SDS und DPC resolubilisiert werden. Analytische Größenausschlusschromatographie zeigte einen symmetrischen Elutionspeak der apo-Form. Mittels CD-Spektroskopie des gereinigten apo-YedZ in 0.02% DDM wurde ein α-helikaler Sekundärstrukturanteil von 55% ermittelt. Zur Gewinnung von holo-YedZ wurde anstatt Hämb das chemisch verwandte Hemin eingesetzt. Die aufgenommenen UV/Vis Spektren der zellfrei produzierten holo-YedZ Proteinprobe in ihrer oxydierten und reduzierten Form, zeigen zu einer in vivo exprimierten Vergleichsprobe identische Absorptionsmaxima. Für sechs G-Protein gekoppelten Rezeptoren konnte die zellfreie Expression in präparativen Mengen gezeigt werden. Das Steroid-Derivat Digitonin, sowie einzelne Mitglieder der Detergenzfamilie der langkettigen Polyoxyethylen-alkyl Ether, wurden als am geeignetsten für die lösliche Expression der GPCRs im CE D-CF Verfahren ermittelt. Löslich in Anwesenheit von Brij78 produzierter GPCR Proben, zeigten nach Negativfärbung in elektronenmikroskopischen Einzelpartikelanalysen eine homogene Probenpräparation und geben Hinweis auf eine strukturelle Dimerisierug der Rezeptoren. Detergenzsolubilisierte Rezeptoren konnten in Liposomen, basierend auf E.coli Lipid-Mischungen, rekonstituiert werden. Elektronen-mikroskopische Gefrierbruchanalysen zeigten eine homogene Rekonstitution, welche auf eine funktionelle Faltung der Rezeptoren schließen lässt.
Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit ist die Entwicklung eines geeigneten Assays (eines standardisierten Reaktionsablaufs) für die Analyse der Funktion und Aktivität der Transporter für organische Kationen (OCT) mit Hilfe der auf einer festkörperunterstützten Membran (SSM) basierenden Elektrophysiologie. Die zweite Kernaufgabe war die Entwicklung der Expressionssysteme für die heterologe OCT-Expression. In den neunzigen Jahren wurden neue Membranproteine, OCT1-3, identifiziert, die eine wichtige Komponente für den Transport der strukturell unterschiedlichen organischen Kationen im menschlichen Organismus darstellen (Gründemann et al., 1994; Koehler et al., 1997; Koepsell et al., 1998; Zhang et al., 1998). Da etwa fünfzig Prozent der in der Klinik gebräuchlichen Medikamente und viele andere exogene Substanzen (Xenobiotika) polare organische Verbindungen sind, die bei einem physiologischen pH-Wert (7,4) überwiegend in protonierter Form als Kationen vorliegen und mittels OCT aus dem Körper ausgeschieden werden, gehören diese Proteine zu den pharmazeutisch bedeutenden Zielmolekülen (Targets) bei der Entwicklung neuer Medikamente. Letztere stellt einen sehr langwierigen Prozess dar, der die Untersuchung zahlreicher Substanzbibliotheken auf ihre Wirkung auf bestimmte Targets voraussetzt. Aufgrund der rasanten technischen Entwicklung in der Laborautomatisierung und der digitalen Mikroskopie können mittlerweile mehrere tausend Wirkstoffkandidaten in Ultra-High-Throughput-Screenings (UHTS) am Tag getestet werden, von denen aber nur ein minimaler Prozentsatz eine erste positive Reaktion (Hit) mit dem Target zeigt. Die Ergebnisse aus dem primären Screening-Prozess werden in einem zweiten Screening-Prozess weiter bearbeitet. In diesen High-Content-Analysen (HCA) werden dabei entgegen den ersten Untersuchungen die Substanzen nicht mehr einzig auf ihre Interaktion mit dem Target getestet. Vielmehr werden möglichst alle Informationen gesammelt und Effekte analysiert. Zurzeit werden folgende Assays dafür eingesetzt (Geibel et al., 2006): 1) radioaktive Assays, wie Ligandbindungsassays, Flux-Assays; 2) Fluoreszenzassays auf Basis von spannungs- oder ionenabhängigen Farbstoffen; 3) Flux-Assays auf Basis von Atom-Absorptions-Spektroskopie (AAS); 4) manuelle patch-clamp-Assays. Allerdings können diese Assays wegen unterschiedlicher Einschränkungen nur begrenzt eingesetzt werden. So treten bei den Fluoreszenzassays aufgrund der Farbstoff-Substanz-Interaktionen oft falsche positive Ergebnisse auf. Methoden mit radioaktiv markierten Substraten sind aus sicherheitstechnischen Gründen mit hohem Aufwand und entsprechenden Kosten verbunden. Das patch-clamp-System verfügt zwar über eine hohe Sensitivität und einen hohen Informationsgehalt, ist jedoch für das Screening wegen des geringen Durchsatzes und erheblicher Kosten nicht effizient. Diese Beispiele zeigen die Notwendigkeit der Entwicklung neuer Techniken für die pharmazeutische Wirkstoffsuche. Die SSM-basierte elektrophysiologische Detektionstechnologie ermöglicht die Untersuchung der Transportproteine in ihren nativen Membranen mit hoher Sensitivität ohne Fluoreszenzmarkierung (Geibel et al., 2006; Kelety et al., 2006). Diese Methode hat besondere Vorteile gegenüber anderen bei der Erforschung von Transporter-Proteinen, die im Gegensatz zu Ionenkanälen relativ wenig Ladung pro Zeiteinheit (1-104 Moleküle s-1) transportieren, und viele Techniken wegen der geringeren Empfindlichkeit für deren Untersuchung nicht geeignet sind.
Caspase-2 is the evolutionary most conserved member of the caspase family and was shown to be involved in genotoxic stress induced apoptosis, control of aneuploidy, and ageing related metabolic changes. However, its role in apoptosis seems redundant due to the observation, that knockout does not inhibit apoptotic signalling exclusively. Instead, knockout of caspase-2 leads to tumor susceptibility in vivo, which led to the assumption, that caspase-2 has non-apoptotic functions and can act as a tumor suppressor. The underlying mechanism of the tumor suppressor activity of caspase-2 has not been clarified so far. Furthermore, caspase-2, has a prominent, and as pro-enzyme exclusive localisation in the nucleus and other subcellular compartments, implicating a distinct and location specific role.
In this study, a novel caspase-2 specific substrate, termed p54nrb, was identified. P54nrb is harbouring a caspase-2 specific cleavage site at the aspartate residue D422, and cleavage of p54nrb leads apparently to disruption of its putative DNA binding domain at the C-terminus.
P54nrb is a nuclear multifunctional RNA and DNA binding protein, known for roles in transcriptional regulation, DNA unwinding and repair, RNA splicing, and retention of defective RNA. Overexpression of p54nrb has been observed in several human cancers, such as cervix carcinoma, melanoma, and colon carcinoma.
Data from this study revealed, that depletion of p54nrb in tumor cell lines results in a loss of resistance to drug induced cell death and to reduced capability of anchorage independent growth, which is functionally equivalent to a reduced tumorigenic potential. Meanwhile, p54nrb depletion alone is not cytotoxic.
The investigation of p54nrb dependent gene regulations by high resolution quantitative proteomics uncovered an altering expression of multiple tumorigenic genes. For two of these candidates, the tumorigenic protease cathepsin-Z and the anti-apoptotic gelsolin, p54nrb dependent expression was detected universally in all three investigated tumor cell lines, cervix carcinoma, melanoma, and colon carcinoma. Additionally, a direct interaction of p54nrb with the cathepsin Z and gelsolin encoding DNA, but not with their corresponding mRNA, could be demonstrated.
Conjointly, this study unveils a novel mechanistic feature of caspase-2 as a tumor suppressor. The caspase-2—p54nrb axis can orchestrate the levels of several tumorigenic proteins and thereby determine the cell death susceptibility and long-term tumor survival. These findings might be of great value for future therapeutic interventions and for overcoming drug resistance of tumors.
Ribosomes are the central cellular assembly lines for protein synthesis. To cope with the translational needs, a proliferating mammalian cell can produce up to 7500-ribosomes per minute. However, under growth limiting conditions, such as nutrient depletion, ribosome synthesis is rapidly shut down exemplifying the importance of a tight coordination between ribosome supply and cellular energy status. In addition to the quantitative regulation, a strict quality control of ribosome synthesis is equally important, because alterations in the composition or function of ribosomes can lead to a variety of pathologies. To cope with these challenges a highly regulated, multi-step pathway of ribosome biogenesis has evolved. In mammals this pathway generates the mature 80S ribosomes that comprise the large 60S and the small 40S subunits. Together they contain around 80 ribosomal proteins and the 28S, 18S, 5.8S and 5S rRNAs. The 28S, 5.8S and 5S rRNAs are assembled into the large subunit, while the 18S rRNA is part of the small subunit. The pathway of ribosome biogenesis is a multi-step cellular process, where specific stages occur in distinct subcellular compartments. Transcription of the 47S rRNA, which is the precursor for the 28S, 18S and 5.8S species, occurs in the nucleolus. Modification of distinct bases and early processing of this precursor also take place in the nucleolus. Subsequently, the 40S and 60S pre-ribosomes take separate maturation routes through the nucleoplasm before their export and final assembly in the cytoplasm. The various stages of preribosomal maturation require the constant and sequential action of a large number of non-ribosomal proteins, known as trans-acting factors. These factors coordinate the delicate remodeling of the pre-ribosomal intermediates and thereby ensure proper progression of the maturation process. The remodeling events largely depend on the dynamics of post-translational modifications, such as phosphorylation or SUMOylation. This requires that the enzymes controlling these modifications are properly targeted to their sites of activity as they fulfill their functions within specific compartments. Here we studied the regulatory principles that govern the subcellular partitioning of the SUMO-specific isopeptidase SENP3 and its associated factor PELP1. Previous work from our laboratory has delineated the importance of the SUMO system for proper ribosome biogenesis in mammalian cells. In particular, we have shown that SENP3 is critically involved in 28S rRNA formation, which is a key step for pre-60S subunit maturation. A critical involvement of SENP3 at this stage of the maturation process is in agreement with the observed enrichment of SENP3 in the nucleolus, since 28S rRNA processing is considered to occur in the nucleolus. Our subsequent work identified the nucleolar scaffold protein NPM1 and the ribosomal trans-acting factor PELP1 as bona fide substrates of SENP3. For both proteins we could demonstrate modification by SUMO2/3 and define SENP3 as the demodifying enzyme. Depletion of SENP3 enhanced the conjugation of SUMO to both proteins and concomitantly reduced conversion of the 32S pre-rRNA to the mature 28S rRNA. PELP1 is part of a larger protein complex consisting of the core components PELP1, TEX10 and WDR18. We could show that the balanced SUMOylation/deSUMOylation of PELP1 controls the nucleolar/nucleoplasmic distribution of this complex. Enhanced SUMOylation, which is observed in the absence of SENP3, triggers the nucleolar release of the complex suggesting that SENP3-mediated deSUMOylation controls the dynamics of nucleolar trans-acting factors. Based on these findings we first wanted to understand, in which cellular compartment(s) SENP3 exerts its function on 28S maturation. Next, we wanted to tackle the question how the subcellular distribution of SENP3 is controlled. Finally
we addressed the question how the SUMOylation of PELP1 determines the subnuclear distribution of the PELP1 complex. This work initially revealed that the nucleolar localization of SENP3 is crucial for proper 28S rRNA formation and 60S ribosome maturation. Importantly, we could demonstrate that the nucleolar compartmentalization of SENP3 depends on its direct physical interaction with NPM1. Further, we could show that the amino-terminal region of SENP3 is necessary for its binding to NPM1 and nucleolar recruitment. Strikingly, this interaction requires the phosphorylation of SENP3, which is brought about by the mTOR kinase. By in-vitro kinase assays and mass-spectrometric approaches we identified five serine/threonine residues within the amino-terminal region of SENP3 that are targeted by mTOR (S/T 25, 26, 141, 142, 143). We could further demonstrate by mutagenesis that these sites in SENP3 are in fact critical for the phospho-dependent binding of SENP3 to NPM1 and its nucleolar recruitment.
