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G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the key players in signal perception and transduction and one of the currently most important class of drug targets. An example of high pharmacological relevance is the human endothelin (ET) system comprising two rhodopsin-like GPCRs, the endothelin A (ETA) and the endothelin B (ETB) receptor. Both receptors are major modulators in cardiovascular regulation and show striking diversities in biological responses affecting vasoconstriction and blood pressure regulation as well as many other physiological processes. Numerous disorders are associated with ET dysfunction and ET antagonism is considered an efficient treatment of diseases like heart failure, hypertension, diabetes, artherosclerosis and even cancer. This study exemplifies strategies and approaches for the preparative scale synthesis of GPCRs in individual cell-free (CF) systems based on E. coli, a newly emerging and promising technique for the production of even very difficult membrane proteins. The preparation of high quality samples in sufficient amounts is still a major bottleneck for the structural determination of the ET receptors. Heterologous overexpression has been a challenge now for decades but extensive studies with conventional cell-based systems had only limited success. A central milestone of this study was the development of efficient preparative scale expression protocols of the ETA receptor in qualities sufficient for structural analysis by using individual CF systems. Newly designed optimization strategies, the implementation of a variety of CF expression modes and the development of specific quality control assays finally resulted in the production of several milligrams of ETA receptor per one millilitre of reaction mixture. The versatility of CF expression was extensively used to modulate GPCR sample quality by modification of the solubilization environment with detergents and lipids in a variety of combinations at different stages of the production process. Downstream processing procedures of CF synthesized GPCRs were systematically optimized and sample properties were analysed with respect to homogeneity, protein stability and receptor ligand binding competence. Evaluation was accomplished by an array of complementary and specifically modified techniques. Depending on its hydrophobic environment, CF production of the ETA receptor resulted in non-aggregated, monodisperse forms with sufficient long-term stability and high degrees of secondary structure thermostability. The obtained results document the CF production of the ETA receptor in two different modes as an example of a class A GPCR in ligand-binding competent and non-aggregated form in quantities sufficient for structural approaches. The presented strategy could serve as basic guideline for the production of related receptors in similar systems.
Signal-dependent regulation of actin dynamics is essential for many cellular processes, including directional cell migration. In particular, cell migration is initiated by lamellipodia, actin-based protrusions of the plasma membrane. The formation of these protruding structures require incessant assembly and disassembly of actin filaments. The Arp2/3 complex and WAVE proteins are essential for both lamellipodium formation and its dynamics. WAVEs mediate the activation of the Arp2/3 complex downstream of the small GTPase Rac, thus being critical for Rac- and RTK-induced actin polymerization and cell migration. The WAVE-family proteins are always found associated with multiprotein complexes. The most abundant WAVE-based complex is referred to as the WANP (WAVE2-Abi-1-Nap1-PIR121) complex. IQGAP1 is a huge scaffolding protein with multiple protein-interacting domains. IQGAP1 participates in many fundamental activities, including regulation of the actin cytoskeleton, mitogenic, adhesive and migratory responses, as well as in cell polarity and cellular trafficking. IQGAP1 binds to N-WASP, thus raising the possibility that it might control actin nucleation by the Arp2/3 complex. In this study, IQGAP1 was found co-immunoprecipitated not only with WAVE, but also with the endogenous WANP-complex subunits. Correspondingly, IQGAP1 associated to both anti-WAVE and anti-Abi-1 immuno-complexes. Pull-down experiments proved that IQGAP1 binds directly to the WANP-complex subunits. Physical interaction between IQGAP1 and the reconstituted WANP complex could also be demonstrated. Together, these data indicate that IQGAP1 is an accessory component of the WANP complex. Interestingly, the IQGAP-WANP complex disassembled after either EGF stimulation or transfection with constitutively active Cdc42 and Rac1. HeLa cells devoid of IQGAP1 showed diminished and less persistent ruffling upon EGF, but not HGF, stimulation in comparison with the control. This phenotype was accompanied by a strong reduction in chemotaxis towards both growth factors, which was as dramatic as in WANP-complex knockdown (KD) cells. Moreover, GM130 and Giantin showed a polarized and flat ribbon-like pattern in control cells, as it is expected for cis- and cis/medial-Golgi markers. Conversely, small and dispersed vesicular structures were found in both IQGAP1 KD and WANP-complex KD cells. Importantly, Arp2/3-complex silencing resulted in the same phenotypes. Consistently, Brefeldin A-induced disassembly of the Golgi strongly inhibited the IQGAP1-WANP-complex interaction and chemotaxis towards EGF in wild-type cells. The re-expression of an RNAi-resistant wild-type IQGAP1 in IQGAP1 KD cells fully rescued both the ruffling abilities and Golgi structure. A constitutively active mutant, unable to bind to neither Rac1 /Cdc42 nor the WANP complex, could reconstitute only the former defect. Hence, this study shows that actin dynamics regulated by the IQGAP1-WANP complex controls Golgi-apparatus architecture and its contribution to cell chemotaxis. The working model here proposes that at the Golgi apparatus, recruitment of the WANP complex by IQGAP1 leads to the assembly of actin filaments required to maintain the appropriated Golgi morphology. The dissociation of the complex may be required to allow the remodeling of the Golgi membranes in order to respond following a chemoattractant gradient.
