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Standard biorelevant media reflect the average gastrointestinal (GI) physiology in healthy volunteers. The use of biorelevant media in in vitro experiments has become an important strategy to predict drug behaviour in vivo and is often combined with in silico tools in order to simulate drug plasma profiles over time. In addition to the healthy population, the effects of disease state or co-administration of other drugs on plasma profiles must be considered to assure drug efficacy and safety. Thus, there is a need for a more accurate representation of the human GI physiology when it is altered by disease or co-administered drugs in in vitro dissolution experiments.
This thesis focused on the development of biorelevant media and dissolution tests reflecting GI physiology in circumstances where the gastric pH is elevated. Diseases linked to an elevated gastric pH are hypochlorhydria and achlorhydria, but these days treatment with acid-reducing agents (ARAs) is the single greatest cause of elevation in gastric pH. pH-dependent drug-drug interactions (DDIs) with ARAs are frequent, as the ARAs are used in a number of diseases using a variety of drugs. As the drugs currently on the market are often poorly soluble and ionisable, their dissolution is highly dependent on the pH of the GI tract, especially the gastric pH.
The thesis research consisted of several steps. In the first step, physiological changes in the human GI tract during the therapy with ARAs were identified. Parameters of the standard biorelevant gastric medium FaSSGF were adjusted to the identified changes to reflect the impact of ARA co-administration on the gastric physiology. The media aim to assess the potential extent of the ARA impact on gastric physiology by introducing biorelevant media pairs, ARA pH 4 and pH 6 media, of which one reflects a lesser, and the other a stronger impact of ARAs.
In the second step these ARA media were implemented in in vitro dissolution set-ups.
The dissolution of poorly soluble ionisable drugs was assessed using one-stage, two-stage and transfer model set-ups, as well as using a more evolved in vitro system TIM-1. Comparison of results from dissolution set-ups using the standard, low pH, gastric biorelevant medium FaSSGF (pH 1.6 or 2), and the same set-ups using ARA pH 4 and pH 6 media, shows a decrease in dissolution rate and extent for weakly basic compounds PSWB 001 and dipyridamole, and an increase in rate and extent of dissolution for the weakly acidic compound raltegravir potassium, when the gastric pH is elevated. Due to different physicochemical properties, the extent of the impact of physiological changes during ARA therapy (when either ARA pH 4 or pH 6 medium is selected) on dissolution varied among the model drugs. Thus, the bracketing approach, which considers a range of the possible ARA co-administration impact on drug dissolution, was confirmed to be best practice in assessing the impact of ARAs.
In the third step, dissolution data from in vitro experiments with ARA media was implemented into in silico models. The predictions using various in silico model approaches in Simcyp™ Simulator (minimal and full PBPK model, dissolution input using DRM and DLM) successfully bracketed in vivo data on drug administration during ARA therapy and correctly predicted an overall decrease in plasma concentration for the two model weakly basic compounds and an increase in plasma concertation for the model weakly acidic compound.
In all assessed scenarios, the ARA methods proved to be an essential part of evaluating and predicting the impact of ARAs on drug pharmacokinetics, and appropriately predicted the extent of a possible impact of ARAs on the drug plasma profiles. Thus, the ARA biorelevant media and dissolution tests were demonstrated to be valuable tools reflecting administration of drugs when the gastric pH is elevated and able to predict the impact of ARA therapy on drug administration.
The ability to evaluate the impact of human (patho) physioloy on drug behaviour in the gastrointestinal tract is of great importance, as the GI conditions play a significant role in drug release and absorption. Thus, there is great interest on the part of the pharmaceutical industry and regulatory agencies to develop best practices in this field, especially for pH-dependent DDIs. The media and dissolution tests developed in this thesis are biorelevant methods appropriate for evaluation of the impact of elevated gastric pH on drug efficacy and safety. Such methods, used as a risk assessment tool, in connection with evaluation of the efficacy window and potential toxicity, may help to increase confidence about decisions as to whether a pH-effect will occur and whether it is relevant or not, prior to conducting clinical studies. They may also enable changes in inclusion/exclusion criteria during recruiting for large-scale efficacy trials. In fact, the biopharmaceutic approach to drug development is becoming standard practice on a number of fronts, including metabolic DDIs, renal and hepatic insufficiency, powering decision-making process and possibly even waiving certain types of clinical studies.