Consistent with these data, we found that chemical inhibitors of the mTOR kinase trigger the nucleolar release of SENP3 and impair its interaction with NPM1. Strikingly, this goes along with severe 28S rRNA maturation defects demonstrating the physiological importance of mTOR signaling in the regulation SENP3 function and rRNA processing. By specifically depleting components of the either mTORC1 or mTORC2, we could attribute the observed effects to signaling by mTORC1 rather than mTORC2. In an attempt to find the negative regulators of SENP3 phosphorylation, we identified PP1-γ as the candidate phosphatase in this pathway. We found a strong physical interaction of SENP3 with PP1-γ and observed a loss of SENP3 nucleolar localization upon ectopic expression of PP1-γ. Thus we could define mTOR/PP1-γ mediated phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of SENP3 as an important
mechanism in the control of ribosome maturation. Given that mTOR activity is controlled by nutrient availability, SENP3 functions as a sensor that couples ribosome synthesis with nutrient availability. The second part of this work delineated the role of SUMOylated PELP1 in nucleoplasmic partitioning of the SENP3-PELP1 complex. It was revealed that the AAA-ATPase MDN1 binds preferentially to SUMO modified PELP1 and likely segregates SUMOylated PELP1 from nucleolar pre-60S particles. We initially found that the PELP1 complex associates with MDN1, a factor known to be involved in the 28S rRNA maturation. Notably, depletion of MDN1 led to an enhanced accumulation of the PELP1 complex in the nucleolus and a strong association of PELP1 with pre-60S particles, suggesting that MDN1 is required for the release of this complex from the pre-ribosomes. Intriguingly, the interaction of PELP1 with MDN1 requires SUMO2/3 and SUMOylated PELP1 shows enhanced binding to MDN1 when compared to unmodified PELP1. Taken together this work provides new insights in the control of the SENP3-PELP1 complex dynamics. We could define several layers for the coordinated spatial regulation of SENP3 and the PELP1 complex. This work therefore underscores the crucial importance of dynamic post-translational modifications for the control of ribosome maturation.
Inducing cell death in tumor cells is a major goal of anti-cancer therapy. However, the preferable mode of cell death to induce is under debate. Apoptosis is known to be an anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving type of programmed cell death, whereas necroptosis results in the release of danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and is pro-inflammatory. Efferocytosis of apoptotic cells by macrophages results in a pro-resolving switch of macrophages polarization and is required to induce resolution of inflammation. This impact of apoptotic cells on macrophages is a non-desired consequence of cell death in tumors, which are often characterized by an overshooting wound healing response. Moreover, apoptosis resistance is frequently observed in cancer cells. To overcome apoptosis resistance in cancer cells, necroptosis can be induced as an alternative mechanism for cancer treatment. Interferons (IFNs) play an important role in tumor immune responses and act by inducing the expression of IFN-stiumlated genes (ISGs). Furthermore, IFNs were shown to be able to induce necroptosis together with Smac-mimetics when caspases are inhibited in different cancer cell lines. Necroptosis is induced by phosphorylation and activation of receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 1 (RIPK1), RIPK3 and pseudokinase mixed lineage kinase domain-like (MLKL).
In my thesis, we first identified MLKL as an ISG in various cancer cell lines. MLKL upregulation was found to be a general feature of IFN signaling since both type I and type II IFNs increase the expression of MLKL. IFNy was able to upregulate MLKL at messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) and protein level indicating that MLKL is elevated transcriptionally. Indeed, Actinomycin D chase experiments showed that inhibition of transcription abolished MLKL upregulation upon IFN treatment. Both, knockdown of the IFNy-activated transcription factors interferon regulatory factor 1 (IRF1) and signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) as well as knockout of IRF1 significantly dampened MLKL mRNA upregulation, demonstrating that STAT1 and especially IRF1 are necessary to induce MLKL expression. This first part of the study highlights the upregulation of MLKL by IFNy as valuable tool to sensitize cells towards necroptosis and by that overcome apoptosis resistance in cancers.
When compared to apoptosis, the immune response to necroptotic cells and the polarization of macrophages phagocytosing necroptotic cells is not well studied. In most studies, cell death was induced by biological or chemical compounds, which may lead to artifacts by affecting the macrophages and triggering of unrelated signaling pathways. Therefore, in the second part of my thesis we used a pure cell death system of NIH 3T3 cells expressing either dimerizable caspase 8 or oligomerizable RIPK3 to induce cell death. Addition of B/B-Homodimerizer (dimerizer) to the cells resulted in apoptosis or necroptosis, which was confirmed by caspase 3/7 activation, phosphorylation of MLKL and inhibitor experiments, respectively. We analyzed the effect of dying cells on peritoneal macrophages by establishing a co-culture in a transwell system. The genetic profile of macrophages co-cultured with dying cells was evaluated by whole transcriptome RNA sequencing. In macrophages co-cultured with necroptotic cells genes corresponding to chemotaxis and hypoxia pathways were upregulated. A significant proportion of hypoxia-related pathways are mediated by hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF-1α), which also induces metabolic changes in polarized macrophages. We could show that macrophages co-cultured with necroptotic cells showed a decreased mitochondrial respiration, indicating an inflammatory (M1) polarization. Protein levels of chemokine C-X-C motif ligand 1 (CXCL1), which was increased in the RNA sequencing data, were also upregulated in supernatant of co-cultured macrophages and of necroptotic cells, demonstrating that necroptotic cells both secrete CXCL1 and induce gene expression of CXCL1 in peritoneal macrophages. This may influence the recruitment of neutrophils as inhibition of necroptosis during Zymosan-A-induced peritonits in mice decreased the levels of neutrophils at day 1 of this model of self-resolving inflammation.
Furthermore, RNA sequencing revealed an unexpected impact of apoptotic cells on macrophage biology as cell cycle and cell division pathways were increased. Enhanced proliferation of macrophages was confirmed by two functional assay with peritoneal macrophages isolated from mice and IC-21 macrophages. Inhibition of apoptosis during Zymosan-A-induced peritonits in mice demonstrated decreased mRNA levels of cell cycle mediators in peritoneal macrophages. Simultaneously with cell cycle activation, gene sets of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) signaling were upregulated during RNA sequencing. In the second part of my thesis we could demonstrate, that apoptotic cells induce transcription of cell cycle genes and proliferation of macrophages and necroptotic cells are able to influence the chemokine profile of macrophages and thereby the recruitment of neutrophils.
So far clinical human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) therapy is limited to non-curative treatments. However, as recently shown, alternative approaches such as HIV gene therapy have the potential to functionally cure the disease (e.g. the hematopoietic stem cell (HSC)-transplantation with a CCR5Δ32 homozygous transplant) (1). In contrast to the highly personalized medical treatment applied in the ‘Berlin case’, more broadly applicable approaches are currently under intensive investigation.
One example is the adeno-associated-virus (AAV)-mediated delivery of in vivo secreted antiviral entry inhibitors (iSAVE), the concept of which is based on the direct in vivo administration of a broadly applicable highly potent antiviral gene (here: a C46-derived entry inhibitory peptide interfering with HIV-1 membrane fusion). The AAV-based gene delivery is believed to overcome several limitations of gene therapeutic treatments based on ex vivo lentiviral trials in the past. It is (i) targeting differentiated HIV target cells (i.e. liver and differentiated lymphatic cells) reducing the risk of genotoxicity compared to stem cell-based trials, (ii) overcoming the limitation of a low number of genetically modifiable cells as in lentivirally based ex vivo transduction strategies (i.e. limited modifiable cell number due to culture conditions and lower vector titers) and (iii) using the safe AAV vector system, which has not been associated with major genotoxicity in men. (iv) Most importantly, the concept of secretable entry inhibitors does not require transduction of large amounts of cells due to the protective bystander effect. Thus, iSAVE might be a treatment principle for HIV infection that might be able to cure patients irrespective of their viral isolates or adherence.
Accordingly, the iSAVE concept could aim at two different sites in the patient for the production of antiviral transgenes, either the systemic production via suitable producer cells (e.g. hepatocytes) or the local production in the lymphatic system.
In a first approach, we are able to efficiently target hepatocytes using the natural AAV serotype 8 to express high plasma levels of secretable antiviral entry inhibitors in order to systemically suppress viral replication. In this setting we could show that iSAVE peptides are highly expressed in hepatocytes. However, plasma levels of iSAVE were insufficient when using a secretable peptide as sole antiviral transgene.
As a second treatment strategy, the iSAVE project aimed to deliver antiviral genes directly to the site of viral replication, the lymphatic system. Here, (i) a panel of naturally occurring AAV serotypes as well as (ii) AAV retargeting approaches were employed to design a highly efficient and selective AAV vector variant for gene delivery into the lymphatic system after intravenous vector administration.
In detail, (i) screening of the natural occurring serotypes revealed that the AAV serotype 1 (AAV-1) was best in targeting splenic tissue in two humanized mouse models, however at a very low level. After systemic AAV-1 vector administration neither transduction of human lymphocytes did occur nor was iSAVE expressed in the lymphatic system in a humanized mouse model.
(ii) In a second approach, we modified the well-characterized AAV-2 serotype in a tropism-defining region of its capsid gene by insertion of human peripheral blood lymphocytes (hPBL)-tropic peptide ligands. These in turn were selected by M13 in vivo phage display and by in vivo AAV peptide display. Selected variants were cloned and tested for hPBL transduction in vitro. Although the selected variants did not show increased expression efficacies compared to AAV-2 WT, it still might be possible that the selected variant are more specific for hPBLs as these conditions have not been tested.
As these selection processes required a humanized mouse model that comprises a functional lymphatic system, we established the previously described Trimera mouse model in our lab (2). We found that this mouse model could be further improved to allow engraftment of a lower number of gene-modified (gm) human T cells as in the classical Trimera model. These modified Trimera mice (mT3 mice) were conditioned by inclusion of cyclophosphamide (CTX) to the irradiation-conditioning scheme of the classical Trimera model.
Comparison of mT3 mice with established NSG and DKO mice in an adoptive gm T cell transplantation setting revealed that NSG mice were the most robust model providing high reproducibility in human T cell engraftment. MT3 mice allowed a substantial, yet more variable engraftment of gm T cells. Besides comparing engraftment kinetics, the graft quality (i.e. clonality and cytokine milieu) was analyzed. Again, NSG mice showed the most balanced homeostatic repopulation three weeks after transplantation, while mT3 mice were prone to Th1-type, oligloclonal repopulation, indicating an early onset of xenograft-versus-host disease. Finally, the lymphatic infiltration was analyzed. As expected, mT3 mice provided the most intact lymphatic structures, although the normal lymphatic morphology was not restored.
