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Institute
- Physik (3498) (remove)
For the research program with cooled antiprotons at FAIR a dedicated 70 MeV, 70 mA proton injector is required. The main acceleration of this room temperature linac will be provided by six CH cavities operated at 325 MHz. Each cavity will be powered by a 2.5 MW Klystron. For the second acceleration unit from 11.5 MeV to 24.2 MeV a 1:2 scaled model has been built. Low level RF measurements have been performed to determine the main parameters and to prove the concept of coupled CH cavities. For this second tank technical and mechanical investigations have been performed in 2010 to develop a complete technical concept for the manufacturing. In Spring 2011, the construction of the first power prototype has started. The main components of this cavity will be ready for measurements in summer 2011. At that time, the cavity will be tested with a preliminary aluminum drift tube structure, which will allow precise frequency and field tuning. This paper will report on the recent technical development and achievements. It will outline the main fabrication steps towards that novel type of proton DTL. Also first low level RF measurements are expected.
The MYRRHA Project (Multi Purpose Hybrid Reactor for High Tech Applications) at Mol/belgium will be a user facility with emphasis on research with neutron generated by a spallation source. One main aspect is the demonstration of nuclear waste technology using an accelerator driven system. A superconducting linac delivers a 4 mA, 600 MeV proton beam. The first accelerating section is covered by the 17 MeV injector. It consists of a proton source, an RFQ, two room temperature CH cavities and 4 superconducting CH-cavities. The initial design has used an RF frequency of 352 MHz. Recently the frequency of the injector has been set to 176 MHz. The main reason is the possible use of a 4-rod-RFQ with reduced power dissipation and energy, respectively. The status of the overall injector layout including cavity design is presented.
SIS100 is the main synchrotron of the FAIR project. It is designed to accelerate high intensity intermediate charge state uranium beams from 200 MeV/u up to 2.7 GeV/u. Intermediate charge state heavy ions are exposed to a high probability of charge exchange due to collisions with residual gas molecules. Since the charge exchange process changes the magnetic rigidity, the involved ions are lost behind dispersive elements, and an energy-dependent gas desorption takes place. The StrahlSim code has been used to predict the stability of the residual gas pressure in SIS100 under beam loss driven dynamic conditions. The results show, that a stable operation at highest U28+ intensities is possible, under the constraint that the vacuum chambers of the ion catcher system are cold enough to pump hydrogen. Furthermore, in order to determine the load to the cryogenic system, the average beam energy deposition onto the ion catcher system has been calculated.
The ARMADILLO bunch compressor currently being designed at IAP is capable of reaching a longitudinal pulse compression ratio of 45 for proton beams of 150 mA at 2 MeV. It will provide one nanosecond proton pulses with a peak current of 7.7 A. The system guides nine linacμbunches deflected by a 5 MHz rf kicker and uses four dipole magnets - two homogeneous and two with field gradients - to merge them on the target. For longitudinal focusing and an energy variation of ±200 keV two multitrack rf cavities are included. ARMADILLO will be installed at the end of the Frankfurt Neutron Source FRANZ making use of the unique 250 kHz time structure. This contribution will provide an overview of the layout of the system as well as recent advances in component design and beam dynamics of the compressor.
At the Institute for Applied Physics (IAP), University of Frankfurt, a s.c. 325 MHz CH-Cavity is under development for future beam tests at GSI UNILAC, Darmstadt. The cavity with 7 accelerating cells has a geometrical beta of 0.15 corresponding to 11.4 AMeV. The design gradient is 5 MV/m. The geometry of this resonator was optimized with respect to a compact design, low peak fields, surface processing, power coupling and tuning. Furthermore a new tuning system based on bellow tuners inside the resonator will control the frequency during operation. After rf tests in Frankfurt the cavity will be tested with a 10 mA, 11.4 AMeV beam delivered by the GSI UNILAC. In this paper rf simulations, multipacting analysis as well as thermal calculations will be presented.
Nach dem einführenden Theorieteil werden in den darauffolgenden Kapiteln zuerst die Auslegung und die Vermessung der drei Tripletts an der GSI in Darmstadt beschrieben und dann versucht mit Hilfe von LORASR einen Akzeptanzrahmen der MEBT-Sektion (Medium Energy Beam Transport) für ein Teilchenpaket anzugeben. Anschließend werden die Ergebnisse aus Feldvermessung und CST EM STUDIO Feldsimulationen verglichen. Damit soll die Frage, inwieweit es mit Particle Tracking Simulationen, in denen mit in CST EM STUDIO simulierten und anschließend in BENDER importierten Feldern gearbeitet wird, möglich ist, zutreffende Aussagen zu machen, beantwortet werden. Im letzten Kapitel werden wiederum die Ergebnisse dieser Simulationen präsentiert und ihre Bedeutung, im Vergleich mit den erweiterten Untersuchungen der Transporteigenschaften durch verschiedene aus überlagerten Multipolfeldern generierten Magnetfelder, eingeordnet. Abschließend wird nochmals ein Fazit zur Aussagekraft der Ergebnisse und der Folgen für den Strahltransport gezogen und ein Ausblick auf die noch ausstehenden Schritte und weitere experimentelle Analyseoptionen gegeben.
In dieser Arbeit wurde der Entwurf eines Rebunchers für die Ionenstrahltherapieanlage MedAustron mit Hilfe des Simulationsprogramms Microwave Studio entwickelt. Es wurde ein neues Design in Anlehnung an einen Spiralresonator gewählt, wobei der Spiralarm aus einem wassergekühlten induktiven Teil und einem aus massivem Kupfer gefertigten kapazitiven Teil besteht.
Die Frequenz der ersten Eigenmode liegt zwischen 217,8 MHz (ohne Keramik) und 217,3 MHz (mit Keramik). In der Realität könnte die Frequenz von diesem Wert etwas abweichen (bis zu 0,5 MHz), da einerseits Details wie Ein- und Auskopplung und andererseits reale Effekte wie Oberflächenverunreinigung oder kleinste Abweichungen in der Geometrie in Microwave Studio nicht berücksichtigt werden können. Außerdem wird die Genauigkeit der Simulationen durch die Anzahl Gitterpunkte limitiert. Um diese Eekte kompensieren zu können, wurden die Auswirkungen eines Tuners auf die Frequenz untersucht. Hierbei ergab sich für eine Tunerhöhe von 40 mm eine Frequenzveränderung von 220 kHz, bei 70 mm sind es schon 1,224 MHz.
Da sich bei dieser Frequenz und Geometrie ein Laufzeitfaktor von nur 0,66 auf der Strahlachse ergibt und die Spannung dort zusätzlich um den Faktor 0,983 niedriger ist als am Spaltrand, muss bei einer effektiven Shuntimpedanz von 13,4 M Ω/m eine Leistung von 2,46 kW aufgebracht werden. Nähere Untersuchungen der elektrischen Felder fürten zu dem Ergebnis, dass der Grund für den niedrigen Laufzeitfaktor dynamische Eekte sein müssen. Die "statischen Felder" verhalten sich wie erwartet.
Aber auch die reale Shuntimpedanz und somit auch die reale Verlustleistung können beträchtlich von den berechneten Werten abweichen. Es wird erwartet, dass die Shuntimpedanz im ungünstigsten Fall nur 60% der simulierten Impedanz beträgt, weswegen man mit einer Verlustleistung von 4,09 KW rechnen muss.