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Resistant microbes are a growing concern. It was estimated that about 33,000 of people die because of the infections caused by multidrug resistant bacteria each year in Europe (ECDC, 2018, https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/). Bacteria can acquire resistance against toxic compounds via different mechanisms and intrinsic active efflux is one of the first mechanisms deployed by bacterial cells. The membrane-localized efflux pumps catalysing this reaction, extract toxic compounds from the interior of the cell and transport these to the outside, thereby maintaining sub-lethal toxin levels in the cytoplasm, periplasm and membranes. Gram-negative three-component efflux pumps, analysed in this study, are composed of an inner membrane protein, a member of the Resistance-Nodulation cell Division (RND) superfamily, an Outer Membrane Factor (OMF) protein and a Membrane Fusion Protein (MFP) that connects the two afore mentioned components into an active efflux pump. The pumps described in this work, AcrAB-TolC and EmrAB-TolC, are drug efflux pumps belonging to the RND and MFS superfamilies, respectively, while CusCBA is an efflux pump that belongs to the RND heavy metal efflux family. Another efflux pump that was used as a model for the design of an in vitro assay for the silver ion transport studies, CopA, belongs to the P-type ATPase superfamily. All pumps analysed in this study are part of the resistance system of Escherichia coli, which is a highly clinically relevant pathogen.
In order to examine the AcrAB-TolC, CopA and CusA efflux pumps, the individual components were separately produced in E. coli, purified to monodispersity and reconstituted in large unilamellar vesicles, LUVs. Means for the optimized production and adequate conditions for efficient reconstitution were presented in this study. The activity of AcrB in LUVs was detected using fluorescence quenching of the dye 8-hydroxy-1,3,6 pyrenetrisulfonate (pyranine), which is incorporated inside the proteoliposomes and is sensitive to the pH changes in its surrounding. The inactive AcrB variant with a substitution in the proton relay network, D407N, showed no activity in proteoliposomes, which correlates with the measurements done in empty liposomes. When AcrA was co-reconstituted with AcrB D407N proteoliposomes it did not restore protein activity. To test the assembly of the AcrAB-TolC pump out of its single components, an in vitro assay was established where the complex assembly was tested with AcrAB- and TolC-containing liposomes. These experiments showed putative AcrAB-TolC formation in the presence or absence of a pump substrate, taurocholate, as well as in the presence of the pump inhibitor, MBX3132. The assembly appeared stable over time and results were invariant in the presence or absence of a pH gradient across the AcrAB-containing membrane.
After determination of the ATPase activity of the P-type ATPase, CopA, in detergent micelles, the protein was reconstituted in LUVs. Quenching of the Ag+-sensitive dye Phen Green SK (PGSK), present on the inside of the CopA-containing proteoliposomes, was observed in presence of ATP and Ag+. Under the same conditions, but in absence of Ag+-ions, quenching was reduced by 80 % after 300 seconds. No PGSK-quenching was observed in control liposomes in the presence of ATP and Ag+. The additional presence of sodium azide led to minimal reduction of the PGSK-quenching as expected since sodium azide is not an inhibitor of P-type ATPases, but the quenching rate was similar to that of the same experimental condition with control liposomes.