In conclusion, it was demonstrated in this work that AAV-mediated iSAVE gene therapy faces specific limitations depending on the respective targeting approach
In the systemic approach, iSAVE peptides have to be further optimized in terms of transgene design itself, as high-level accumulation in murine plasma was not feasible for the short iSAVE precursor. In the local, lymphatic targeting approach, AAV-mediated expression faces its limits in targeting specificity but foremost expression efficacy. Thus, the AAV vector itself needs further optimization for sufficient local iSAVE expression levels. Independently from the AAV-related approaches, a novel humanized mouse model was established in this work. Despite drawbacks regarding repopulation variability and set-up complexity, the novel mT3 mouse model comprised improved secondary lymphatic structures for adoptive T cell transfer, which might be an interesting platform for studies in lymphoma or leukemia therapy.
Rhabdomyosarcoma is the most common paediatric soft-tissue sarcoma, and for tumour recurrence, the prognosis is still unfavourable. The current standard therapy consisting of surgery, radiation and combined chemotherapy does not consider the specific biology of this tumour.
Histone deacetylases (HDACs) and the Lysine-specific demethylase-1 (LSD1) are two epigenetic modifiers which are both part of repressor complexes leading to transcriptional silencing of target genes. Whereas HDACs lead to deacetylation of several lysine-residues within the histone tail, LSD1 is specific for demethylation of H3K4me2 and H3K4me1, as well as in a different context for H3K9me2. Rhabdomyosarcoma is reported to harbour high levels of LSD1, but the functional relevance is yet unclear. HDAC inhibition proved to be effective as single agent treatment, however, the proximity of HDAC1/2 and LSD1 in repressor complexes at the DNA implies a suitable rationale for a combination therapy potentially leading to cooperative effects on target gene transcription. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the potential of a combined LSD1 and HDAC inhibition for cell death induction in rhabdomyosarcoma cell lines. Whereas LSD1 inhibitors failed to induce cell death on their own, the combined inhibition of HDACs and LSD1 resulted in highly synergistic cell death induction. This effect extended to several combinations of LSD1 and HDAC inhibitors as well as to four different rhabdomyosarcoma cell lines, two of embryonal and two of alveolar histology.
With the use of the HDAC inhibitor JNJ-26481585 and the reversible LSD1 inhibitor GSK690, we demonstrated that the cell death induced by the combination matches with the details of intrinsic mitochondrial apoptosis. JNJ-26481585/GSK690-induced cell death is partially caspase-dependent and leads to caspase cleavage, followed by substrate cleavage as shown for PARP, as well as loss of the mitochondrial membrane potential.
Furthermore, JNJ-26481585 and GSK690 acted together to transcriptionally upregulate the proapoptotic proteins NOXA, BIM and BMF, which resulted in respective changes on protein level for both cell lines. However, the antiapoptotic BCL-2 family proteins BCL-2, MCL-1 and BCL-xL displayed only minor changes in protein levels upon treatment with GSK690 and JNJ-26481585, which did not rely on transcriptional activity. Therefore, the increase in proapoptotic proteins induces a shift towards proapoptotic signalling at the mitochondrial membrane. This shift is functionally relevant since knockdown of a proapoptotic protein or overexpression of one of the antiapoptotic proteins BCL-2 and MCL-1, as well as a stabilized mutant MCL-1, can significantly protect from GSK690/JNJ-26481585-induced cell death.
Knockdown of the mitochondrial membrane protein BAK, which is directly guarding the mitochondrial membrane integrity, potently protected from GSK690/JNJ-26481585- induced cell death, directly linking the shift in the BCL-2 family proteins to the observed loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and the further downstream activation of caspases. Furthermore, treatment with JNJ-26481585 and GSK690 resulted in a cell cycle arrest in G2/M phase, indicating additional effects on the tumour cells beside apoptosis induction. Taken together, the combined inhibition of LSD1 and HDACs is a promising strategy for rhabdomyosarcoma treatment.
Evaluierung der zellfreien Produktion sekundär aktiver Transporter für die Proteinkristallisation
(2013)
Protein ubiquitination is a post-translational modification that typically involves the conjugation of ubiquitin to substrate proteins via a three-enzyme cascade and regulates a wide variety of cellular processes. Recent studies have revealed that SidE family of Legionella effectors such as SdeA catalyzes novel phosphoribosyl-linked ubiquitination (PR-ubiquitination) of serines in host substrate proteins utilizing NAD+, without the need of E2, E3. The catalytic core of SdeA comprises a mono-ADP-ribosyltransferase (mART) domain that functions to ADP-ribosylate ubiquitin, and a phosphodiesterase (PDE) domain that processes ADP-ribosylated ubiquitin and transfers the resulting phosphoribosylated ubiquitin to serines of substrates.
To date, extensive efforts have been made to study the function of SdeA and mechanism of SdeA mediated PR-ubiquitination, however, the cellular effects of this novel ubiquitination and phosphoribosylation of ubiquitin remained poorly understood. In our study, using biochemical and cell biological approaches, we explored the biological effect of phosphoribosylation of ubiquitin caused by SdeA in cells. We found that phosphoribosylated ubiquitin is not available for conventional ubiquitination, thereby phosphoribosylation of ubiquitin impairs numerous classical ubiquitination related cellular processes including mitophagy, TNF-α signaling and proteasomal degradation.
The precise temporal regulation of the functions of bacterial effectors during Legionella infection by other effectors with antagonizing activities has been well studied so far. Not surprisingly, PR-ubiquitination catalyzed by SidE family effecters is tightly controlled as well, it has been long known that effector SidJ counteracts the toxicity of SdeA to yeast cells. Interestingly, in an experiment for verifying the activity of SidJ, we found that Legionella lysate lacking SidJ was still able to remove ubiquitin from PR-ubiquitinated substrates. Using biochemical approach we identified DupA and DupB, two Legionella bacterial effectors that specifically reverse the novel serine PR-ubiquitination catalyzed by SdeA. We found that DupA and DupB possess a highly homologous PDE domain that removes ubiquitin from PR-ubiquitinated substrates by cleaving the phosphodiester bond between the phosphoribosylated-ubiquitin and serines of substrates. Catalytically deficient mutant DupA H67A strongly binds to PR-ubiquitinated proteins but not capable of cleaving PR-ubiquitin, using it as a trapping bait we identified over 180 substrates of PR-ubiquitination, including a number of ER and Golgi proteins.
In particular, we found that exogenously expressed SdeA localizes to the Golgi apparatus via its C-terminal region and disrupts the Golgi. We validated the identified potential substrates of SidE effectors and found that SdeA modifies Golgi tethering proteins GRASP55 and GRASP65. Using mass spectrometry analyses we identified four serine targets (S3, S408, S409, S449) of GRASP55 PR-ubiquitinated by SdeA in vitro. Ubiquitination of GRASP55 serine mutant in cells co-expressing SdeA or infected with Legionella was markedly decreased, compared with that of the wild-type GRASP55. In addition, with co-immunoprecipitation analyses we found that SdeA-catalyzed ubiquitination regulates the function of GRASP55. PR-ubiquitinated GRASP55 exhibited reduced self-interaction compared to unmodified GRASP55, expression of GRASP55 serine mutant in cells in part rescued Golgi damage caused by SdeA. Furthermore, our study reveals that Golgi structure disruption caused by SdeA does not result in the recruitment of Golgi membranes to the Legionella-containing vacuoles. Instead, it affects cellular secretory pathway including cytokine secretion in cells.
Taken all together, this work expands the understanding of this unconventional PR-ubiquitination catalyzed by Legionella effectors and sheds light on the functions of PR-ubiquitination by which Legionella regulates the Golgi function and secretion pathway during bacterial infection.
In dieser Dissertation wurde die Rolle des Proteins Carboxypeptidase E (CPE) im Glioblastom (GBM) untersucht. Ursprünglich wurde CPE in der neuroendokrinen Regulation beschrieben, wo es die Reifung der meisten Neuropeptide und Hormone reguliert und somit Einfluss auf Stoffwechsel und humorale Effekte hat (Fricker et al., 1982; Fricker & Snyder, 1982 and 1983; Davidson & Hutton, 1987; Shen & Loh, 1997; Lou et al., 2005). Ab 1989 wurde CPE in unterschiedlichen Tumorentitäten nachgewiesen (Grimwood et al., 1989; Manser et al., 1991), jedoch ohne Hinweise, welche Bedeutung das Protein dort haben könnte. Erst im letzten Jahrzehnt konnten sowohl pro- als auch anti-tumorigene Wirkungen von CPE gezeigt werden. Die beschriebenen Wirkungen von CPE sind jedoch von dessen Isoform abhängig. Das ∂(delta)N-trunkierte CPE zeigte sich mit erhöhtem Tumorwachstum und schlechter Überlebensprognose in verschiedenen Krebsentitäten assoziiert (Murthy et al., 2010; Lee et al., 2011; Zhou et al., 2013). Im Gegensatz dazu verringerte sezerniertes CPE (sCPE) im Fibrosarkom und Glioblastom die Zellmigration, was einen anti-tumorigenen Effekt suggeriert (Höring et al., 2012; Murthy et al., 2013a). Die Molekularmechanismen, die für die Regulation der Migration zuständig sind, sind jedoch kaum untersucht. Die meisten Untersuchungen von sCPE in Normal- und Tumorgewebe beschränken sich hauptsächlich auf Apoptose und Zellüberleben (Skalka et al., 2013; Murthy et al., 2013b; Cheng et al., 2013; Selvaraj et al., 2015; Cheng et al., 2015). Die vorliegende Arbeit ist demzufolge die erste Studie, die sich dem Mechanismus der Migrationsregulation durch sCPE im Glioblastom widmet.
Humane Gliome stellen die größte und bösartigste Gruppe hirneigener Tumore dar. Bösartige Gliome sind höchst resistent gegen alle zurzeit verfügbaren Behandlungsmethoden. Einer der Hauptgründe dafür ist, dass die Tumorzellen durch diffuse Infiltration in das Gehirn einwandern können. Ferner sind Gliomzellen metabolisch sehr aktiv und können sich dadurch an schnell verändertes Milieu anpassen (Fack et al., 2015; Demeure et al., 2016). Über die grundlegenden Mechanismen für diese Art des infiltrierenden Tumorwachstums ist bisher noch nicht viel bekannt. Zurzeit sind nur wenige Schlüsselfaktoren beschrieben, die den sogenannten Mechanismus der Migration oder Proliferation ("go or grow") in bösartigen Tumoren beeinflussen: wenige Transkriptionsfaktoren, miRNAs sowie metabolische Faktoren. Interessanterweise, sind miRNAs zum Teil mit der Regulation des Metabolismus in Tumorzellen assoziiert. Eine vorangehende Studie aus unserem Labor hat sCPE aufgrund seines Potentials, Zellwanderung zu verringern, als einen weiteren Schlüsselfaktor identifiziert. Wir konnten zeigen, dass sCPE in der Gliomzelllinie LNT-229 zur einer differentiellen Regulation von Migration und Proliferation führt (Höring et al., 2012). Die vorliegende Arbeit widmet sich nun der Frage nach den genauen zugrundeliegenden Mechanismen, wie sCPE seine Effekte auf molekularer Ebene vermittelt. Darüber hinaus soll geklärt werden, ob sCPE auch in der metabolischen Adaptation eine Rolle spielt und dadurch ebenfalls die Gliomzellmigration beeinflußen kann.