Der Rebuncher soll zusammen mit der Beschleunigeranlage in Österreich im Jahr 2013 in Betrieb gehen, aber bereits in 2012 zu Strahlexperimenten am CERN zur Verfügung stehen.
The SIS300 synchrotron, planned for the new Facility for Antiproton and Ion Research (FAIR) at GSI-Darmstadt, will become the first superconducting synchrotron worldwide using cos(θ) magnets for resonant slow extraction. A multi-objective optimization algorithm has been developed for the design of the non-linear magnet scheme. The optimization algorithm makes use of the analytical model for the slow extraction from Kobayashi, the analytical description of the resonance excitation and amplitude-dependent tune-shift from Bengtsson, and corrects the chromaticity in order to fulfill the Hardt condition. As a result, the placement of the chromatic and harmonic sextupole magnets in SIS300, the number of sextupole families and the gradients of these families have been optimized for a high efficiency slow extraction. The algorithm accounts also for the sextupole errors on the dipole magnets, compensating its effects. Furthermore, optimized time-dependent settings for the sextupole magnets are generated to compensate the persistent current decay occurring at slow extraction. Tolerances for the magnets are set for the limits where the compensation is no longer valid.
Chopper systems are used to pulse charged particle beams. In most cases, electric deflection systems are used to generate beam pulses of defined lengths and appropriate repetition rates. At high beam intensities, the field distribution of the chopper system needs to be adapted precisely to the beam dynamics in order to avoid aberrations. An additional challenge is a robust design which guarantees reliable operation. For the Frankfurt Neutron Source FRANZ, an E×B chopper system is being developed which combines static magnetic deflection with a pulsed electric field in a Wien filter configuration. It will generate proton pulses with a flat top of 50 ns at a repetition rate of 250 kHz for 120 keV, 200 mA beams. For the electric deflection, pre-experiments with static and pulsed fields were performed using a helium ion beam. In pulsed mode operation, ion beams of different energies were deflected with voltages of up to ±6 kV and the resulting response was measured using a beam current transformer. A comparison between experiments and theoretical calculations as well as numerical simulations are presented.
A modern linear accelerator of ions is a long chain of different accelerating-focusing structures. The design of new linacs, as well as an upgrade and optimization of operating facilities, requires precise and reliable beam matching with the subsequent sections. Proper matching of the beam to the channel allows to improve the performance of the whole linac and to reduce the specific costs. Additionally it helps to avoide particle loss in high energy high intensity linacs. Generally a matching algorithm combines precisely measured or calculated accelerating-focusing external fields and experimentally obtained details of the beam parameters with an advanced code for beam dynamics simulations including space charge effects. Experimental results are introduced into a code as input data. The described algorithm has already been successfully implemented for several GSI projects: an upgrade of the GSI heavy ion linac UNILAC, an ion linac for the cancer therapy, the proton linac for the FAIR facility, a facility for laser acceleration of ions and others. Measured data and results of beam dynamics simulations leading to an achieved improvement of the linac performance are presented.
At GSI a new, superconducting (sc) continuous wave (cw) LINAC is under design in cooperation with the Institute for Applied Physics (IAP) of Frankfurt University and the Helmholtz Institut Mainz (HIM). This proposed LINAC is highly requested by a broad community of future users to fulfill the requirements of nuclear chemistry, nuclear physics, and especially in the research field of Super Heavy Elements (SHE). In this context the preliminary layout of the LINAC has been carried out by IAP. The main acceleration of up to 7.3 AMeV will be provided by nine sc Crossbar-H-mode (CH) cavities operated at 217 MHz. Currently, a prototype of the cw LINAC as a demonstrator is under development. The demonstrator comprises a sc CH-cavity embedded between two sc solenoids mounted in a horizontal cryomodule. A full performance test of the demonstrator in 2013/14 by injecting and accelerating a beam from the GSI High Charge Injector (HLI) is one important milestone of the project. The status of the demonstrator is presented.
The superconducting CH-structure (Crossbar-H-mode) is a multi-cell drift tube cavity for the low and medium energy range operated in the H21-mode, which has been developed at the Institute for Applied Physics (IAP) of Frankfurt University. With respect to different high power applications two types of superconducting CH-structures (f = 325 MHz, β = 0.16, seven cells and f = 217 MHz, β = 0.059, 15 cells) are presently under construction and accordingly under development. The structural mechanical simulation is a very important aspect of the cavity design. Furthermore, several simulations with ANSYS Workbench have been performed to predict the deformation of the cavity walls due to the cavity cool-down, pressure effects and mechanical vibrations. To readjust the fast frequency changes in consequence of the cavity shape deformation, a new concept for the dynamic frequency tuning has been investigated, including a novel type of bellow-tuner.
The Frankfurt Neutron Source at the Stern-Gerlach-Zentrum is driven by a 2 MeV proton linac consisting of a 4-rod-radio-frequency-quadrupol (RFQ) and an 8 gap IH-DTL structure. RFQ and IH cavity will be powered by only one radio frequency (RF) amplifier to reduce costs. The RF-amplifier of the RFQ-IH combination is coupled into the RFQ. Internal inductive coupling along the axis connects the RFQ with the IH cavity ensuring the required power transition as well as a fixed phase relation between the two structures. The main acceleration of 120 keV up to 2.03 MeV will be reached by the RFQ-IH combination with 175 MHz and at a total length of 2.3 m. The losses in the RFQ-IH combination are about 200 kW.
EUROTRANS is a European research program for the transmutation of high level nuclear waste in an accelerator-driven system (ADS). As proposed, the driver linac needs to deliver a 2.5–4 mA, 600 MeV continuous-wave (CW) proton beam and later a 20 mA, 800 MeV one to the spallation target in the prototype-scale and industrial-scale demonstration phases, respectively. This paper is focusing on the conceptual studies performed with respect to the 17 MeV injector. First, the special beam dynamics strategies and methods, which have been developed and applied to design a current-variable injector up to 30 mA for allowing an easy upgrade without additional R&D costs, will be introduced. Then the error study made for evaluating the tolerance limits of the designed injector will be presented as well.
We report on the event-by-event multiplicity fluctuations of identified particles in central Pb+Pb collisions measured by the NA49 experiment at the CERN SPS. Employing a novel approach we unfolded the moments of the unknown multiplicity distributions of protons (p), kaons (K), pions (π) and electrons. Using these moments we reconstructed an excitation function of the fluctuation measure νdyn[A;B], with A and B denoting different particle types. Specifically, we reconstructed νdyn for the [p, π], [p, K] and [K, π] pairs. The energy dependence of νdyn is in agreement with previously published NA49 results on the related measure σdyn. Moreover, for [K; p] and [K;p] pairs, we discovered a dependence of the fluctuation measure νdyn on the phase space coverage (acceptance). Interestingly for the [p,π] case no significant acceptance dependence was observed. These observations provide a likely explanation of the reported differences between measurements of NA49 and those of STAR in central Au+Au collisions.
The study of energy and system size dependence of fluctuations of identified hadrons is one of the key goals of NA61/SHINE at the CERN SPS. Results may allow to discover the critical point (CP) of strongly interacting matter as well as to uncover properties of the onset of deconfinement (OD). Measured fluctuations are affected by numerous other effects like volume fluctuations and conservation laws. NA49 seems to observe fluctuations possibly related to the CP in collisions of medium size nuclei at the top SPS energy. However, this result will remain inconclusive until systematic data on energy and system size dependence will be available. Moreover, fluctuations in p+p as well as in Pb+Pb interactions should be better understood. In this contribution new results on multiplicity fluctuations of identified hadrons in p+p interactions at the CERN SPS energies will be presented. The NA61 data will be compared with the corresponding results on central Pb+Pb collisions of NA49 in the common acceptance region of both experiments. Furthermore, predictions of models (EPOS, UrQMD and HSD) for p+p interactions will be tested.