In this work we study compact stars, i.e. neutron stars, as cosmic laboratories for the nuclear matter. With a mass of around 1 - 3 solar masses and a radius of around 10km, compact stars are very dense and, besides nucleons, can contain exotic matter such as hyperons or quark matter. The KaoS collaboration studied nuclear matter for densities up to 2-3 times saturation density by analysing kaon multiplicities from Au+Au and C+C collisions. The results show that nuclear matter in the corresponding density region is very compressible, with a compressibility of <200MeV. For such soft nuclear equations of state the maximum masses of neutron stars are ca. 1.8 - 1.9 solar masses, whereas the central densities are higher than 5 times nuclear saturation density and therefore point towards a possible phase transition to quark matter. If quark matter would be present in the interior of neutron stars, so-called hybrid stars, it could be produced already during their birth in supernova explosions. To study this we implement a quark matter phase transition in a hadronic equation of state which is used in supernova simulations. Supernova simulations of low and intermediate mass progenitors and two different bag constants show a collapse of the proto neutron star due to the softening of the equations of state in the quark-hadron mixed phase. The stiffening of the equation of state for pure quark matter halts the collapse and leads to the production of a second shock wave. The second shock wave is energetic enough to lead to an explosion of the star and produces a neutrino burst when passing the neutrinospheres. Furthermore, first studies of the longtime cooling of hybrid stars show, that colour superconductivity can significantly influence the cooling behaviour of hybrid stars, if all quarks form Cooper Pairs. For the so-called CSL phase (colour-spin locking) with pairing energies of several MeV, the cooling of the quark phase is suppressed and the hybrid star appears as a pure hadronic star.
All-over in Europe, unemployment became a growing problem from the mid 1980s to the mid 1990s. Nevertheless, the effects on the economical situation of the unemployed and the whole population are quite different in European countries. In this paper we first give a brief overview over the development of unemployment rates in eight member states of the European Union and over the different reactions to provide the social protection of the unemployed. Therefore we look at the social security expenditures, the level of income replacement for the unemployed and recent social policy reforms concerning them. In the second section of the paper, we examine the development of income distribution and poverty taking different poverty lines into consideration. There is no general pattern neither for the relationship of inequality among the unemployed to the whole economically active population nor for the development from the 80s to the 90s. But one can say that in countries with increasing income inequality also poverty is rising (especially in the UK) and that where inequality among the unemployed is less pronounced the proportions of the poor went down from the mid 80s to the mid 90s (France and Ireland). In nearly all countries the risk of being poor is ernormously high for the unemployed, Denmark is the only exception.