The RND superfamily member CusA, as part of the tripartite CusCBA efflux pump, has been proposed to sequester Ag+ or Cu+ from either the cytoplasmic or periplasmic side of the inner membrane. The periplasmic transport of silver ions was implied from an in vitro assay where the quenching of a pH sensitive dye, 9-amino-6-chloro-2-methoxyacridine (ACMA), indicates acidification of the lumen of the proteoliposomes containing CusA when an inwardly directed pH was imposed. The same experiment with the CusA D405N variant, which was previously reported to be an inactive variant, also led to ACMA quenching, although at a slightly lower rate. Under application of an inwardly directed pH and a (negative inside), CusA-containing proteoliposomes showed a strong quenching of the incorporated PGSK dye, suggesting strong Ag+ influx.
The Major Facilitator Superfamily-(MFS-) type EmrAB-TolC pump has an analogous structural setup as the RND-type AcrAB-TolC pump. To examine the efflux of one of its substrates, carbonyl - cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP), a plate-based susceptibility assay was used. The presence of the EmrAB-TolC pump confers lower susceptibility levels towards CCCP in E. coli, compared to cells not expressing the pump or cells expressing only the MFS component, indicating that EmrAB-TolC extrudes CCCP.
The work done in this study opens up a path towards investigation of drug and metal resistance in vitro. The methodologies to obtain proteoliposomal samples of multicomponent efflux pumps and subsequent measurements of drug/metal ion and H+ fluxes, as well as the determination of pump assembly are crucial for the future research on pump catalysis and transport kinetics. The in vivo drug-plate assays done in this work provide initial insights for future investigations of the drug susceptibility of E. coli expressing the MFS-type tripartite efflux pumps.
Terahertz (THz) technology is an emerging field that considers the radiation between microwave and far-infrared regions where the electronic and photonic technologies merge. THz generation and THz sensing technologies should fill the gap between photonics and electronics which is defined as a region where THz generation power and THz sensing capabilities are at a low technology readiness level (TRL). As one of the options for THz detection technology, field-effect transistors with integrated antennae were suggested to be used as THz detectors in the 1990s by M. Dyakonov and M. Shur from where the development of field-effect transistor-based detector began. In this work, various FET technologies are presented, such as CMOS, AlGaN/GaN, and graphene-based material systems and their further sensitivity enhancement in order to reach the performance of well-developed Schottky diode-based THz sensing technology. Here presented FET-based detectors were explored in a wide frequency range from 0.1 THz up to 5 THz in narrowband and broadband configurations.
For proper implementation of THz detectors, the well-defined characterization is of high importance. Therefore, this work overviews the characterization methods, establishes various definitions of detector parameters, and summarizes the state-of-the-art THz detectors. The electrical, optical, and cryogenic characterization techniques are also presented here, as well as the best results obtained by the development of the characterization methods, namely graphene FET stabilization, low-power THz source characterization for detector calibration, and technology development for cryogenic detection.
Following the discussion about the detector characterization, a wide range of THz applications, which were tested during the last four years of Ph.D. and conducted under the ITN CELTA project from HORIZON2020 program, are presented in this work. The studies began with spectroscopy applications and imaging and later developed towards hyperspectral imaging and even passive imaging of human body THz radiation. As various options for THz applications, single-pixel detectors as well as multi-pixel arrays are also covered in this work.
The conducted research shows that FET-based detectors can be used for spectroscopy applications or be easily adapted for the relevant frequency range. State-of-the-art detectors considered in this work reach the resonant performance below 20 pW/√Hz at 0.3 THz and 0.5 THz, as well as 404 pW/√Hz cross-sectional NEP at 4.75 THz. The broadband detectors show NEP as low as 25 pW/√Hz at around 0.6 THz for the best AlGaN/GaN design and 25 pW/√Hz around 1 THz for the best CMOS design. As one of the most promising applications, metamaterial characterization was tested using the most sensitive devices. Furthermore, one of the single-pixel devices and a multi-pixel array were tested as an engineering solution for a radio astronomy system called GREAT in a stratosphere observatory named SOFIA. The exploration of the autocorrelation technique using FET-based devices shows the opportunity to employ such detectors for direct detection of THz pulses without an interferometric measurement setup.