While the existence of a strongly interacting state of matter, known as “quark-gluon plasma” (QGP), has been established in heavy ion collision experiments in the past decade, the task remains to map out the transition from the hadronic matter to the QGP. This is done by measuring the dependence of key observables (such as particle suppression and elliptic flow) on the collision energy of the heavy ions. This procedure, known as "beam energy scan", has been most recently performed at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC).
Utilizing a Boltzmann+hydrodynamics hybrid model, we study the collision energy dependence of initial state eccentricities and the final state elliptic and triangular flow. This approach is well suited to investigate the relative importance of hydrodynamics and hadron transport at different collision energies.
We derive the Polyakov-loop thermodynamic potential in the perturbative approach to pure SU(3) Yang-Mills theory. The potential expressed in terms of the Polyakov loop in the fundamental representation corresponds to that of the strong-coupling expansion, of which the relevant coefficients of the gluon energy distribution are specified by characters of the SU(3) group. At high temperature, the potential exhibits the correct asymptotic behavior, whereas at low temperature, it disfavors gluons as appropriate dynamical degrees of freedom. To quantify the Yang-Mills thermodynamics in confined phase, we introduce a hybrid approach which matches the effective gluon potential to that of glueballs, constrained by the QCD trace anomaly in terms of dilaton fields.
We study the impact of nonequilibrium effects on the relevant signals within a chiral fluid dynamics model including explicit propagation of the Polyakov loop. An expanding heat bath of quarks is coupled to the Langevin dynamics of the order parameter fields. The model is able to describe relaxational processes, including critical slowing down and the enhancement of soft modes near the critical point. At the first-order phase transition we observe domain formation and phase coexistence in the sigma and Polyakov loop field leading to a significant amount of clumping in the energy density. This effect gets even more pronounced if we go to systems at finite baryon density. Here the formation of high-density clusters could provide an important observable signal for upcoming experiments at FAIR and NICA.We conclude that improving our understanding of dynamical symmetry breaking is important to give realistic estimates for experimental observables connected to the QCD phase transition.
The QGP that might be created in ultrarelativistic heavy-ion collisions is expected to radiate thermal dilepton radiation. However, this thermal dilepton radiation interferes with dileptons originating from hadron decays. In the invariant mass region between the f and J=y peak (1GeV <= M l+l <=. 3GeV) the most substantial background of hadron decays originates from correlated DD¯ -meson decays. We evaluate this background using a Langevin simulation for charm quarks. As background medium we utilize the well-tested UrQMD-hybrid model. The required drag and diffusion coefficients are taken from a resonance approach. The decoupling of the charm quarks from the hot medium is performed at a temperature of 130MeV and as hadronization mechanism a coalescence approach is chosen. This model for charm quark interactions with the medium has already been successfully applied to the study of the medium modification and the elliptic flow at FAIR, RHIC and LHC energies. In this proceeding we present our results for the dilepton radiation from correlated D¯D decays at RHIC energy in comparison to PHENIX measurements in the invariant mass range between 1 and 3 GeV using different interaction scenarios. These results can be utilized to estimate the thermal QGP radiation.
As microscopic transport models usually have difficulties to deal with in-medium effects in heavy-ion collisions, we present an alternative approach that uses coarse-grained output from transport calculations with the UrQMD model to determine thermal dilepton emission rates. A four-dimensional space-time grid is set up to extract local baryon and energy densities, respectively temperature and baryon chemical potential. The lepton pair emission is then calculated for each cell of the grid using thermal equilibrium rates. In the current investigation we inlcude the medium-modified r spectral function by Eletsky et al., as well as contributions from the QGP and four-pion interactions for high collision energies. First dielectron invariant mass spectra for Au+Au collisions at 1.25 AGeV and for dimuons from In+In at 158 AGeV are shown. At 1.25 AGeV a clear enhancement of the total dilepton yield as compared to a pure transport result is observed. In the latter case, we compare our outcome with the NA60 dimuon excess data. Here a good agreement is achieved, but the yield in the low-mass tail is underestimated. In general the results show that the coarse-graining approach gives reasonable results and can cover a broad collision-energy range.
This work presents an effective model for strongly interacting matter and the QCD equation of state (EoS). The model includes both hadron and quark degrees of freedom and takes into account the transition of chiral symmetry restoration as well as the deconfinement phase transition. At low temperatures T and baryonic densities ρB a hadron resonance gas is described using a SU(3)-flavor sigma-omega model and a quark phase is introduced in analogy to PNJL models for higher T and ρB. In this way, the correct asymptotic degrees of freedom are used in a wide range of T and ρB. Here, results of this model concerning the chiral and deconfinement phase transitions and thermodynamic model properties are presented. Large hadron resonance multiplicities in the transition region emphasize the importance of heavy-mass resonance states in this region and their impact on the chiral transition behavior. The resulting phase diagram of QCD matter at small chemical potentials is in line with latest lattice QCD and thermal model results.
Spinodal crumbling
(2013)
Extending a previously developed two-phase equation of state, we simulate head-on relativistic lead-lead collisions with fluid dynamics, augmented with a finite-range term, and study the effects of the phase structure on the evolution of the baryon density. For collision energies that bring the bulk of the system into the mechanically unstable spinodal region of the phase diagram, the density irregularities are being amplified significantly. We also present results for the associated clump size distribution.
We analyze hadrochemical freeze-out in central Pb+Pb collisions at CERN SPS and LHC energies. Employing the UrQMD hybrid transport model we study the effects of the final hadron/resonance expansion phase on the hadron multiplicities established at hadronization. The bulk meson yields freeze out directly at hadronization whereas the baryon-antibaryon sector is subject to significant alterations, due to annihilation and regeneration processes. We quantify the latter changes by survival factors for each species which are applied to modify the statistical model predictions for the data. The modified SM analysis recovers the hadronization points, which coincide with the recent lattice QCD predictions of the parton-hadron transition line at finite baryochemical potential.
Recent results on baryon production in relativistic heavy ion collisions show that a revision of the chemical freeze-out conditions is necessary. Particularly, there is evidence that chemical freezeout does not occur at full chemical equilibrium. We present a method to reconstruct original hadronization conditions and show that the newly found points in the T − µB plane are in very good agreement with extrapolations of the lattice QCD critical line.
Focus on quantum efficiency
(2014)
Technologies which convert light into energy, and vice versa, rely on complex, microscopic transport processes in the condensed phase, which obey the laws of quantum mechanics, but hitherto lack systematic analysis and modeling. Given our much improved understanding of multicomponent, disordered, highly structured, open quantum systems, this ‘focus on’ collection collects cuttingedge research on theoretical and experimental aspects of quantum transport in truly complex systems as defined, e.g., by the macromolecular functional complexes at the heart of photosynthesis, by organic quantum wires, or even photovoltaic devices. To what extent microscopic quantum coherence effects can (be made to) impact on macroscopic transport behavior is an equally challenging and controversial question, and this "focus on" collection provides a setting for the present state of affairs, as well as for the "quantum opportunities" on the horizon.
Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit der Hochfrequenzabstimmung und den Feldoptimierungen zweier Linearbeschleunigerstrukturen für eine in der Entwicklung befindliche Forschungsanlage an der Goethe-Universität in Frankfurt am Main. Ein 4-Rod-RFQ sowie ein IH-Driftröhrenbeschleuniger sollen gekoppelt betrieben, d.h. nicht wie üblich von zwei, sondern nur von einem Hochfrequenz-Sender mit Leistung versorgt werden. Hierdurch lässt sich nicht nur der benötigte Platz reduzieren, sondern auch ein beträchtlicher Teil der Kosten des Projekts einsparen. Um das Verhalten der gekoppelten Beschleuniger genauer vorhersagen zu können, wurden Untersuchungen an bereits gebauten Modellen im Maßstab 1:2 durchgeführt und diese vermessen. Eine Methode zur systematischen Anpassung der Feldverteilung in 4-Rod-RFQs wurde darüber hinaus am einzeln betriebenen RFD-Modell angewandt und optimiert, sowie ein Algorithmus zur Automatisierung entwickelt. Parallel laufende Computersimulationen ermöglichten Vergleiche zu den realen Messwerten. Darüberhinaus konnten Rückschlüsse auf die Genauigkeit der Simulationen am Computermodell gezogen und hier liegende Herausforderungen, auch in Bezug auf die bei FRANZ zum Einsatz kommenden Beschleunigerstrukturen, näher untersucht werden. Hieraus resultierende Empfehlungen für das Design der FRANZ-IH-Struktur konnten gegeben werden und wurden bereits umgesetzt.
This novel kind of neutron beam facility will provide 1 ns short neutron pulses with an approximately thermal energy distribution around 30 keV. The pulse repetition rate will be up to 250 kHz, the total proton number per pulse will be up to 6×1010 in the final stage, starting with a p – source current of 200 mA. A second target station will allow n – activation experiments by cw beam operation. An intense 2 MeV proton beam will drive a neutron source by the 7 Li (p,n) 7 Be reaction. The facility is under construction at the physics experimental hall of the J.W. Goethe – University. The 1m thick concrete tunnel was installed in 2009. In 2011 all rf amplifiers will be delivered and installed. Successful 200 mA proton source experiments in 2010 at a test stand will be followed by experiments on the 120 kV FRANZ terminal in 2011. The 250 kHz, 100 ns chopper in front of the rf linac is under construction, while the 2 MeV bunch compressor design was finished and the technical design of all components has started. The main accelerator cavity is under construction. First 2 MeV beam tests are expected for end of 2012.
Mit dieser Arbeit konnte die Funktionsweise von gekoppelten Resonatoren erklärt werden. Das Verhalten von induktiv gekoppelten Beschleunigerkavitäten wurde näher studiert. Dabei wurde verstanden, wie sich Verstimmungen auf die Resonatoren auswirken und was zu tun ist um die Spannungsamplituden des gekoppelten Systems zu beeinflussen. Zudem wurden die Grundlagen für den gekoppelten Betrieb des FRANZ-Beschleunigers gelegt.
Mit dieser Arbeit wurde gezeigt, wie sich Störung und Kopplung auf ein System zwei gekoppelter Resonatoren auswirkt. Das Einfahren des Tauchkolbens birgt die Möglichkeit die Eigenfrequenzen des Systems zu verändern und die Feldverteilungen anzupassen. Ein Tauchkolben auf der anderen Seite des Resonators wäre für die Anschauung der Störung praktisch gewesen, hätte jedoch keine weiteren Erkenntnisse geliefert.
Es ist möglich mit zwei verschiedenen eingekoppelten Frequenzen eine Schwebung im Resonator zu erzeugen. Dies könnte theoretisch für eine Hochfrequenzstrahlablenkung nützlich sein. Mit einer speziell auf Strahlablenkung optimierten Resonatorgeometrie gilt es dies praktisch zu überprüfen.
In dieser Arbeit wird der Strahltransport in einem CH-Driftröhrenbeschleuniger untersucht. Hierfür wurden numerische Simulationen zur elektromagnetischen Feldverteilung und dem strahldynamischen Einfluss der CH-Driftröhrenkavität durchgeführt. Sie fungiert als Prototyp für CH-Strukturen im Injektor des MYRRHA-Projekts, einem beschleunigergetriebenen System (ADS) zur Transmutation radioaktiven Abfalls. Zudem wird sie an der im Aufbau befindlichen Frankfurter Neutronenquelle am Stern-Gerlach-Zentrum (FRANZ) an der Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main experimentell mit Strahl getestet werden. FRANZ dient neben dem Einsatz als Experimentierfeld für neuartige Beschleuniger- und Strahldiagnostikkonzepte vor allem der Forschung im Bereich nuklearer Astrophysik.
In this thesis, a novel 257 kHz chopper device was numerically developed, technically designed and experimentally commissioned; a 4-solenoid, low-energy ion beam transport line was numerically investigated, installed and experimentally commissioned; and a novel massless beam-separation system was numerically developed.
The chopper combines a pulsed electric field with a static magnetic field in an ExB or Wien-filter type field configuration. Chopped beam pulses with a 257 kHz repetition rate and rise times of 110 ns were experimentally achieved using a 14 keV helium beam.
Due to the achieved results, the complete LEBT line for the future Frankfurt Neutron Source FRANZ is ready to deliver a dc or a pulsed beam. At the same time, the LEBT section represents an attractive test stand for the study of low-energy ion beams. It combines magnetic lenses, which allow space-charge compensated beam transport, and a chopper system capable of producing short beam pulses in the hundred nanosecond range. Since these beam pulses are transported onwards, their longitudinal and transverse properties can be analyzed. The pulse duration and time of flight are well below the rise time for the space-charge compensation through residual gas ionization. This opens the possibility for dedicated investigations of the transport of short, low-energy beam pulses including longitudinal and transverse space-charge effects and of relevant issues like the dynamics of space-charge compensation and electron effects in short pulses.
In dieser Arbeit wird der Strahltransport in einer Niederenergietransportsektion (LEBT) untersucht. Die Untersuchungen werden für die Betriebsmodi der im Aufbau befindlichen Neutronenquelle FRANZ an der Frankfurter Goethe-Universität durchgeführt. Hierbei wird die Akzeptanz eines Choppersystems nach der ersten Sektion des Transportwegs sowie die Akzeptanz des auf die zweite Sektion folgenden RFQ betrachtet und bestmöglich erfüllt. Die Auswirkungen durch die Raumladungswirkung des Ionenstrahls werden berücksichtigt, ebenso die mögliche thermische Belastung durch Strahlverlust an den Komponenten entlang des Strahlwegs. Weiterhin wird der Einfluss eines nicht optimierten Einschusses in den RFQ und die sich daraus ergebenden Strahleigenschaften am Ende des RFQs untersucht.