Integral membrane proteins (IMPs) account for 20-40% of all open reading frames in fully sequenced genomes and they are target of approximately 60% of all modern drugs. So far, cellular expression systems are often very insufficient for the high-level production of IMPs. Toxic effects, instability or formation of inclusion bodies are frequently observed effects that prevent the synthesis of sufficient amounts of functional protein. I have successfully established an individual cell-free (CF) expression system to overcome these IMP synthesis difficulties. The CF system was established in two different expression modes. If no hydrophobic compartment is provided, the IMPs precipitate in the reaction mixture. Interestingly, these insoluble proteins are found to differ from inclusion bodies as they readily solubilize in mild detergents and the bacterial small multi drug transporter EmrE, expressed in the insoluble mode was shown to reconstitute into liposomes in an active form. Alternatively, IMPs can be synthesized in a soluble way by supplementing the CF system with detergents. A comprehensive overview of 24 commonly used detergents was provided by analyzing their impact on the CF system as well as their ability to keep three structurally very different proteins in solution. The class of long chain polyoxyethylene-alkyl-ethers turned out to be most suitable for soluble expression of a-helical EmrE, the bacterial b-barrel type nucleoside transporter Tsx and the porcine vasopressin receptor type 2, resulting in several mg of protein per mL of reaction mixture. So far IMPs have almost completely been excluded from solution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analyses. I could demonstrate that CF expression enables efficient isotopic labeling of IMPs for NMR analysis and further facilitates selective labeling strategies with combinations of 13C and 15N enriched amino acids that have not been feasible before. Four different G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) were successfully CF expressed in preparative scale and for the human endothelin B receptor (ETB), ligand binding ability was observed. A series of truncated ETB derivatives containing nested terminal deletions have been CF produced and functionally characterized. The core area essential for Endothelin-1 binding as well as a central region responsible for ETB oligomer formation was confined to a 39 amino acid fragment including the proposed transmembrane segment 1. The binding constant (KD) of ETB was determined to 6 nM for circular ET-1 by SPR and 29 nM for linear ET-1 by TIRFS. This data indicate a large potential of the established individual CF expression system for functional IMP synthesis.
Almost two decades ago, microRNAs were discovered as novel posttranscriptional regulators of gene expression. Since then, research efforts have uncovered their involvement in the control of various cellular processes including migration, proliferation and cell survival. Even more complex events, such as the formation of new blood vessels or organ development, have been shown to be tightly regulated and orchestrated by microRNAs. Due to their crucial regulatory role in tissue homeostasis in vertebrates, it does not come as a big surprise that dysregulated microRNA ex-pression is associated with pathology of diverse diseases. In this regard, the miR-17-92 cluster is a prime example since it has become famous for its amplified expression in tumours and its on-cogenic potential. Our lab demonstrated the expression of the members of the miR-17-92 cluster, namely miR-17, -18a, -19a, -20a, -19b and -92a, in endothelial cells and provided evidence for the anti-angiogenic activity of miR-92a in ECs as well as its important regulatory role in tissue re-covery after ischemia. In this work we addressed the function of the remaining members of the miR-17-92 cluster, i.e. miR-17, miR-18a, miR-19a and miR-20a, in endothelial cells and angiogenesis. Surprisingly, the individual members all displayed anti-angiogenic properties in endothelial cells in vitro, although overexpression of the whole cluster in transformed colonocytes was shown to promote tumour angiogenesis in a mouse model. In this context, we provide evidence that the individual miRs differentially affect the paracrine angiogenic activity of endothelial and tumour cells. Moreover, Antagomir-mediated inhibition of miR-17/20 in a mouse tumour model did not affect tumour angi-ogenesis, although miR-17/20 inhibition profoundly increased vascularization of Matrigel plugs. Thus, our research efforts suggest a differential involvement of the members of the miR-17-92 cluster in physiological and tumour angiogenesis. Additionally, we identified Janus kinase (JAK) 1 as a novel miR-17 target in endothelial cells and demonstrated the involvement of JAK1 in angio-genesis and in the phosphorylation of STAT3 in response to different cytokines in vitro. Overall, inhibition of specific members of the miR-17-92 cluster might represent an attractive therapeutic strategy to enhance angiogenesis in ischemic diseases. In the second part of the present work we investigated the therapeutic value of Antagomir-mediated microRNA inhibition in animal models of pulmonary arterial hypertension. Collectively, inhibition of miR-17 by the respective Antagomir revealed a significant improvement of pulmonary hemodynamics and cardiac function in both the chronic hypoxia mouse model and the mono-crotaline-induced lung injury rat model. Histomorphometric analysis of the lungs of the pulmonary hypertensive mice and rats uncovered a significant reduction of disease associated musculariza-tion of pulmonary arteries in Antagomir-17 treated animals compared to the control animals indicating interference with smooth muscle cell proliferation or survival. Probing of lung tissue of the pulmonary hypertensive rats for selected miR-17 targets uncovered a profound increase in the expression of the cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor p21 in the Antagomir-17 treated rats suggest-ing that inhibition of miR-17 impairs proliferation by impeding cell cycle progression. Analysis of miR-17 function in human smooth muscle cells in vitro corroborated the results from the animal experiments by demonstrating pro-proliferative activity of miR-17 and decreased levels of p21 in these cells. Collectively, our results indicate that Antagomir-17 improves pulmonary hemodyna-mics and cardiac function by interfering with vascular remodelling within the lung. Hence, inhibi-tion of miR-17 might be of therapeutic value to ameliorate the disease pattern in pulmonary arte-rial hypertension. In summary, the present work provides insights into the regulatory functions of members of the miR-17-92 cluster, especially miR-17, in blood vessels and suggests that specific inhibition of members of the miR-17-92 cluster might be a novel option to treat vascular diseases.
Cancer cells, in general and especially Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) cells have been reported to be highly susceptible to oxidative stress. Based on this knowledge we examined whether the inhibition of the two main antioxidant defense pathways, i.e. the thioredoxin (TRX) and the glutathione (GSH) system, represents a possible new strategy to induce cell death in RMS. To do so, we combined the -glutamylcysteine synthetase (γGCL) inhibitor buthionine sulfoximine (BSO) or the cystine/glutamate antiporter (xc-) inhibitor erastin (ERA), both GSH depleting enzymes, with the thioredoxinreductase (TrxR) inhibitor auranofin (AUR) to evaluate synergistic cell death in the alveolar RMS (ARMS) cell line RH30 and the embryonal RMS (ERMS) cells RD.
Furthermore, we tried to unravel the underlying molecular mechanisms of AUR/BSO or AUR/ERA treatment in RMS cells. Thereby we showed that AUR/BSO as well as AUR/ERA treatment leads to proteasome inhibition characterized by the accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins, which is in agreement with the already published ability of AUR to inhibit proteasomeassociated deubiquitinases (DUBs) aside from TrxR. As a consequence, the protein levels of ubiquitinated short-lived proteins, like NOXA and MCL-1, increase upon treatment with AUR/BSO or AUR/ERA. Consistently, we could detect an increased binding of NOXA to MCL-1. Interestingly, not only NOXA protein levels but also mRNA levels rise upon treatment, pointing to a transcriptional regulation of pro-apoptotic NOXA through AUR/BSO or AUR/ERA combination treatment. The fact that siRNA mediated knockdown of NOXA rescues cells from combination treatment-induced cell death strengthens the role of NOXA as an important regulator of cell death induction. Apart from proteasome inhibition and subsequent NOXA accumulation, AUR cooperates with BSO or ERA to trigger BAX/BAK activation, which is needed for cell death induction, too. Additionally, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) as well as caspase activation and PARP cleavage is detected after treatment of RMS cells with AUR/BSO or AUR/ERA.
Except of apoptotic cell death we also detected features of iron-dependent ferroptosis after treatment with AUR/BSO or AUR/ERA. This is not surprising, since BSO and ERA already have been described to induce ferroptotic cell death. Although lipid peroxidation takes place in both cell lines, only in RH30 cells, cell death seems to be partially ferroptosis-dependent, since especially in this cell line AUR/BSO- or AUR/ERA-induced cell death can be rescued with different ferroptosis inhibitors.
Although both combination treatments, AUR/BSO as well as AUR/ERA, induce production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), only the thiol-containing ROS scavengers GSH and its precursor N-acetylcysteine (NAC), but not the non-thiolcontaining antioxidant α-Tocopherol (α-Toc), consistently prevent proteasome inhibition, NOXA accumulation and cell death.
Additionally, we demonstrated that BSO and ERA abolish AUR-mediated upregulation of GSH thereby releasing the AUR cytotoxic effect on RMS cells, in line with the described ability of cysteines to inhibit the function of AUR. Together, this points to the conclusion that GSH depletion, rather than an increase in ROS levels, is important for AUR/BSO- or AUR/ERA-induced cell death.
In conclusion, through revealing that the antitumor activity of AUR is enhanced in combination with GSH depleting agents, we identified redox homeostasis as a new and promising target for the treatment of RMS cells.
Identifizierung des vertebraten-spezifischen Proteins C7orf43 als neue TRAPPII Komplexuntereinheit
(2016)
Bei den transport protein particle (TRAPP) Komplexen handelt es sich um eine Familie von Protein Komplexen, die jeweils aus mehreren Untereinheiten bestehen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte das Protein C7orf43 als neue potenzielle TRAPPII Untereinheit identifiziert werden, die - wie auch die beiden anderen TRAPPII-spezifischen Komponenten TRAPPC9 und TRAPPC10 - sowohl für die Erhaltung von ERGIC, Golgi-Apparat und COPI Vesikel als für den ER zu Golgi Transportweg benötigt wird.
Der retinoid-related orphan receptor α (RORα) ist ein nukleärer Rezeptor, der nach Bindung an sein Responselement die Transkription zahlreicher Gene reguliert. Pharmazeutisches Interesse erlangt der Rezeptor vor allem durch seine Verwicklung in pathophysiologische Prozesse wie Osteoporose und Arteriosklerose sowie durch seine antiinflammatorische Wirkung, die auf der negativen Interferenz mit dem NF-κB-Signalweg beruht. Bisher konnten vier RORα-Isoformen isoliert werden, die durch alternatives Spleißen sowie durch die Regulation über unterschiedliche Promotorregionen entstehen. In verschiedenen Studien konnte eine isoformspezifische Regulation als Antwort auf pathophysiologische Veränderungen der Zellen festgestellt werden, wie beispielsweise die Induktion der RORα4-Transkription in Leberzellen infolge einer Sauerstoffunterversorgung. Um Einblicke in die Mechanismen zu gewinnen, die der spezifischen Regulation der RORα4-Expression zugrunde liegen, wurde in der vorliegenden Arbeit der RORα4-Promotor als erster Promotor einer RORα-Isoform identifiziert und analysiert.
Sechs Fragmente mit einer Länge von bis zu 5,1 kbp der aus Datenbanken entnommenen, putativen Promotorsequenz wurden in einen Reportergenvektor kloniert. Transiente Transfektionsexperimente und Reportergenanalysen deckten die Promotoraktivität der gewählten Sequenz auf.