This work also considers imaging applications, which include near-field and far-field visualization solutions. A considerable milestone for the theory of FET technology was achieved when scanning near-field microscopy led to the visualization of plasma (or carrier density) waves in a graphene FET channel. Whereas another important milestone for the THz technology was achieved when a 3D scan of a mobile phone was performed under the far-field imaging mode. Even though the imaging was done through the phone’s plastic cover, the image displayed high accuracy and good feature recognition of the smartphone, inching the FET-based detector technology ever so close to practical security applications. In parallel, the multi-pixel array testing was carried out on 6x7 pixel arrays that have been implemented in configurable-size aperture and imaging configurations. The configurable aperture size allowed the easier detector focusing procedure and a better fit for the beam size of the incident radiation. The imaging has been tested on various THz sources and compared to the TeraSense 16x16 pixel array. The experimental results show the big advantage of the developed multi-pixel array against the used commercial technology.
Furthermore, two ultra-low-power applications have been successfully tested. The application on hyper-frequency THz imaging tested in the specially developed dual frequency comb and our detector system for 300 GHz radiation with 9 spectral lines led to outstanding imaging results on various materials. The passive imaging of human body radiation was conducted using the most sensitive broadband CMOS detector with a log-spiral antenna working in the 0.1 – 1.5 THz range and reaching the optical NEP of 42 pW/√Hz. The NETD of this device reaches 2.1 K and overcomes the performance limit of passive room-temperature imaging of the human body radiation, which was less than 10 K above the room temperature. This experiment opened a completely new field that was explored before only by the multiplier chain-based or thermal detectors.
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Das kolorektale Karzinom stellt die zweithäufigste Krebstodesursache bei Männern und Frauen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland dar
Das CRC hat aus diesem Grund eine große Bedeutung in chirurgischen und radiologischen Fachgebieten. Hierbei spielen zahlreiche Verfahren und Behandlungsmethoden eine zentrale Rolle, um das CRC und die hiervon ausgehenden kolorektalen Lebermetastasen zu behandeln und eine bestmögliche Therapie zu evaluieren. Über die letzten Jahrzehnte haben sich daher viele verschiedene Methoden für die Behandlung von CRLMs entwickelt, wie Mikrowellenablation (MWA), laserinduzierte interstitielle Thermotherapie (LITT), Radiofrequenzablation (RFA) und das chirurgische Vorgehen. Die vielversprechendste unter den Techniken und Verfahren stellt die chirurgische Resektion dar. Problematisch ist hierbei, dass viele erkrankte Patienten keine ausreichend gute körperliche Verfassung mehr aufweisen, um eine Resektion ohne große Risiken durchführen zu können.
Das Hauptziel dieser Studie war es nun, eine möglichst genaue und
aussagekräftige Untersuchung von Patientengruppen durchzuführen, bei denen eine kolorektale Lebermetastase diagnostiziert wurde. In der vorliegenden Studie wurden 132 Patienten mit kolorektalen Lebermetastasen (CRLM) untersucht, welche zwischen 2010 und 2018 mit einer CT-gesteuerten MWA-Therapie im Institut für Diagnostische und Interventionelle Radiologie des Universitätsklinikums in Frankfurt am Main behandelt wurden. Hierbei war von besonderer Bedeutung, welche prognostischen Parameter die Überlebenszeiten und Überlebensraten beeinflussen. Die Daten konnten anhand von vielfältigen Personendaten und den dazugehörigen Therapieverläufen erhoben werden. Außerdem wurden CT-Bilder, welche im Zuge der Behandlung entstanden waren, für die Erhebung zusätzlicher Parameter verwendet. Die erhobenen Daten und Messwerte wurden retrospektiv ermittelt und umfassten eine große Patientengruppe. Dies steigert die Aussagekraft der Ergebnisse und Kennzahlen wesentlich. Ein besonderes Augenmerk lag auf der Einteilung der Patienten in zwei Gruppen entsprechend ihrer Behandlungsindikation.