Der Radiofrequenzquadrupol (RFQ) wird typischerweise als erstes beschleunigendes Element in Beschleunigeranlagen eingesetzt. Das elektrische Quadrupolfeld ermöglicht die gleichzeitige Fokussierung und Beschleunigung des Ionenstrahls. Zudem ist der RFQ in der Lage den Gleichstromstrahl von der Ionenquelle zu Teilchenpaketen (Bunche) zu formen, die von den nachfolgenden Driftröhrenbeschleunigern benötigt werden. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war die Untersuchung zur Realisierbarkeit eines 325 MHz 4-rod RFQ Beschleunigers. Die Frequenz von 325 MHz stellt eine ungewöhnlich hohe Betriebsfrequenz für die 4-rod Struktur dar und wird z.B. für den Protonenlinac des FAIR Projektes benötigt. Ein Problem hierbei war, dass durch die bauartbedingten unsymmetrischen Elektrodenaufhängung und der hohen Frequenz ein, das Quadrupolfeld überlagerndes, Dipolfeld erzeugt wird. Dieses störende Feld kann z.B. zu einem Versatz der Strahlachse führen. Hierzu wurde die 4-rod Struktur in Simulationen grundlegend auf Einflüsse von verschiedenen Parametern auf die Resonanzfrequenz und das Dipolfeld untersucht. Es wurden Lösungsstrategien erarbeitet das Diopolfeld zu kompensieren und auf einen Prototypen angewendet. Zudem wurde das Verhalten höherer Schwingungsmoden dieser Struktur simuliert. In diesem Rahmen wurden auch Simulationen zu Randfeldern zwischen den 4-rod Elektroden und der Tankwand untersucht, um nachteilige Effekte für die Strahlqualität auszuschließen. Basierend auf den Simulationsergebnissen wurde ein Prototyp angefertigt. Dieser Prototyp wurde zur Demonstration der Betriebseigenschaften mit Leistungen bis 40 kW getestet. Hierbei wurde die Elektrodenspannung mittels Gammaspektroskopie bestimmt und daraus die Shuntimpedanz berechnet. Diese Werte wurden mit anderen Methoden der Shuntimpedanzbes- timmung verglichen. Außerdem wurden alternative RFQ Resonatorkonzepte ebenfalls auf ihre Realisierbarkeit für den Protonenlinac untersucht. Die Einflüsse verschiedener Parameter auf die Betriebsfrequenz, die Möglichkeiten des Frequenztunings und der Einstellung der longitudinalen Spannungsverteilung gefertigter Modelle wurden in einer Diskussion gegenübergestellt.
We study the equilibrium properties of strongly-interacting infinite parton-hadron matter, characterized by the transport coefficients such as shear and bulk viscosity and electric conductivity, and the non-equilibrium dynamics of heavy-ion collisions within the Parton-Hadron-String Dynamics (PHSD) transport approach, which incorporates explicit partonic degrees of freedom in terms of strongly interacting quasiparticles (quarks and gluons) in line with an equation of state from lattice QCD as well as the dynamical hadronization and hadronic collision dynamics in the final reaction phase. We discuss in particular the possible origin for the strong elliptic flow v2 of direct photons observed at RHIC energies.
The laser-driven acceleration of protons from thin foils irradiated by hollow high-intensity laser beams in the regime of target normal sheath acceleration is reported for the first time. The use of hollow beams aims at reducing the initial emission solid angle of the TNSA source, due to a flattening of the electron sheath at the target rear side. The experiments were conducted at the PHELIX laser facility at the GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung GmbH with laser intensities in the range from 10^18 to 10^20 W/cm^2. We observed an average reduction of the half opening angle by (3.07±0.42)° or (13.2±2)% when the targets have a thickness between 12 to 14 μm. In addition, the highest proton energies were achieved with the hollow laser beam in comparison to the typical Gaussian focal spot.
The subatomic world is governed by the strong interactions of quarks and gluons, described by Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD). Quarks experience confinement into colour-less objects, i.e. they can not be observed as free particles. Under extreme conditions such as high temperature or high density, this constraint softens and a transition to a phase where quarks and gluons are quasi-free particles (Quark-Gluon-Plasma) can occur. This environment resembles the conditions prevailing during the early stages of the universe shortly after the Big Bang.
The phase diagram of QCD is under investigation in current and future collider experiments, for example at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) or at the Facility for Antiproton and Ion Research (FAIR). Due to the strength of the strong interactions in the energy regime of interest, analytic methods can not be applied rigorously. The only tool to study QCD from first principles is given by simulations of its discretised version, Lattice QCD (LQCD).
These simulations are in the high-performance computing area, hence, the numerical aspects of LQCD are a vital part in this field of research. In recent years, Graphic Processing Units (GPUs) have been incorporated in these simulations as they are a standard tool for general purpose calculations today.
In the course of this thesis, the LQCD application cl2qcd has been developed, which allows for simulations on GPUs as well as on traditional CPUs, as it is based on OpenCL. cl2qcd constitutes the first application for Wilson type fermions in OpenCL.
It provides excellent performance and has been applied in physics studies presented in this thesis. The investigation of the QCD phase diagram is hampered by the notorious sign-problem, which restricts current simulation algorithms to small values of the chemical potential.
Theoretically, studying unphysical parameter ranges allows for constraints on the phase diagram. Of utmost importance is the clarification of the order of the finite temperature transition in the Nf=2 chiral limit at zero chemical potential. It is not known if it is of first or second order. To this end, simulations utilising Twisted Mass Wilson fermions aiming at the chiral limit are presented in this thesis.
Another possibility is the investigation of QCD at purely imaginary chemical potential. In this region, QCD is known to posses a rich phase structure, which can be used to constrain the phase diagram of QCD at real chemical potential and to clarify the nature of the Nf=2 chiral limit. This phase structure is studied within this thesis, in particular the nature of the Roberge-Weiss endpoint is mapped out using Wilson fermions.
Das Schwerionenkollisionen Programm der Beschleuniger RHIC und LHC gibt Hinweise auf einen neuen Zustand hadronischer Materie --- das Quark-Gluon Plasma. Dieses zeichnet sich durch eine zumindest partielle Aufhebung des confinements aus, welches besagt, dass keine freien Quarks beochtbar sind.
Aus einer Beschreibung der experimentellen Daten mit relativistischer Hydrodynamik folgen weitere Eigenschaften. So geht das in einer Schwerionenkollision erzeugte Quark-Gluon Plasma nach sehr kurzer Zeit, etwa 1 fm/c, in ein zumindest lokales thermisches Gleichgewicht über. Durch die Lorentzkontraktion der beiden Schwerionen erwartet man, dass der Zustand direkt nach der Kollision durch eine Impulsanisotropie in der transversal-longitudinalen Ebene bestimmt wird. Somit setzt das Erreichen eines thermischen Gleichgewichts zunächst eine Isotropisierung voraus. Bisherige Studien haben gezeigt, dass gluonische Moden bei dieser Isotropisierung durch Verursachung einer chromo-Weibel Instabilität eine entscheidende Rolle spielen.
Weiterhin verhält sich das Quark-Gluon Plasma wie eine fast perfekte Flüssigkeit. Eine Berücksichtigung dissipativer Terme in der hydrodynamischen Beschreibung erfordert das Hinzufügen weiterer Terme zu den entsprechenden Bewegungsgleichungen. Diese sind proportional zu Transportkoeffizienten, welche durch die zugrunde liegende mikroskopische Theorie festgelegt sind.
Diese Theorie ist Quantenchromodynamik. Sie beschreibt die starke Wechselwirkung der Quarks und Gluonen und ist ein fundamentaler Baustein des Standardmodells der Teilchenphysik. Da im Regelfall Prozesse der starken Wechselwirkung nichtperturbativ sind, beschreiben wir QCD unter Verwendung einer Gitterregularisierung. Diese beruht auf einer Diskretisierung der vierdimensionalen Euklidischen Raumzeit durch einen Hyperkubus mit periodischen Randbedingungen und ermöglicht ein Lösen der QCD mit numerischen Methoden. Allerdings ist die Anwendung der Gittereichtheorie auf Systeme im thermischen Gleichgewicht beschränkt und kann somit keine Prozesse beschreiben, die auf Echtzeit basieren.