In dem durch einen hohen Gehalt an den Nukleotiden G und C auffallenden Promotor wurden drei einzelne GC-Boxen (A, B und C) sowie eine Viererkette (Box D) und eine Tandem-GCBox (Box E) als mögliche Bindungsmotive für Sp-Transkriptionsfaktoren gefunden. Mithilfe von Kotransfektionen konnte eine Induktion der Promotoraktivität durch die Transkriptionsfaktoren Sp1 und Sp4 nachgewiesen werden, während Sp3 die Promotoraktivität in diesen Experimenten nicht beeinflusste.
Durch die gezielte Mutation oder Deletion, bzw. die Inkubation mit verschiedenen Substanzen konnten diesen GC-Boxen unterschiedliche Funktionen zugeordnet werden. Durch transiente Transfektionen stark verkürzter Promotorfragmente wurde ein für die Promotoraktivität nötiger Sequenzbereich von 170 Basenpaaren eingegrenzt. In Mutationsanalysen wurde demonstriert, dass die beiden proximalen GC-Boxen A und B für die basale Promotoraktivität essentiell sind.
Die RORα4-Promotoraktivität ließ sich zelltypabhängig durch den Phorbolester TPA induzieren. In Deletionsanalysen ließ sich dieser Effekt teilweise auf die GC-Boxen C und D zurückführen. Der distalen GC-Box E konnte ebenfalls eine Funktion zugeordnet werden. In Reportergenanalysen konnte demonstriert werden, dass sie die Induktion der Promotoraktivität durch den HDAC-Inhibitor Trichostatin A vermittelt.
Durch die Untersuchungen an den TK-luc-Konstrukten mit RORα-Responselementen konnte gezeigt werden, dass der virale Promotor aufgrund der einklonierten RORα-Responselemente sehr stark auf die Kotransfektion der RORα-Isoformen reagiert. Die Reportergenanalyse mit diesen Konstrukten stellt daher eine effiziente Methode dar, um die RORα-vermittelte Transaktivierung zu bestimmen.
Obwohl der RORα4-Promotor zahlreiche RORα-Responselemente trägt, konnte in den Kotransfektionen mit Expressionsplasmiden für die einzelnen Isoformen in keiner der drei Zelllinien eine Autoregulation gefunden werden. Ebensowenig zeigte sich ein Einfluss des putativen RORα-Liganden Melatonin auf die Promotoraktivität.
Des Weiteren wurde gezeigt, dass die RORα4-Promotoraktivität in HeLa und MCF-7-Zellen durch das cAMP-Analogon DbcAMP induzierbar ist, während in HEK 293 keine Beeinflussung der Promotoraktivität erzielt wurde. Neben der Steigerung der Promotoraktivität durch TPA, konnte mit der DbcAMP-Induktion folglich ein zweiter, zelltypabhängiger Effekt auf die RORα4-Promotoraktivität identifiziert werden.
To overcome poor treatment response of pediatric high-risk acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), novel treatment strategies are required to reactivate programmed cell death in this malignancy. Therefore, we take advantage of using small-molecule antagonists of Inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) proteins, so called Smac mimetics such as BV6, which are described to overcome apoptosis resistance and thereby sensitize tumor cells for several apoptotic stimuli. To address the question whether redox alterations can sensitize leukemic cells for Smac mimetic-mediated cell death, we interfered with the cellular redox status in different ALL cell lines. Here, we show for the first time that redox alterations, mediated by the glutathione depleting agent Buthioninesulfoximine (BSO), prime ALL cells for BV6-induced apoptosis. Besides ALL cell lines, BV6/BSO cotreatment similarly synergizes in cell death induction in patient-derived primary leukemic samples. In contrast, the combination treatment does not exert any cytotoxicity against peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLs) or mesenchymal stroma cells (MSCs) from healthy donors, suggesting some tumor selectivity of this treatment. We also identify the underlying molecular mechanism of the novel synergistic drug interaction of BSO and BV6. We demonstrate that both agents act in concert to increase reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, lipid peroxidation and finally apoptotic cell death. Enhanced ROS levels in the combination treatment account for cell death induction, since several ROS scavengers, like NAC, MnTBAP and Trolox attenuate BSO/BV6-induced apoptosis. BSO/BV6-induced ROS can be mainly classified as lipid peroxides, since the vitamin E derivate α-Tocopherol as well as Glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4), which both specifically reduce lipid-membrane peroxides, prevent lipid peroxidation, caspase activation and cell death induction. Vice versa, GPX4 knockdown and pharmacological inhibition of GPX4 by RSL3 or Erastin enhance BV6-induced cell death. Importantly, cell death induction critically depends on the formation of a complex consisting of RIP1/FADD/Caspase-8, since all complex components are required for ROS production, lipid peroxidation and cell death induction. Taken together, we demonstrate that BSO and BV6 cooperate to induce ROS production and lipid peroxidation which are eventually required for caspase activation and cell death execution. Collectively, findings of this study indicate that BV6-induced apoptosis is mediated via redox alterations offering promising new treatment strategy to overcome apoptosis resistance in ALL.
In this thesis the integral membrane protein diacylglycerol kinase (DAGK) from E.coli is investigated with solid-state NMR. The aim is to gain an insight into the enzyme’s mechanism through integration of kinetic, structural and dynamic data. The biological function of DAGK is the transfer of the γ-phosphate group from Mg*ATP to diacylglycerol (DAG) building phosphatidic acid (PA)[6] as port of the membrane-derived oligosaccharide cycle[31,34]. Surprisingly, DAGK does not share structural or sequential similarities with other kinases[12]. Typical sequence motives found in other kinases, which catalyze phosphoryl transfer reactions, are not found[13]. In its physiological form DAGK is a homo-trimer with nine transmembrane helices, three catalytic centers and a size of 39.6 kDa.
First, the set-up of a real-time 31P MAS NMR experiment is shown. This experiment allows measuring in real-time the simultaneous ATP hydrolysis in the aqueous phase and lipid substrate phos-phorylation in the membrane phase with atomic resolution under magic angle spinning[56]. After fast transfer of the sample into the NMR spectrometer the enzymatic reaction is started with a temperature jump. This approach of real-time MAS NMR in a dual-phase system was demonstrated for the lipid substrate analogs dioleoyl- (DOG) and dibutyrylglycerol (DBG), with a C8 and C4 aliphatic chain, respectively. The combination of 31P direct and cross polarization functions as a dynamic filter. In the 31P direct polarized experiment nuclei in both phases are detected, while in the 31P cross polar-ized experiment, only nuclei in the membrane phase are detected. Rates for substrate turnover, i.e. degradation of γP-, βP, αP-ATP and build-up of βP-, αP-ADP, free phosphate as side reaction, and PA are obtained, which reveal a Michaelis-Menten behavior with regard to Mg*ATP and DBG. Here Mg*ATP and DBG follow a random-equilibrium model, where every substrate can bind indepen-dently from the other substrate. Analyses of the peak integrals from educts and products of the enzymatic reaction, revealed the stoichiometry of the reaction: 1.5 ATP molecules are used to phos-phorylate one DBG molecule. The excess of ATP is attributed to the basal ATPase activity. Further-more, experiments with ATPγS, usually regarded as a non-hydrolysable ATP-analog, where carried out. Surprisingly, DAGK hydrolyzes ATPγS and also transfers the thio-phosphate group to the lipid acceptor DBG, which points to a certain degree of plasticity in the active center. A phosphorylated enzyme intermediate was not detected. These results suggest the building of a ternary complex of Mg*ATP, DBG and DAGK performing a direct-phosphoryl transfer reaction, without passing through a phosphorylated enzyme intermediate. Experiments with the transition state analog ortho-vanadate (Vi) showed a decoupling of the ATP hydrolysis activity from lipid substrate phosphorylation. This indicates a specific transfer site for the γ-phosphate group from ATP to DAG, which can be blocked by Vi.
A general disadvantage of NMR spectroscopy compared to other spectroscopic methods is its inherent low sensitivity. One possible starting point for the improvement of signal-to-noise per unit time is the reduction of the spin-lattice relaxation time of protons[209]. Usually 95 % of the experi-mental time is required for the relaxation of the 1H to equilibrium. The addition of paramagnetic species can be used to reduce the 1H T1[233]. In a comprehensive study four different paramagnetic agents were tested: Cu2+-EDTA, Cu2+-EDTA-tag, Gd3+-TTAHA and Gd3+-DOTA. The titration of these paramagnetic complexes showed the principle feasibility of this approach, but differences between the tested species exist. The most promising complex is Gd3+-DOTA which, at a concentration of 2 mM, causes a 10-time improvement of signal-to-noise ratio per unit time. This allowed measuring 2D 13C-13C correlation spectra of proteoliposomes in one tenth of the usual required experimental time (i.e. 10 hours vs. 4 days) with good signal-to-noise.
For the investigation of structural or dynamic changes in the protein upon substrate interaction with MAS NMR, the spectral properties CP efficiency and resolution of the DAGK in liposomes needed to be improved. The most critical step during sample preparation is the reconstitution of the membrane protein from detergent micelles into a membrane of synthetic lipids under detergent removal. For this procedure the important criteria are enzymatic activity, measured in a coupled ATPase assay[55], and homogeneity of the proteoliposomes, which was tested e.g. on a discontinuous sucrose step gradient. Therefore an extensive study was carried out, in which different detergents, lipids and lipid mixtures, techniques for detergent removal and different protein-to-lipid ratios were tested. A direct correlation between high ATPase activity and good resolution was not found. Moreover, active DAGK in a mixture of DMPC and cholesterol, which emulates the membrane features of a membrane containing DAG, showed the best CP efficiency and resolution.
The assignment of the protein backbone and amino acid side chains the first mandatory step towards the investigation of structural and dynamical features influencing and defining the enzymatic mechanism by MAS NMR. As the assignment procedure is very time consuming for a total protein, a special labeling scheme for DAGK was developed, which allows assigning most of the protein areas presumably involved in enzyme catalysis. The assignment of DAGK with solution NMR[132] was not transferable to the MAS NMR spectra. Most important for the assignment process were the unique pairs[335], two consecutive amino acids which only appear once in the amino acid sequence. These unique pairs served as anchor points. Five different multinuclear MAS NMR experiments (DARR, NCO, NCA, NCACX, NCOCX) were required for the sequential assignment. It was possible to assign 35 % of the total amino acid sequence with one sample and 8 experiments acquired at 850 MHz. The secondary structure analysis showed subtle differences to the DAGK assignment with solution NMR[132], which can be attributed to the different environment in lipid bilayers and detergent micelles.
Data about structural and dynamical changes under substrate interaction can reveal details about the enzymatic mechanism. Therefore changes in chemical shift in 2D heteronuclear correlation experiments in the apo-state and under substrate saturated conditions with the substrates Mg*AMP-PNP, a non-hydrolysable ATP-analog, DOG, a mixture of Mg*AMP-PNP and DOG as well as inhibited by Vi were recorded. The most significant peak changes were observed at the interface membrane-cytoplasm as well as the the N-terminal amphipathic helix. The residues revealing chemical shift perturbations correlate with conserved residues or such residues, for which importance for catalysis and/or folding could be shown in mutation studies[8]. Especially noticeable were the changes at the amino acids Asn 72, Lys 64, His 87, Tyr 86 and Asp 95.
Beside changes of the chemical shift, changes of line width or signal doubling were observable. These changes can point to a correlation with dynamic reorientations in the μs-ms time regime, which are most relevant for enzymatic processes. The protein backbone dynamics in the apo-state as well as saturated with the substrates or inhibited with Vi were investigated with a 15N-CODEX experiment, which is based on the reorientation of the CSA tensor upon dynamical changes[350]. Specific effects of the different substrates or analogs on the protein backbone dynamic were revealed complementing the structural data and the chemical shift perturbation experiments.