To sum up our findings we come to the following statements. - During the period from 1973 to 1993 inequality of the personal distribution of equivalent pre-government income increased to some extent, as was to be expected given the enormous rise in unemployment. - Inequality of post-government income also increased slightly, but was much lower than inequality of pre-government income due to the equalizing effect of the German tax and transfer system. - In 1993 inequality of pre-government income was higher, and inequality of post-government income was considerably lower in East Germany than in West Germany; the West German tax and transfer system that was transferred to East Germany after reunification - with some additional but temporary minimum regulations - seems to have had a stronger equalizing effect in the East than in the West. - A decomposition into three age groups, the young and the middle-aged group sub-divided further according to whether household members were affected by unemployment, showed that within-groups inequality explained by far more of overall inequality than between-groups inequality. - The relative positions of the two young groups as well as of the middle-aged group with unemployed members deteriorated with respect to their equivalent pre-government and post-government incomes. - During the first period with rising unemployment (1973 to 1978), the development of within-groups inequality and of between-groups inequality contributed to about the same extent to the increase of overall inequality of pre-government income. But this was fully compensated by the tax and transfer system as there were only a negligible change in inequality of equivalent net income and very slight effects of the (four) components of change which nearly compensated each other. - During the last period from 1988 to 1993 the equalizing effect of the German tax and transfer system seems to have weakened, at least in the western part of Germany. The increase in inequality of equivalent net income is mainly due to developments of within group inequalities.
Vibronic (vibrational-electronic) transition is one of the fundamental processes in molecular physics. Indeed, vibronic transition is essential both in radiative and nonradiative photophysical or photochemical properties of molecules such as absorption, emission, Raman scattering, circular dichroism, electron transfer, internal conversion, etc. A detailed understanding of these transitions in varying systems, especially for (large) biomolecules, is thus of particular interest. Describing vibronic transitions in polyatomic systems with hundreds of atoms is, however, a difficult task due to the large number of coupled degrees of freedom. Even within the relatively crude harmonic approximation, such as for Born-Oppenheimer harmonic potential energy surfaces, the brute-force evaluation of Franck-Condon intensity profiles in a time-independent sum-over-states approach is prohibitive for complex systems owing to the vast number of multi-dimensional Franck-Condon integrals. The main goal of this thesis is to describe a variety of molecular vibronic transitions, with special focus on the development of approaches that are applicable to extended molecular systems. We use various representations of Fermi’s golden rule in frequency, time and phase spaces via coherent states to reduce the computational complexity. Although each representation has benefits and shortcomings in its evaluation, they complement each other. Peak assignment of a spectrum can be made directly after calculation in the frequency domain but this sum-over-states route is usually slow. In contrast, computation is considerably faster in the time domain with Fourier transformation but the peak assignment is not directly available. The representation in phase space does not immediately provide physically-meaningful quantities but it can link frequency and time domains. This has been applied to, herein, for example (non-Condon) absorption spectra of benzene and electron transfer of bacteriochlorophyll in the photosynthetic reaction center at finite temperature. This work is a significant step in the treatment of vibronic structure, allowing for the accurate and efficient treatment of complex systems, and provides a new analysis tool for molecular science.
Succinate:quinone oxidoreductases (SQORs) are integral membrane protein complexes, which couple the two-electron oxidation of succinate to fumarate (succinate → fumarate + 2H+ + 2e-) to the two-electron reduction of quinone to quinol (quinone + 2H+ + 2e- → quinol) as well as catalyzing the opposite reaction, the reduction of fumarate by quinol. In mitochondria and some aerobic bacteria, succinate:ubiquinone reductase, also known as complex II of the aerobic respiratory chain or as succinate dehydrogenase from the tricarboxylic acid (TCA or Krebs) cycle, catalyzes the oxidation of succinate by ubiquinone, which is mildly exergonic under standart conditions and not directly associated with energy storage in the form of a transmembrane electrochemical proton potential (Δp). Gram-positive bacteria do not contain ubiquinone but rather menaquinone, a quinone with significantly lower oxidation-reduction (“redox”) midpoint potential. In these cases, the catalyzed oxidation of succinate by quinone is endergonic under standard conditions. Consequently, these bacteria face a thermodynamic problem in supporting the catalysis of this reaction in vivo. Based on experimental evidence obtained on whole cells and purified membranes, it had previously been proposed that the SQR from Gram-positive bacteria supports this reaction at the expense of the protonmotive force, Δp. Nonetheless, it has been argued that the observed Δp dependence is not associated specifically with the activity of SQR because the occurrence of artifacts in experiments with bacterial membranes and whole cells can not be fully excluded. Clearly, definitive insight into the mechanism of catalysis of this intriguing reaction required a corresponding functional characterization of an isolated, membranebound SQR from a Gram-positive bacterium. The first aim of the present work addresses the question if the general feasibility of the energetically uphill electron transfer from succinate to menaquinone is associated specifically to a single enzyme complex, the SQR. The prerequisite to achieve this goal was stable preparation of this enzyme.