Transportkoeffizienten entsprechen Proportionalitätskoeffizienten, die die Relaxation einer Flüssigkeit oder eben eines Quark-Gluon Plasmas von einer kleinen Störung beschreiben. Damit sind sie unmittelbar mit der Zeit verknüpft. Über Kubo-Formeln lassen sie sich jedoch mit Gleichgewichtserwartungswerten retardierter Korrelatoren verknüpfen und werden so in Gitter QCD zugänglich.
In der vorliegenden Dissertation berechnen wir den Transportkoeffizienten κ in Gittereichtheorie für das Yang-Mills Plasma. Dabei nutzen wir aus, dass dieser Transportkoeffizient eine triviale analytische Fortsetzung vom retardierten zum Euklidischen Korrelator besitzt, welcher direkt in Gittereichtheorie zugänglich ist. Es ist die erste nichtperturbative Berechnung eines Transportkoeffizienten in QCD ohne weitere Annahmen, wie die Maximum Entropie Methode oder Ansätze, zu treffen.
This thesis serves two main purposes:
1. The introduction of a novel experimental method to investigate phase change dynamics of supercooled liquids
2. First-time measurements for the crystallization behaviour for hydrogen isotopes under various conditions
1) The new method is established by the synergy of a liquid microjet of ~ 5 µm diameter and a scattering technique with high spatial resolution, here linear Raman spectroscopy. Due to the high directional stability and the known velocity of the liquid filament, its traveling axis corresponds to a time axis static in space. Utilizing evaporative cooling in a vacuum environment, the propagating liquid cools down rapidly and eventually experiences a phase transition to the crystalline state. This temporal evolution is probed along the filament axis, ultimately resulting in a time resolution of 10 ns. The feasibility of this approach is proven successfully within the following experiments.
2) A main object of study are para-hydrogen liquid filaments. Raman spectra reveal a temperature gradient of the liquid across the filament. This behaviour can quantitatively be reconstructed by numerical simulations using a layered model and is rooted in the effectiveness of evaporative cooling on the surface and a finite thermal conductivity. The deepest supercoolings achieved are ~ 30% below the melting point, at which the filament starts to solidify from the surface towards the core. With a crystal growth velocity extracted from the data the appropriate growth mechanism is identified. The crystal structure that initially forms is metastable and probably the result of Ostwald’s rule of stages. Indications for a transition within the solid towards the stable equilibrium phase support this interpretation.
The analog isotope ortho-deuterium is evidenced to behave qualitatively similar with quantitative differences being mass related.
In further measurements, isotopic mixtures of para-hydrogen and ortho-deuterium are investigated. It is found that the crystallization process starts earlier and lasts significantly longer compared to the pure substances with the maximum values between 20-50% ortho-deuterium content. A solely temperature based explanation for this effect can be excluded. The difference in the quantum character and hence effective size of the isotopes suggests a strong influence of the progressing liquid-solid-interface. Small dilutions of each para-hydrogen and ortho-deuterium with neon show an even more extended crystallization process compared to above isotopic mixtures. Additionally, the crystal is strongly altered in favor of the equilibrium lattice structure of neon.
In dieser Arbeit wurde die automatisierte Separation von Heliummono-, -di- und -trimeren beschrieben. Unter Nutzung ihrer unterschiedlichen De-Broglie-Wellenlängen wurden die verschiedenen Fraktionen mit einem Nanogitter getrennt. Zunächst wurden einige physikalische Grundlagen zu den genannten Atom- bzw. Molekülspezies, der hier auftretenden Bindungsform der Van-der-Waals-Bindung und insbesondere zur Materiewellenbeugung gelegt. Anschließend wurde der Versuchsaufbau dargestellt.
Bei der Durchführung wurden zunächst die drei jeweils vorhandenen Gitter und Spalte zu je einer Messung kombiniert und die beste Kombination für die weiteren Messungen ausgewählt. Das Experiment wurde weitergeführt, indem für verschiedene Temperaturen und Quelldrücke jeweils ein Beugungsspektrum von der für alle Heliumteilchen identischen nullten Ordnung bis zur ersten Ordnung der Heliummonomere aufgenommen wurde.
In der Auswertung wurde die Detektionswahrscheinlichkeit auf rund 37 % abgeschätzt. Weiterhin wurden die Ereignisse in den ersten Maxima der einzelnen Heliumfraktionen gezählt und so unter Verwendung der Detektionswahrscheinlichkeit molare Konzentrationen für das Heliumdi- und -trimer berechnet. Dabei wurden Anteile von bis zu 0,45 % für das Heliumdimer und 4,2 % für das Heliumtrimer erreicht. Diese Molanteile und ihre Abhängigkeit von Druck und Temperatur stimmen qualitativ gut mit der Literatur überein, quantitativ lassen sie sich u. a. wegen abweichender Nachweismethoden kaum vergleichen.
Anschließend wurde der Abstand von Düse und Skimmer variiert mit dem Ergebnis, daß eine Veränderung im betrachteten Bereich keinen nennenswerten Einfluß auf die Bildungsraten von Di- und Trimeren hat. Weiterhin wurde die auf zweierlei Weise bstimmbare Geschwindigkeit der Heliumteilchen im Gasjet ermittelt und verglichen.
Die beiden Geschwindigkeiten weichen lediglich im unteren Temperaturbereich signifikant voneinander ab, wofür plausible Erklärungsansätze dargelegt wurden.
Die Größe der Quellregion der betrachteten Heliumcluster wurde unter geometrischen Gesichtspunkten und unter Extrapolation der für verschiedene Spaltbreiten gemessenen Maximumsbreiten untersucht. Im Ergebnis wird die Quellbreite zu 58,5 μm abgeschätzt.
Die Automatisierung des Aufbaus erlaubte eine Vielzahl von systematischen Messungen, die ohne diese Automatisierung sehr zeitaufwendig gewesen wären. Insbesondere wurden in kurzer Zeit - wie zuvor geschildert - die Beugungsmuster von drei Gittern in Kombination mit je drei verschiedenen Kollimationspalten sowie die Abhängigkeit der Heliumdimer- und -trimerbildung von Temperatur, Druck und Abstand von Düse und Skimmer untersucht. Die Automatisierung erlaubt für zukünftige Messungen, z. B. in Strahlzeiten am Freien Elektronenlaser FLASH, jeweils in situ die Clusterbildung zu untersuchen. Möge das beschriebene Experiment nicht nur diese, sondern auch viele weitere Messungen beschleunigen helfen und so zum gesellschaftlichen Erkenntnisgewinn beitragen!
Hauptbestandteil dieser Masterarbeit war es, ein neues COLTRIMS Experiment zu entwerfen und zu bauen. Den gesamten Aufbau mit allen dazugehörigen Komponenten wie verschiedensten Vakuumkomponenten sowie Detektoren und Elektronik unter realen Messbedingungen zu testen, bildete schließlich den Abschluss des praktischen Teils. Sowohl einige Kalibrationsmessungen mit dem neuen Aufbau, als auch die ersten Ergebnisse der Messungen mit der chiralen Substanz Bromchlorfluormethan wurden hier vorgestellt.
Ein Großteil der Projektarbeit bestand darin, Überlegungen für die vielen verschiedenen Bauteile anzustellen, diese mit Rücksprache erfahrener Gruppenmitglieder zu verbessern und schließlich zu konstruieren und zu zeichnen...