During my thesis, I worked on two different membrane proteins. One is a bacterial secondary transporter and the second is a human mitochondrial calcium channel.
The first part of my thesis involves the structural and biochemical characterization of an L-carnitine/ γ-butyrobetaine antiporter from bacteria called CaiT. The aim of the project was to understand the Na+ independence of CaiT and to determine the crystal structures of CaiT in different conformations to expand the mechanistic understanding of substrate/ product antiport in CaiT.
The study revealed how a positively charged amino acid side chain (arginine 262) in CaiT could structurally and functionally mimic a sodium ion. Additionally, various crystal structures of CaiT obtained in this study demonstrate that the central substrate-binding site is highly dynamic and can accommodate the substrate in various orientations.
In the second part of my thesis, I was able to optimize the expression and purification conditions for the human mitochondrial calcium uniporter or the MCU. Understanding how this channel functions can help us unravel the mechanism of calcium uptake by mitochondria. Secondary structure prediction analysis in combination with mass spectrometry of degraded MCU products obtained during the purification of the full-length protein led to the identification of a stable MCU construct. This study resulted in the successful purification of milligram quantities of stable MCU protein for the first time. Further optimization may be required to obtain more homogenous protein that is amenable for crystallization.
5-LO is the key enzyme in the biosynthesis of proinflammatory leukotrienes. It catalyses the conversion of arachidonic acid to the hydroperoxy intermediate 5(S)-hydroperoxy-6- trans-8,11,14-cis-eicosatetraenoic acid (5-HpETE). In a second step 5-LO catalyses a dehydration reaction forming the unstable epoxide intermediate 5(S)-trans-5,6-oxido-7,9- trans-11,14-cis-eicosatetraenoic acid (leukotriene A4 , LTA4). The 5-LO gene is subjected to versatile regulation mechanisms. Apart from regulation by DNA-methylation and histone acetylation / deacetylation 5-LO gene expression can be regulated by the differentiation inducers calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3) and transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) 5-LO gene expression. In the myeloid cell lines Mono Mac 6 (MM6) and HL-60, differentiation with both agents caused a prominent upregulation of 5-LO mRNA level, of 5-LO protein expression and of 5-LO activity. Treatment with calcitriol alone already has an impact on 5-LO gene expression which is additionally potentiated by TGFβ treatment. Previous nuclear run-off analysis and reporter gene analysis could not associate the 5-LO promoter with the induction of 5-LO mRNA expression mediated by calcitriol and TGFβ. Inclusion of the 5-LO coding sequence (cds) and inclusion of the 5-LO cds plus the last four introns of the gene (J to M) in the 5-LO promoter construct pN10 led to an enhanced reporter gene activity. The inductions were dependent on vitamin D receptor (VDR) and retinoid x receptor (RXR) cotransfection. Therefore the work was concentrated on identifying elements outside the 5-LO promoter region which contribute to the calcitriol / TGFβ effect on 5-LO mRNA expression. Insertion of the LTA4 hydrolase coding sequence – a coding sequence of similar size - instead of the 5-LO cds led to a loss of the calcitriol / TGFβ effect (pN10LTA4Hcds 1-fold induction). Therewith, it was proven that the presence of the 5-LO cds is crucial for the upregulating effect of calcitriol / TGFβ on 5-LO mRNA level. Cloning of the SV40 promoter instead of pN10 upstream of the 5-LO cds still showed inducibility by treatment with the inducers which argues for a promoter unspecific effect. Insertion of the 5-LO cds in a promoterless basic vector (pGL3cds) displayed same inductions by calcitriol / TGFβ treatment as the 5-LO promoter 5-LO cds construct (pN10cds). Thus, the effect of the inducers is not dependent on the 5-LO promoter under the in vitro conditions of the reporter gene assay. Hence, further cloning was done with promoterless constructs. Through 5-LO cds deletion constructs a positive regulating region in exon 10 to 14 was discovered. To adapt the natural gene context the last four introns (J-M) of the 5-LO gene were inserted in a promoterless construct containing exon 10 to 14 (pGL3cdsΔABInJM). 5end deletion constructs of it revealed putative vitamin D responsive elements (VDREs) in exon 12 and intron M. Mutation of the putative VDREs led to a reduced calcitriol effect –more prominent when the putative VDRE in intron M was mutated (reduction of 40%). Moreover another putative VDRE in exon 10 with an adjacent SMAD binding element (SBE) was detected. SMAD proteins are effector proteins of TGFβ signalling. Gelshift experiments demonstrated in vitro binding of the VDR-RXR heterodimer to those three putative VDREs. By chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay in vivo binding of VDR and RXR was shown to the VDRE in the region of exon 10, exon 12 and intron M. 8h and 24h incubation with calcitriol / TGFβ resulted in enhanced expression of VDR in each of the examined regions. The VDR is able to bind to the VDRE without its ligand, whereas this goes along with corepressor recruitment and thus the VDR has a repressive effect on transcription. Histone H4 acetylation was increased when MM6 cells were treated for 8h or 24h with calcitriol or the combination of calcitriol / TGFβ. This finding implies that at that point of time corepressors associated with the VDR are replaced by coactivators. It seems convincing that 5-LO transcription is mainly promoted by calcitriol alone which leads to a more accessible chromatin structure. Previous data indicated that calcitriol and TGFβ upregulate 5-LO RNA maturation and 5- LO transcript elongation. Thus several elongation markers were investigated by ChIP analysis: Histone H3 lysine 36 (H3K36) trimethylation and H4K20 monomethylation were detected in the analysed regions in exon 10, exon 12 and intron M. In region exon 10 the H3K36 trimethylation status was enhanced after 24h calcitriol or calcitriol / TGFβ treatment. An increased H4K20 monomethylation status in all regions was observed when MM6 cells were treated for 24h with calcitriol / TGFβ. 24h treatment with both agents also enhanced the recruitment of the elongation form of RNA polymerase II, which is phosphorylated at serine 2 of the carboxyterminal domain, to the investigated regions. These findings prove the positive regulating role for calcitriol and TGFβ on 5-LO transcript elongation. A putative mechanism of the effect of calcitriol and TGFβ on 5-LO RNA maturation might be the elevated phosphorylation of serine 2 of the RNA Polymerase II which is known to be followed by recruiting polyadenylating factors.
5-LO is the key enzyme in the biosynthesis of proinflammatory leukotrienes, converting arachidonic acid to 5-HPETE, and in a second step 5-HPETE to leukotriene A4. Although the 5-LO promoter possesses characteristics of so called housekeeping genes, such as lack of TATA/CCAAT boxes and existence of several Sp1 binding sites, the 5 -LO gene is tissue specifically expressed in primarily immune competent cells of myeloid origin including granulocytes, monocytes, macrophages, mast cells and B-lymphocytes. 5-LO gene expression in MM6 and HL-60 cells is strongly induced after differentiation of the cells with TGF-beta and 1,25(OH)2D3. In some monocytic cancer cell lines, such as HL-60 TB and U937, TGF-beta and 1,25(OH)2D3 treatment are not able to activate 5-LO gene transcription. It was demonstrated, that in these cell lines the 5-LO core promoter is heavily methylated and that only demethylation by the DNA methyltransferase inhibitor 5-aza-2 deoxycytidine (Adc) upregulated the 5-LO mRNA levels. It was also shown that the histone deacetylase inhibitor TsA could induce 5-LO mRNA levels, but only in 1,25(OH)2D3/TGF-beta inducible MM6 cells. Interestingly the 1,25(OH)2D3/TGF-beta effect on 5-LO expression is reduced, when combined with TsA. Reporter gene assays revealed that 5-LO promoter activity is strongly induced after 24 h treatment with 330 nM TsA (construct N10 up to 35 fold in HeLa cells). The effect is dependent on the presence of the proximal Sp1 binding site GC4 (-53 bp to –48 bp in relation to the major TIS) in both HeLa and MM6 cells. In vitro binding of the transcription factor Sp1 to this site has been demonstrated in gel shift assays and DNase I footprints. Mutation of the binding site resulted in a loss of basal promoter activity in both 5-LO negative HeLa cells and in 5-LO positive MM6 cells, as well as in the loss of TsA inducibility. The mutational study of different Sp1 binding sites in a larger promoter context revealed the interaction or respectively the additive effect of the multiple Sp1 binding sites of the 5-LO promoter on basal as well as on TsA upregulated promoter activity. However, GC4 seems to be of special relevance for both the basal promoter activity, possibly recruiting the basal transcription machinery, as well as for the TsA induced upregulation of 5-LO promoter activity. TsA does not alter the protein expression levels of Sp1 and Sp3 as investigated in Western blot analysis, neither in HeLa nor in MM6 cells. DNA affinity purification assays revealed that TsA had no effect on the DNA affinity of Sp1 or Sp3. In vitro binding of both Sp1 and Sp3 to the 5-fold GC box, GC4 and GC5 was demonstrated by DAPA analysis, but histone deacetylase inhibition did not change the associated protein amounts. Finally, in vivo binding of Sp1 and Sp3 was investigated in chromatin immunoprecipitation assay (ChIP) in MM6 cells. TsA clearly induced the association of both proteins to the promoter area surrounding the TIS. Upon TsA treatment also RNA polymerase II binding to the area surrounding the TIS (-318 to +52 bp) was increased and even initiated in the more distal promoter parts –1049 to –292 bp, which are negatively regulated in reporter gene assays. Interestingly histone H4 is already highly acetylated without TsA treatment and the acetylation status of H4 remains unchanged after histone deacetylase inhibition, indicating an open chromatin structure of the 5-LO gene in MM6 cells. In a cotransfection study with Sp1 and Sp3, the transactivating potential of factors was investigated and in accordance with the ChIP data, Sp1 and Sp3 increased the promoter activity, but only after TsA treatment. In gel shift assays, the influence of DNA methylation on Sp1 binding was investigated. The results indicate different roles for the three proximal promoter sites. Whereas Sp1 binding to the 5-fold GC box and GC4 is impaired by DNA methylation, binding to GC5 is even increased. A cotransfection study with methylated 5-LO promoter constructs and the murine methyl-CpG binding proteins suggest MBD1 involvement in the regulation of the 5-LO promoter. Since in gel shifts Sp1 binding is inhibited by DNA methylation, at least to the 5-fold GC box and the activating element GC4, and similarly the mutation/deletion of the same sites strongly reduces or inhibits promoter activity, it is likely to assume, that the loss of promoter activity after in vitro methylation is in the first place due to impaired Sp1/Sp3 binding. Together the data underline the importance and complexity of Sp1/Sp3 binding to the GC rich sites in the regulation of 5-LO promoter activity in response to the histone deacetylase inhibitor TsA as well as in respect to DNA methylation.
Inhibitoren der Apoptose (IAP, inhibitor of apoptosis) Proteine spielen eine wichtige Rolle in Bezug auf Zelltodregulation und es ist anzunehmen, dass eine Dysregulation dieser Proteine zu einer Tumorentwicklung und Tumorprogression beiträgt. Erhöhte Expressionslevel von IAP Proteinen verhindern die Aktivierbarkeit des Zelltodprogrammes von Tumorzellen und eine Reihe von Studien konnte bereits erhöhte IAP Level in Tumorzelllinien sowie in primären Tumorproben nachweisen. Des Weiteren korrelieren erhöhte Expressionslevel von IAPs in Tumoren mit Behandlungsresistenzen und schlechten Prognosen für die Patienten.