Vacuum-assisted closure (VAC) of complex infected wounds has recently gained popularity among various surgical specialties. The system is based on the application of negative pressure by controlled suction to the wound surface. The effectiveness of the VAC System on microcirculation and the promotion of granulation tissue proliferation are proved. In our case report we illustrate a scenario were a patient developed severe bleeding from the ascending aorta by penetration of wire fragments in the vessel. We conclude that all free particles in the sternum have to be removed completely before negative pressure is used.
The glycine receptor (GlyR) is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter receptor in spinal cord and brainstem. Heteropentameric GlyRs are clustered and anchored at inhibitory postsynaptic sites by the binding of the large intracellular loop between transmembrane domains 3 and 4 of the GlyRbeta subunit (GlyRbeta-loop) to the cytoplasmic scaffolding protein gephyrin. GlyRs are also cotransported with gephyrin along microtubules in the anterograde and retrograde direction due to the binding of gephyrin to microtubule-associated motor proteins. Additionally, GlyRs undergo lateral diffusion in the plasma membrane from extrasynaptic to synaptic sites and vice versa. Since its discovery, gephyrin has remained for many years the only binding partner interacting directly with the GlyRbeta subunit. In an attempt to elucidate further mechanisms involved in GlyR function and regulation at inhibitory postsynaptic sites, a proteomic screen for putative binding partners to the GlyRbeta loop was performed. Three proteins were identified as putative interactors. In this thesis, the interaction between these putative binding proteins and the GlyRbeta subunit was analyzed and characterized. Binding studies with glutathione-S-transferase fusion proteins revealed that all putative binding proteins, Syndapin (Sdp), Vacuolar Protein Sorting 35 (Vps35) and Neurobeachin (Nbea), interact specifically with the GlyRbeta loop. The Sdp family of proteins are F-BAR and SH3 domain containing proteins. Inmmunocytochemical experiments showed that SdpI as well as the isoforms SdpII-S and SdpIIL colocalize with the full-length GlyRbeta subunit in a mammalian cell expression system. In cultured spinal cord neurons, a partial colocalization of endogenous SdpI with several excitatory and inhibitory synaptic markers was demonstrated. Mapping experiments using deletion mutants narrowed the SdpI binding site down to 22 amino acids. Peptide competition experiments confirmed the specificity of the interaction between SdpI and this sequence of the GlyRbeta subunit. Point mutation analysis revealed a SH3-proline rich domain dependent interaction between SdpI and the GlyRbeta subunit, respectively. In addition, binding studies in mammalian cells showed that both splice variants of SdpII as well as SdpI interact with the GlyR scaffolding protein gephyrin. Although the SdpI and gephyrin binding sites do not overlap, protein competition studies revealed that interaction of the E-domain of gephyrin with the GlyRbeta loop interferes with SdpI binding. Since SdpI is a dynamin binding protein involved in vesicle endocytosis and recycling pathways, a possible function of SdpI in the regulation of GlyR synaptic distribution was investigated. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments confirmed a SdpI-GlyR association in the vesicle-enriched fraction of rat spinal cord tissue. Immunocytochemical studies of SdpI knock out mice showed that the clustering and distribution of GlyRs in the brain stem is unchanged. However, acute down-regulation of SdpI in rat spinal cord neurons by viral shRNA expression led to a reduction in the number and size of GlyR clusters, an effect that could be rescued upon shRNA-resistant SdpI overexpression. Further immunocytochemical analysis of the localization of gephyrin, the gamma2 subunit of the type A gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor (GABAARgamma2 subunit) and the vesicular inhibitory amino acid transporter (VIAAT) under SdpI knock-down conditions showed that both the number and average size of the gamma2-subunit containing GABAA receptor clusters were significantly reduced in spinal cord neurons. In contrast to GlyR and GABAARgamma2 immunoreactivity, the number and average size of gephyrin and VIAAT clusters were barely reduced upon SdpI downregulation. These results suggest that SdpI has a role in GlyR trafficking that can be compensated by other syndapin isoforms or other trafficking pathways. Furthermore, SdpI might be required for the clusters of GlyRs and gamma2-subunit containing GABAARs in spinal cord and brainstem. Vps35 is the core protein of the retromer complex, which mediates the endosome to Golgi apparatus retrieval of different types of receptors in mammals and yeast. Here, protein-protein interaction assays revealed for the first time that Vps35 interacts directly with the GlyRbeta loop as well as with gephyrin. The generation of specific Vps35 antibodies allowed to determine the distribution of this protein in the central nervous system. Immunocytochemical analyses revealed the presence of Vps35 in the somata and neurites of spinal cord neurons, suggesting a possible interaction of Vps35 with the GlyR under physiological conditions. Nbea is a BEACH domain containing, neuron-specific protein. Binding studies revealed a direct interaction between two regions of Nbea and the GlyRbeta loop. Immunocytochemical experiments confirmed a somatic and synaptic distribution of Nbea in primary cultures. In spinal cord neurons, a partial colocalization of Nbea with excitatory and inhibitory synaptic markers suggests a possible interaction of Nbea with the GlyR at inhibitory synaptic sites.