Wir haben uns in dieser Arbeit der Frage nach der Dissipation in niederenergetischen Schwerionenkollisionen gewidmet. Dissipation im Allgemeinen hat ihre Ursache in direkten Teilchenkollisionen, die in der Methode von TDHF bezüglich der Nukleonen fehlen. Im VUU-Modell sind sie dagegen ein zentraler Bestandteil der Zeitentwicklung und spielen bei mittleren und hohen Energien eine wichtige Rolle.
Mithilfe des VUU-Modells wurde deshalb versucht einen Einfluss der Nukleon-Nukleon-Kollsionen auf den Impulsstrom festzustellen, der an der Verbindungsstelle in der Reaktion 16O + 132Sn mit b = 7 fm und Ecm = 100 vorliegt. Dabei variierten wir den NN-Wirkungsquerschnitt im Kollisionsterm der VUU-Gleichung mit der Erwartung, dass eine daraus resultierende Verminderung bzw. Erhöhung der Stoßrate Auswirkungen auf die Geschwindigkeitsverteilungen der Materie zeigt. Ein positives Ergebnis hätte den Schluss nahegelegt, dass die mittlere freie Weglände und damit die Viskosität von Kernmaterie in Schwerionenkollisionen zu berücksichtigen ist.
Im Verlauf unserer Analyse haben wir festgestellt, dass die von uns verwendeten Methoden nicht zu den gewünschten Ergebnissen führten, z.T. auch weil die Kerne in den VUU-Rechnungen Instabilität aufwiesen und so die relevante Reaktionszeit einschgeschränkt wurde. Wir konnten einen Einfluss von direkten Teilchenkollisionen auf den Impulsstrom zwischen den Kernen des obigen Systems nicht verifizieren. Zusätzliche Simulationen an 12C + 12C mit b = 0 fm haben dann gezeigt, dass offenbar der allergrößte Teil der Nukleon-Nukleon-Kollisionen aufgrund des Pauli-Prinzips blockiert wird. Aus diesem Grund ziehen wir die Möglichkeit in Betracht, dass die starke Präsenz des Pauli-Prinzips im niederenergetischen Bereich die Stoßrate nicht nur maßgeblich reduziert, sondern damit direkte Stöße insgesamt kaum Einfluss auf den Impulsstrom und die Dissipation haben könnten. Die Dissipation ist demnach hauptsächlich auf einen Austausch üuber die Verbindungsstelle zweier Kerne zurückzuführen, was in weiterführender Literatur unter dem Stichwort window formula bekannt ist.
Weitere Untersuchungen in diese Richtung sind wünschenwert. Insbesondere ist es erforderlich das angesprochene Zeitproblem zu lösen, um eventuell die Stoßrate zu erhöhen. Dann könnte ein möglicher Einfluss auf den Impulsstrom wesentlich länger und detaillierter studiert werden. Es bietet sich zudem an, das benutzte Auswerteprogramme vuudens so abzuändern, dass z.B. ein feineres Gitter benutzt werden kann, auf dem die Dichten berechnet werden. Das so gesteigerte Auflösungsvermögen würde sicherlich die
Unzulänglichkeiten der in dieser Arbeit verwendeten Methoden reduzieren. Bei weiterem und tieferem Studium der besprochenen Prozesse könnte es natürlich sein, dass bessere Ansätze zur Analyse gefunden werden. Dies wäre in jedem Fall zu begrüßen.
In dem in dieser Arbeit vorgestellten Experiment wurde die Reaktion zwischen molekularem Wasserstoff und hochgeladenen langsamen Ar8+-Ionen untersucht. Ein Augenmerk wurde hierbei auf den Zweifachelektroneneinfang gelegt.
Anhand zwei durchgeführten Messungen mit unterschiedlichen Projektilgeschwindigkeiten 0,2 und 0,36 a.u. und unter zur Hilfenahme des so genannten „over-barrier-Modells“ sollte die Dynamik des H2-Moleküls während des Elektroneneinfangprozesses untersucht werden. Aus den daraus resultierten Ergebnissen sollte die Frage, ob der Einfangsprozess simultan oder sequentiell stattgefunden hat beantwortet werden.
Durch einfache Berechnungen kann mit dem „over-barrier-Modell“ die Distanz, welche das Projektil zwischen dem ersten und dem zweiten Elektroneneinfang zurücklegt, in Abhängigkeit von dem Stoßparameter ermittelt werden. Dieser Wert ist der Hauptbestand aller weiteren Berechnungen.
Die Spektren der Impulsüberträge in Abhängigkeit von der Ausrichtung des Moleküls zu dem Projektilstrahl haben gezeigt, dass das Projektil meist über und unter der Molekülachse streut anstatt links oder rechts am Molekül vorbei zu fliegen.
Die Auftragung der kinetischen Energie der Fragmente gegen den Transversalimpuls des Projektils (Abbildung 5.6) hat ergeben, dass größere Impulsüberträge für den Fall der senkrechten Stellung des Moleküls zu der Strahlachse, zu leicht erhöhten Aufbruchsenegien führt, was durch die Berechnung der Energie zu erklären ist.
Aus der Verteilung der kinetischen Energie (KER), welche die durch Dissoziation entstandenen Wasserstoffionen nach dem Stoß besitzen, kann auf den Verlauf der Reaktion zurück geschlossen werden.
Ein Vergleich der KER-Spektren für unterschiedliche Stoßparameter (Abbildung 5.8 und 5.9) bei festen Geschwindigkeiten hat für die zwei Messungen widersprüchliche Ergebnisse gezeigt. Zu erwarten war eine Verkleinerung der Energiewerte bei ansteigendem Stoßparameter. Dies konnte jedoch nur für den Fall in welchem die Projektilgeschwindigkeit 0,36 a.u. betrug bestätigt werden. Die Abweichung bei der ersten Messung kann durch statistische Fehler kommen, da die Anzahl der Messwerte, die für diese Messungen als „richtige“ angenommen worden, durch das Setzen von verschiedenen Bedingungen stark reduziert wurde.
Letztendlich wurde anhand der Variation der Stoßparameter bei festen Projektilgeschwindigkeiten die Zeitskala während des Stoßes eingeschätzt. Es wurde die Annahme getroffen, dass der Zweifachelektroneneinfang als zweistufiger Prozess abgelaufen ist und die maximal mögliche Zeitspanne zwischen dem ersten und dem zweiten Elektroneneinfang berechnet. Der Vergleich der daraus resultierten Werte mit der Oszillationsdauer des Wasserstoffmoleküls hat die getroffene Annahme widerlegt. Beide Messungen sind laut „over-barrier-Modell“ als einstufiger, schneller Übergang einzuordnen.
Das Ziel dieser Diplomarbeit war die Untersuchung der Reaktion des Zweifachelektroneneinfangs mit einem Augenmerk auf den Unterschied zwischen dem simultanen und dem sequentiellen Verlauf. Die Ergebnisse haben einen zweistufigen Prozess mit hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit ausgeschlossen. Obwohl alle theoretischen Anforderungen für den Einsatz des „over-barrier-Modells“ erfüllt worden sind, hat sich herausgestellt, dass die gemessenen Werte nicht immer eindeutig interpretiert werden konnten. Das lässt darauf schließen, dass das Experiment noch verbessert werden kann, um mögliche Fehlerquellen zu reduzieren. Eine Möglichkeit zur Verbesserung wäre der Einbau eines Elektronendetektors, oder aber die Änderung des Projektilions. Auch längere Messzeiten wären statistisch gesehen von Vorteil. Für die Zukunft sind weitere Experimente mit veränderten Targetgasen und geänderten Projektilgeschwindigkeiten geplant.