Das diffuse großzellige B-Zell Lymphom (DLBCL, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma) zählt zu den häufigsten Subtypen der Non-Hodgkin Lymphome (NHL) mit 40 % aller neu diagnostizierten NHL Fälle. DLBCL ist eine sehr heterogene Erkrankung die in drei verschiedene Gruppen klassifiziert wurde: aktivierter B-Zell Typ (ABC, activated B-cell), Keimzentrum B-Zell Typ (GCB, germinal center B-Cell) und Mediastinaler großzelliger B-Zell Typ (PMBL, primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma). Erhöhte Expressionslevel von zellulärem IAP1 (cIAP, cellular IAP) und cIAP2 wurden ebenfalls in primären Tumorproben von DLBCL Patienten nachgewiesen. Smac mimetics wurden entwickelt, um IAPs zu antagonisieren und stellen damit eine Behandlungsstrategie für DLBCL Patienten dar, denn ca. 40 % aller DLBCL Patienten entwickeln ein Rezidiv oder erreichen gar keine Remission unter Standardtherapie. Jedoch ist der Effekt von Smac mimetics in einer Einzelbehandlung limitiert, weswegen Kombinationstherapien mit Smac mimetics eine vielversprechende Strategie für ihren klinischen Einsatz darstellen. Aus diesem Grund haben wir in dieser Arbeit den Effekt von Smac mimetic in Kombination mit Proteasom-Inhibitoren analysiert und einen speziellen Fokus auf den molekularen Mechanismus des ausgelösten Zelltodsignalweges gelegt.
Die Kombination verschiedener Konzentrationen des Smac mimetics BV6 mit dem Proteasom-Inhibitor carfilzomib (CFZ) löst in allen drei getesteten DLBCL Subtypen (ABC, GCB und PMBL) Zelltod aus. Die Kalkulation des Kombinationsindexes (CI, combination index) sowie des Bliss Scores, zwei quantitative Parameter zur Bestimmung eines Synergismus, zeigen, dass fast alle getesteten Kombinationen einen Synergismus aufweisen. Dies verdeutlicht, dass eine Co-Behandlung von BV6 und CFZ eine wirksame Kombination ist um Zelltod in DLBCL Zelllinien auszulösen. Außerdem zeigt eine Kombination von BV6 mit anderen Proteasom-Inhibitoren wie ixazomib (IXA) oder oprozomib (OPR), ebenfalls eine synergistische Reduktion der Zellviabilität. Diese Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass der detektierte Effekt nicht auf eine Substanz limitiert ist, sondern, dass ein genereller Effekt von Smac mimetic und Proteasom-Inhibitoren vorliegt, um Zellviabilität in DLBCL zu reduzieren. BV6 und CFZ induzieren einen apoptotischen Zelltod, da sie die Spaltung und Aktivierung von Initiator- und Effektorcaspasen (Caspasen-3, -7, -8 und -9) initiieren und sich der induzierte Zelltod mit Hilfe des Caspasen-Inhibitors zVAD.fmk verhindern lässt. Die Behandlung mit BV6 und CFZ führt zu einer Akkumulation von NIK, ein Protein welches zur Aktivierung des non-kanonischen NF-kB Signalweges benötigt wird. Weitere Untersuchungen zeigen jedoch, dass NIK nicht an der Zelltodinduktion beteiligt ist, da eine siRNA-basierte Herunterregulierung des NIK Proteins keinen Einfluss auf die Zelltodinduktion nimmt. Ebenfalls ist der Zelltod unabhängig von dem TNFa Signalweg, da weder eine Behandlung mit dem TNFa Inhibitor Enbrel den Zelltod verringern kann noch eine zusätzliche Gabe von TNFa den Zelltod erhöht. Weitere mechanistische Studien zeigen eine kritische Rolle der mitochondrialen Apoptose für den BV6/CFZ-vermittelten Zelltod. Unter Behandlung mit BV6/CFZ wurde eine Aktivierung von BAX und BAK nachgewiesen, welche beide mit verantwortlich für die Porenbildung in der mitochondrialen Membran sind. Eine Herunterregulation dieser beiden Proteine mittels siRNA reduziert signifikant den durch BV6/CFZ-induzierten Zelltod auf ein Minimum. Gleichzeitig löst eine Co-Behandlung mit BV6/CFZ einen Verlust des mitochondrialen Membranpotentials (LOMMP, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential) aus. In Übereinstimmung mit den vorherigen Experimenten, zeigen wir eine Akkumulation von mitochondrialen reaktiven Sauerstoffspezies (ROS; reactive oxygen species), sowie einen generellen Anstieg des allgemeinen ROS Levels. Eine Behandlung mit BV6/CFZ zeigt eine deutliche Akkumulation des pro-apoptotischen Proteins NOXA. Um dessen funktionelle Relevanz zu überprüfen, wurde die Proteinmenge von NOXA mittels siRNA stark reduziert. Eine Behandlung mit der Kombination aus BV6 und CFZ zeigt daraufhin eine signifikant reduzierte Zelltodinduktion, was die funktionelle Relevanz von NOXA für den BV6/CFZ-vermittelten Zelltod unterstreicht. Immunopräzipitationsstudien zeigen, dass in RIVA und U2932 Zellen NOXA konstitutiv an seinen anti-apoptotischen Bindungspartner MCL-1 gebunden ist, was die Zellen bereits darauf vorbereitet Apoptose zu durchlaufen. Dieses sogenannte „primen“ für Apoptose wird durch die Behandlung mit BV6 und CFZ weiter verstärkt, da es die Bindung zwischen NOXA und MCL-1 weiter erhöht. Dadurch wird die Balance zwischen pro- und anti-apoptotischen Proteinen zu Gunsten der pro-apoptotischen Proteine verschoben und die Induktion von Apoptose begünstigt.
Insgesamt zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass DLBCL Zelllinien sensitiv auf eine Behandlung mit Smac mimetic und Proteasom-Inhibitor reagieren und damit eine mögliche neue Behandlungsstrategie für diese heterogene Tumorerkrankung darstellt.
Biomoleküle, insbesondere Membranproteine (MPs), sind oftmals sehr sensitiv gegenüber ihrer chemischen Umgebung, wie pH-Wert, Puffer, Salzkonzentration und vielen weiteren Faktoren. MPs stabil und funktional in Lösung zu halten ist nicht trivial. Sie stellen deshalb eine besondere Herausforderung bei der Analyse von biologischen Systemen dar. Aus diesem Grund wurden und werden nach wie vor sogenannte membrane mimicking-(MM-) Systeme, wie beispielsweise Nanodiscs (NDs) oder styrene-maleic acid lipid particles (SMALPs), untersucht und entwickelt, um MPs eine naturähnliche Umgebung in Form einer Lipid-Doppelschicht zu bieten und sie so in ihrer natürlichen Konformation und natürlichen Funktionsweise/Aktivität in Lösung zu halten.
Laser induced liquid bead ion desorption (LILBID) Massenspektrometrie (MS) hat sich als hervorragende analytische Methode herausgestellt, um MPs in Kombination mit MM-Systemen zu untersuchen. LILBID-MS bietet nicht nur die Möglichkeit Proteine an sich zu identifizieren, sondern ermöglicht ebenfalls eine zerstörungsfreie Analyse von nicht-kovalent gebundenen Proteinkomplexen, sowie die Detektion einzelner Subkomplexe eines Proteinkomplexes. Auch die Analyse von Protein-Ligand-Wechselwirkungen ist möglich. Bei der LILBID-Ionisationsmethode werden kleine Tröpfchen erzeugt, die einen wässrig gelösten Analyt enthalten. Die Analyt-Tröpfchen werden anschließend mittels IR-Laser bestrahlt, wodurch der Analyt freigesetzt und massenspektrometrisch analysiert werden kann.
Diese Dissertation beschäftigt sich zum einen mit der Analyse des Lyse-Proteins ΦX174-E der Bakteriophage ΦX174, zum anderen mit Untersuchungen zur Histidinkinase SpaK aus B. subtilis in Kombination mit MMs. Weiterhin wird die Frage geklärt, ob und wie gut sich LILBID-MS zur Analyse von Saposin-Nanopartikel-(SapNPs)-solubilisierten MPs eignet. Darüber hinaus wird in dieser Dissertation die Darstellung von SapNP-solubilisierten MPs mittels zellfreier Proteinsynthese näher charakterisiert und untersucht welche Parameter aus präparativer Sicht optimiert werden können.
In vorausgegangenen Analysen von ND-solubilisierten MPs mittels LILBID-MS zeigte sich, dass manche in Verbindung mit NDs genutzten Lipide unerwünschte Signale im Spektrum zur Folge haben, die aus massiven Lipid-Anhaftungen am MSP oder dem Analyten resultieren. Überlappungen der m/z-Signale verschiedener Analyt- und/oder Komplexkomponenten mit diesen Lipid-Cluster-Signalen kann wiederum zum Verlust von Informationen führen. Daher beschäftigt sich ein weiterer Teil dieser Arbeit mit der Frage, ob durch den Einsatz von UV-schaltbaren Lipiden der Anwendungsbereich und/oder die Auflösung von LILBID-MS erweitert und verbessert werden kann.
Um biologische Prozesse zu verstehen ist es ebenfalls wichtig die zeitlichen/kinetischen Aspekte einer Reaktion zu untersuchen/kennen, sowie molekulare Prozesse gezielt zu kontrollieren. Licht hat sich hierbei als ein hervorragendes Werkzeug in der Analytik, sowie in der molekularen Prozesskontrolle etabliert. Licht bietet den Vorteil sehr selektiv eingesetzt werden zu können und sowohl orts- als auch zeitaufgelöst Informationen liefern zu können. Das gezielte Triggern einer Reaktion oder einer Protein-Protein-Interaktion kann beispielsweise durch sog. photo-cleaving von photolabilen Schutzgruppen ermöglicht werden. Bisweilen bietet die native MS nur wenig Möglichkeiten schnelle Reaktionen zu analysieren und kinetische Informationen zu gewinnen. Daher beschäftigt sich ein weiterer Teil dieser Dissertation damit zu untersuchen, ob und wie sich lichtgesteuerte Reaktionen im LILBID-Ionisationsprozess induzieren und gegebenenfalls auch zeitlich analysieren und charakterisieren lassen können.
Komplexe biologische Phänotypen resultieren aus einem koordinierten Zusammenspiel von einer Vielzahl von Genen. Um zu verstehen, wie Krankheiten durch genetische Dysfunktionen
entstehen können, ist es unabdingbar die genetischen Interaktionsnetzwerke in menschlichen Zellen zu entschlüsseln. Eine Identifizierung von Kontext-abhängigen genetischen Interaktionen kann bedeutende Erkenntnisse über die Beziehung von Phänotyp und Genotyp liefern und erklären, wie synergistische Gen-Funktionen die Entstehung von komplexen Krankheiten bedingen.