Summary: Information and communication is critical to the successful management of infectious diseases because an effective communication strategy prevents the surge of anxious patients who have not been genuinely exposed to the pathogen ('low risk patients') affecting medical infrastructures (1) and the future transmission of the infectious agent (2). Surge of low risk patients: The arrival of large numbers of low risk patients at hospitals following an infectious diseases emergency would be problematic for three main reasons. First, it would complicate the situation at hospitals receiving exposed patients, delaying the treatment of the acutely ill, creating difficulties of crowd control and tying up medical resources. Second, for the low risk patients themselves, attending hospital following an infectious disease emergency might increase their risk of exposure to the agent in question. Third, the needs of low risk patients may be poorly attended to at hospitals which are already overstretched dealing with medical casualties. Future transmission: Obtaining early information about symptoms and isolating infected patients is the most effective strategy to interrupt the chain of infection in the public in the absence of specific prophylaxis or treatment. Particularly at the beginning of an outbreak, these nonpharmaceutical interventions play an important role in enabling the early detection of signs or symptoms and in encouraging passengers to adopt appropriate preventive behaviour in order to limit the spread of the disease. This thesis includes two papers dealing with this problem: The first part is a systemic literature review of information needs following an infectious disease emergency (Anthrax, SARS, Pneumonic Plague). The key question was: what are the information needs of the public during an infectious disease emergency? The second part is an empirical investigation of information needs and communication strategies at the airport during the early stage of the Influenza Pandemic. The key question here was: what communication strategies help to meet the information needs and to enable the public to behave appropriately and responsibly? Conclusions: Evidence from the anthrax attacks in the United States suggested that a surge of low risk patients is by no means inevitable. Data from the SARS outbreak illustrated that if hospitals are seen as sources of contagion, many patients with non-bioterrorism related health care needs may delay seeking help. Finally, the events surrounding the Pneumonic Plague outbreak of 1994 in Surat, India, highlighted the need for the public to be kept adequately informed about an incident to avoid creating rumours. Clear, consistent and credible information is key to the successful management of infectious disease outbreaks. The results of the empirical investigation suggested that the desire for information is a reflection of current anxiety and does not mirror the objective scientific assessment of exposure. The airport study showed that perceived information needs were directly related to anxiety – the least anxious did not require any further information, the most anxious reported significant information needs concerning medical treatment, public health management and the assessment of the ongoing situation – irrespective of their actual exposure. A communication strategy only focussing on the 'real' exposed individuals neglects the information needs of those worrying about having contracted the virus and seeking medical attendance. Effective communication strategies should enable the general public to detect early signs or symptoms and provide them with behaviour advice to prevent the further transmission of the infectious agent. These include the provision of clear information about the incident, the symptoms and what to do to prevent the further transmission, detailed and regularly updated information in various media formats (telephone, internet, etc.) and rapid triage at hospital entrances to guide patients to the appropriate medical infrastructures. Relevance: These research findings could contribute to a shift in the organisational and communicative approach responding to infectious diseases outbreaks and could be considered relevant for future risk communication and policy decision making.