Die vorliegende Arbeit setzt sich mit dem Einfluss von Tetraquarkzuständen auf den chiralen Phasenübergang auseinander. Das Quarkmodell ist ein wirkungsvolles Instrument zum Verständnis des Verhaltens der Mesonen und Baryonen. Im Bereich von Energien unter 1:8 GeV gibt es in Bezug auf die Mesonen dennoch eine Vielzahl von Problemen. So ist bis dato nicht klar, wie sich die skalaren Resonanzen unter 1:8 GeV zusammensetzen. In der Vergangenheit wurde eine Vielzahl von Möglichkeiten diskutiert, wie beispielsweise die Existenz eines Glueballs, die von mesonischen Molekülen sowie die von Tetraquarkzuständen. Alle diese Ansätze sind mehr oder weniger in der Lage, die Phänomene bei T = 0 zu erklären. Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit dem Ansatz, Tetraquarkzuständen leichte skalare Resonanzen zuzuordnen.
Im Bereich der nichtverschwindenden Temperaturen wurden durch Gitterrechnungen große Erfolge erzielt, die aaffetiven Modellen bei nichtverschwindender Temperatur als Referenz dienen. Gleichwohl fehlt ein affektives Modell bei T <> 0, das einen Tetraquarkzustand beinhaltet. Hier setzt diese Arbeit an und erweitert das Modell, das leichte skalare Resonanzen mittels Tetraquarkzuständen erklärt, zu nichtverschwindenden Temperaturen.
In dieser ersten Studie zum Thema wird das Lineare Sigma-Modell um den leichtesten Tetraquarkzustand ergänzt und sein Einfluss auf den chiralen Phasenübergang untersucht.
Es zeigt sich, dass dieser Ansatz nicht nur Fragen im Bereich der Vakuumphysik lösen kann, sondern auch solche hinsichtlich der Restaurierung der chiralen Symmetrie.
Mit einem COLTRIMS Reaktions-Mikroskop wurde die Doppelionisation von Argon durch Laserpulse gemessen, um die Energiequantisierung im Allgemeinen und den Recollision Mechanismus zu untersuchen. Mit der Abhängigkeit der Doppelionisationsrate von der Elliptizität des Lichts liegt ein starker Hinweis auf ein Modell vor, welches Rescattering beinhaltet. Außerdem ist durch die Messung der Doppelionisationsrate gewährleistet, dass in einem Intensitätsintervall gemessen wurde, welches der nicht-sequentiellen Doppelionisation zugeschrieben wird.
Recollision-Ionization scheint für die in einem bestimmten Intensitätsintervall beobachtete erhöhte Doppelionisation verantwortlich zu sein. Das sollte zu ATI-Peaks in der Summenenergie der ausgelösten Elektronen führen. Diese werden in der vorliegenden Arbeit erstmalig beobachtet. Außerdem sind nicht erwartete ATI-Peaks im Energiespektrum der einzelnen Elektronen sichtbar, welche der direkten Stoßionisation widersprechen.
Dadurch liegt der Schluss nahe, dass der Hauptmechanismus der Doppelionisation in diesem Intensitätsbereich ein anderer Effekt ist: RESI (Recollision Excitation and Subsequent Ionization). Hierbei wird zunächst das zweite Elektron beim Stoß mit dem ersten angeregt. Das erste Elektron bleibt im Kontinuum und wird durch den Laser beschleunigt. Beim nächsten Feldmaximum wird das angeregte Elektron tunnelionisiert, wodurch ebenfalls ATI-Peaks im Energiespektrum dieses Elektrons erzeugt werden.
Als mögliche Zwischenzustände werden 3s23p4(1D)4s (2D) und 3s23p4(1D)3d (2P) identifiziert, die zu dem beobachteten angeregten Endzustand 3s23p4(1D) führen.
Im Jahr 1960 gelang es Theodore Mainman einen funktionierenden Laser zu bauen. Die Entwicklung dieser Technik war seitdem rasant. Im Alltag ist der LASER heute genausowenig wegzudenken wie in weiten Teilen der Forschung und Medizin. Er findet Anwendung in der Datentechnik (z.B. bei CDs und DVDs), hilft, Augenschäden zu heilen und hat natürlich auch weitreichende Bedeutung in der Physik. Besonders ultrakurze Pulse und hohe Energiedichten werden hierbei benötigt. Um hohe Energiedichten zu erreichen, müssen oft Verstärker (englisch: amplifier) benutzt werden. Häufig verwendet wird hierbei ein Aufbau, bestehend aus einem Stretcher, der schon bestehende Pulse zeitlich streckt, um Beschädigungen an optischen Geräten zu vermeiden, einem verstärkenden Medium, in dem der Puls durch stimulierte Emission verstärkt wird, und einem anschließenden Kompressor, der den Puls zeitlich wieder komprimiert. Hierbei kann man aber nur einen bestehenden Puls verstärken und nicht die zentrale Wellenlänge ändern. Gerade diese Art Verstärker wird jedoch in vielen Bereichen benötigt, in denen man infrarotes Licht mit durchstimmbarer Wellenlänge haben möchte. Eine Möglichkeit, dies zu erreichen, stellt der optisch-parametrische Verstärker dar. Eben dieser wird in der folgenden Arbeit behandelt und näher beschrieben.
This work is dedicated to the study of the vector and axial vector spectral functions of the τ lepton within the framework of a U(2)L × U(2)R Linear Sigma Model with electroweak interaction. As an effective field theory the Linear Sigma Model describes hadronic degrees of freedom based on the symmetries of the Standard Model. Therefore, the following section aims at giving a very general and concise introduction to the Standard Model and the meaning of symmetries for contemporary elementary particle physics. In the next section the SU(3)C symmetry group will be discussed in short, followed by an introduction to chiral symmetry SU(2)L × SU(2)R. In the last section of this chapter the Glashow-Weinberg-Salam theory of the local group SU(2)L × U(1)Y is presented. Important concepts of the theoretical framework of the Standard Model, such as the Noether Theorem, the Gauge Principle, Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking, and the Higgs Mechanism will be introduced in the context of these three symmetry groups. In Chapter 2 it will be first shown how the symmetries of the Standard Model are realised within the global U(2)L × U(2)R Linear Sigma Model and how electroweak interactions can be introduced to the model on the basis of local SU(2)L × U(1)Y symmetry transformations of the hadronic degrees of freedom. The vertices that are relevant for the vector and axial vector decay channels in weak τ decay are extracted from the Lagrangian with electroweak interaction in Chapter 3. This is followed by a short introduction to the Källen-Lehmann Representation of spectral functions and how these can be parametrised within the framework of this model (Chapter 4). The results of the vector and axial vector spectral functions are presented in Chapter 5 and 6.
Pion-Pion-Streuung in einem geeichten linearen Sigma-Modell mit chiraler U(2)R × U(2)L-Symmetrie
(2006)
Das Thema der vorliegenden Arbeit waren die leichten skalaren und vektoriellen Mesonen, die in einem chiral symmetrischen SU(2)-Modell zusammengefasst wurden; aufgrund der sich daraus ergebenden Lagrange-Dichte wurde die Streuamplitude für die Pion-Pion-Streuung im Vakuum berechnet, was sodann die Berechnung der s-Wellen-Streulängen an der Schwelle im Vakuum erlaubte.