Gepoolte, kombinatorische CRISPR (kurz für: clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) Screens stellen eine wirkungsvolle Methode zur simultanen Untersuchung potentieller Interaktionen von einer großen Anzahl von Genen dar. Mit sogenannten multiplex CRISPR
gRNA Bibliotheken werden im Rahmen großangelegter Screens vielzählige kombinatorische Gen-Knockouts in Zellen generiert. Diese multiplex CRISPR gRNA Bibliotheken können aus bis zu hunderttausenden Plasmiden bestehen, die jeweils für eine andere gRNA-Kombination kodieren und auf ein spezifisches Gen-Paar abzielen. Im Gegensatz zu CRISPR Screens für Einzel-Knockouts gehen multiplex CRISPR Screens zur Identifizierung von genetischen Interaktionen mit zusätzlichen Herausforderungen einher: Zum einen wächst der verbundene Arbeitsaufwand für die Konstruktion der multiplex CRISPR gRNA Bibliotheken proportional mit der Anzahl der gewünschten Ziel-Gene, welche die Diversität der Bibliothek bestimmt. In einer idealen gRNA-Bibliothek wären alle gRNA-Sequenzen gleich häufig vorhanden. Jedoch weisen
gRNA-Bibliotheken aufgrund von technischen Beschränkungen gRNA-Sequenzen mit höherer, beziehungsweise niedriger Abundanz auf. Konventionelle Methoden zur Herstellung von
gRNA-Bibliotheken basieren beispielsweise auf iterativen, gepoolten Klonierungsschritten mit PCR-amplifizierten Oligonucleotiden, welche zu einer Ungleichverteilung oder zum Verlust von gRNA-Sequenzen führen können. Daher bieten Methoden zur gRNA-Bibliotheken-Generierung Optimierungspotenzial. Da die Reproduzierbarkeit der Screen-Ergebnisse durch die sogenannte Screening Coverage sichergestellt werden muss, erfordert eine Erhöhung der
Bibliotheks-Diversität gleichzeitig auch eine Vergrößerung des Versuchsmaßstabs und ist mit umfangreichem Zellkultur-Arbeitsaufwand verbunden. Die Screening Coverage gibt die
durchschnittliche Abundanz der einzelnen gRNA-Sequenzen in der Zellpopulation während des Screens an. Aktuelle Richtlinien empfehlen eine Screening Coverage, die zwischen dem 200- bis 1000-fachen Wert der Bibliotheks-Diversität liegt, allerdings fehlen bisher genaue Angaben die auf die verwendete gRNA Bibliothek abgestimmt sind. Deshalb stellt die benötigte Screening Coverage bisher einen limitierenden Faktor dar, der die Anzahl der möglichen Ziel-Gene-Kombinationen in einem Screen beschränkt.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit stellen wir eine neue Methode zur Generierung von multiplex gRNA Bibliotheken mit hohen Diversitäten vor. Die Methode, genannt 3Cs (covalently-closed circular-synthesized) Multiplexing, umgeht iterative, gepoolte Klonierugsschritte mit Restriktionsenzymen und PCR-Amplifikation von gRNA-kodierenden Oligonucleotiden. Wir
zeigen, dass 3Cs Multiplexing auf robuste Weise zur Herstellung von gleichmäßig verteilten multiplex gRNA Bibliotheken verwendet werden kann. Der Verteilungs-Skew, auch Skew-Ratio oder Bibliotheksbreite genannt, ist ein Maß zur Ermittlung der Gleichverteilung der gRNA-Sequenzen in der Bibliothek. Wir zeigen, dass 3Cs multiplex Bibliotheken typischerweise einen Verteilungs-Skew von 2.5 aufweisen, was unter den üblichen Werten von Einzel-gRNA Bibliotheken liegt.
Wir nahmen an, dass die gRNA-Bibliotheksverteilung die Robustheit von gepoolten CRISPR Screens beeinflussen könne und deshalb bei der Auswahl einer geeigneten Screening
Coverage berücksichtigt werden müsse. Um den Einfluss der gRNA-Bibliotheksverteilung auf die Screen-Qualität in Abhängigkeit von der verwendeten Screening Coverage zu untersuchen, generierten wir zwei künstlich fehlverteilte multiplex gRNA-Bibliotheken. Diese wurden, zusätzlich zu einer nahezu gleichverteilten multiplex gRNA-Bibliothek, jeweils mit einer 20- und 200-fachen Screening Coverage in einem kombinatorischen Proliferationsscreen angewandt.
Dadurch konnten wir die gRNA-Bibliotheksverteilung als den bestimmenden Parameter für die benötigte Screening Coverage identifizieren. Zusätzlich konnten wir zeigen, dass 3Cs multiplex gRNA-Bibliotheken auf Grund ihrer gleichmäßigen Verteilung mit minimierter Screening Coverage eingesetzt werden können, was zu einer 10-fachen Reduktion des assoziierten Arbeitsaufwands führt. Während bisherige Richtlinien für gepoolte CRISPR Screens die initiale
gRNA-Bibliotheksverteilung nicht berücksichtigen, empfehlen wir die Screening Coverage an dieser auszurichten.
Autophagie ist ein streng regulierter zellulärer Prozess, der den Lysosomen Abbau von intrazellulärem Material steuert und im Zusammenhang mit zahlreichen menschlichen Erkrankungen steht. Da Autophagie in eine Vielzahl von Signalwegen integriert ist, bietet es außerdem therapeutische Ansatzpunkte zur Behandlung von Krankheiten. Die Identifizierung von synergistischen Funktionen zwischen Autophagie-Genen könnte unser Verständnis über die molekularen Mechanismen, die der Regulation der Autophagie zu Grunde liegen, erweitern und dadurch neuartige Behandlungen ermöglichen.
Um genetische Interaktionen von Autophagie-Genen zu untersuchen haben wir eine 3Cs multiplex gRNA Bibliothek generiert, die auf menschliche Autophagie-Genkombinationen
abzielt. In dieser Arbeit demonstrieren wir die Funktionalität der 3Cs Autophagie multiplex gRNA Bibliothek unter Anwendung minimierter Screening Coverage in zwei verschiedenen Screen-Ausführungen: In einem Proliferationsscreen konnten wir Geninteraktionen
identifizieren, deren Verlust zu einer gesteigerten oder verringerten Zellproliferation führt. Unter diesen resultierte der Knockout von WDR45B-PIK3R4 zur stärksten Suppression der Proliferation, während die Depletion von ATG7-KEAP1 zu extrem verstärkter Proliferation beitrug. Unter Einsatz eines Autophagie-Reporters konnten wir in einem Autophagie Screen genetische Interaktionen aufdecken, die essentiell für Autophagie sind, darunter die
Interaktionen zwischen ATG2A-ATG2B , GABARAPL2-WIPI2 und ULK4-SQSTM1.
Wir glauben, dass 3Cs Multiplexing in Zukunft breite Anwendung in verschiedenen biologisch relevanten Feldern finden kann und die Entschlüsselung von kontext-abhängigen genetischen Interaktionen voranbringen und so das Verständnis für die Entstehung von komplexen pathologischen Phänotypen erweitern wird.
Mitochondria are important for cellular health and their dysfunction is linked to a variety of diseases, especially neurodegeneration. Thus, the renewal and degradation of dysfunctional mitochondria is crucial for the well-being of organisms. The selective digestion of damaged mitochondria via the lysosome (mitophagy), is the main pathway to do so.
In my dissertational work, I investigated the connection between protein misfolding, protein import into mitochondria and the degradation of mitochondria via mitophagy. Here, I present a new model for the initiation of mitophagy without collapse of the membrane potential. This model provides the link between protein import into mitochondria, stress signal transduction to the cytosol and the mitochondrial stress sensor PINK1. To comprehensively examine how mitophagy can be triggered, I performed a genome-wide CRISPR knockout screen utilizing the mitophagy reporter mitochondrial mKEIMA. Thereby, I observed numerous novel gene deletions that induce mitophagy. Prominently, I identified an accumulation of gene deletions of the protein import and of protein quality control factors. I validated several of those and examined HSPA9 (mitochondrial HSP70) and LONP1 (a mitochondrial matrix AAA protease) in more detail, regarding their effect on mitophagy and protein import. For this, I used an established fluorescence-based, mitochondrial-targeted EGFP, as well as a newly-developed pulsed-SILAC mass spectrometry approach (mePRODmt). Depletions of both genes resulted in reduced protein import and PINK1-dependent mitophagy. Strikingly, I did not observe any loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, which was hitherto believed to be essential for activation of PINK1-mediated mitophagy. Literature shows that certain mitochondrial stressors can also induce mitophagy without mitochondrial membrane depolarization, which I confirmed with my assays. Next, I characterized the impact of LONP1 and HSPA9 depletion, which are involved in proteostasis maintenance, and the mtHSP90 inhibitor GTPP on mitochondrial protein folding in more detail. GTPP treatment and LONP1 depletion both resulted in the accumulation of an insoluble protein fraction, as judged by proteomic analysis. This insoluble protein fraction enriched several components of the presequence translocase-associated motor PAM, including TIMM44. TIMM44 acts as a link between the translocon, the import pore of the inner mitochondrial membrane (TIM) complex and the PAM complex. Thus, I hypothesized that TIMM44 dissociates from the TIM complex upon protein folding stress, when it becomes part of the insoluble protein fraction. To validate this model, I measured the TIMM44 interactome upon proteostasis disturbance using proximity labeling. Indeed, interaction of TIMM44 with the import pore was almost completely abolished, explaining the loss of matrix-targeted import upon protein folding stress. From these findings, I reasoned that an import reduction mediated by the PAM complex would likely also inhibit the degradation of PINK1. Consistent with this hypothesis, I observed that mitophagy induced by HSPA9 or LONP1 deletion was prevented when PINK1 was genetically deleted. In comparison, non-processed PINK1 was stabilized on mitochondria in wild type cells when mitochondrial protein import was impaired. On this basis, I drew the conclusion that the loss of mitochondrial import was the stress signal, which leads to the stabilization of PINK1, as it could not be processed anymore via the inner mitochondrial membrane protease PARL. PINK1 auto-activates itself upon accumulation and signals to the cytosol that this mitochondrion is damaged. Mitophagy is subsequently initiated by the ubiquitin kinase activity of PINK1. As a result, the autophagy apparatus gets activated, damaged mitochondria are engulfed by a double membrane and removed via lysosomal digestion. This proposed model is, to the best of my knowledge, the first to provide an explanation for protein folding stress-induced and protein import inhibition-triggered mitophagy without mitochondrial depolarization. The model thus extends the PINK1/PARKIN-dependent mitophagy pathway to milder stresses and clears some of the open questions in the field. Furthermore, this work is also important, because protein misfolding stress and dysfunctional mitochondria are two hallmarks of neurodegeneration. In particular, mitochondrial protein import inhibition during Parkinson’s and Huntington disease might be driver of mitochondrial dysfunction. Hence, I hope and anticipate that the newly developed protein import method, mePRODmt, and the proposed model will be beneficial to further characterize underlying processes and to establish which factors prevent or drive these disorders on molecular level.
In this thesis, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations are used to study the interaction of different proteins with lipid bilayers. MD simulations can be used as a “computational microscope” to gain atomistic insights into the interactions between proteins and lipids that can barely be accessed in such detail by experimental methods. The different chapters of this thesis address the lipid sensing functionality of amphipathic helices (AHs) when bound to membranes, the folding of AHs at lipid-water interfaces as well as the conformational dynamics of the HIV-1 Env glycoproteins in viral-like and experimental bilayers. In the last chapter the possibilities to enhance the performance of MD simulations are explored, leading to a more efficient usage of computational resources.