Zu den prognostischen Faktoren zählten das Ablationssystem, die Lokation der Metastasen, die Anzahl der Metastasen, der technische Erfolg, die Energie und Leistung, der Durchmesser und das Volumen der Metastasen, die Vor- und Nachbehandlung und die Lokalrezidive.
Die Patientengruppe mit palliativer Therapieindikation (1.08 Jahre) zeigte eine signifikant geringere mediane Überlebenszeit im Vergleich mit der kurativen Patientengruppe (3.48 Jahre). Die mediane Überlebenszeit aller Patienten betrug insgesamt 2.68 Jahre. Zusätzlich wurden die Überlebensraten der Patienten ermittelt. Die 1- und 3-Jahres-Überlebensraten aller behandelten Patienten im Untersuchungszeitraum lagen bei 82.7% und 41.6%. Die 1- und 3-JahresÜberlebensraten der 57 Patienten mit palliativer Behandlungsindikation waren 54.4% und 14.9%. Im Vergleich hierzu betrugen die 1- und 3-JahresÜberlebensraten der kurativ behandelten Patientengruppe 96.9% und 55.1%. Die mediane Beobachtungszeit nach der Behandlung betrug 2.39 Jahre. In dieser Zeit erreichten 96.2% aller Patienten eine lokale Tumorkontrolle (127/132). Die Überlebenszeit von Patienten mit einer, zwei oder drei, vier oder fünf und multiplen Lebermetastasen betrug 3.79, 2.13, 1.09 und 0.93 Jahre (alle p<0,017). Es gab eine einzige relevante Komplikation (Abszess) bei allen Behandlungen (1/257; 0,4%). Alle Unterschiede der Überlebenszeiten im primären Tumorursprung (p <0,038) und bei der Anzahl der Metastasen waren signifikant. Die anderen prognostischen Faktoren zeigten keine statistische Signifikanz. Prognostische Faktoren wie die Anzahl der Lebermetastasen, die Lokation des Primärtumors und das verwendete Ablationssystem haben einen bedeutenden Einfluss auf die Überlebenszeiten der CRLM-Patienten in dieser Studie gezeigt. Die Ergebnisse dieser Studie sind als vornehmlich anzusehen, weil eine strenge Zuteilung der Patienten in kurative und palliative Behandlungsindikationen für die Analyse der Überlebensdaten in dieser Form bis zu diesem Zeitpunkt nicht durchgeführt worden war.
Die Prognosefaktoren und deren Einfluss auf die Überlebenszeiten stellen für zukünftige radiologische Prognosen und Therapiemaßnahmen in Bezug auf CRLM Patienten gute Richtwerte dar. Sowohl für die Radiologen und Ärzte als auch für die Patienten und Angehörigen sind dies zukunftsweisende Anhaltspunkte.
Plastics contain a complex mixture of chemicals including polymers, additives, starting substances and side-products of processing. These plastic chemicals are prone to leach into the packaged goods, in the case of food contact materials (FCMs), or into the natural environment, in the case of plastic debris. Thus, plastics represent an exposure source of chemicals for humans and wildlife alike. While it is widely known that individual plastic chemicals, such as bisphenol A and phthalates, are hazardous, little is known on the overall chemical composition and toxicity of plastics. When fragmented into smaller particles, referred to as microplastics (< 5 mm), the plastic itself can be ingested by many species. It is well established that microplastic ingestion can have negative consequences for a wide range of organisms including invertebrates, but the contribution of plastic chemicals to the toxicity of microplastics is unclear.
Given the above, the present thesis aimed at a comprehensive toxicological, ecotoxicological and chemical characterization of everyday plastics. For a comparative evaluation, 77 plastic products were selected covering 16 material types (e.g., polyethylene) made from petroleum or renewable feedstocks. These products included biodegradable products, FCMs and non-FCMs, as well as raw materials and final products, respectively. In the first two studies, the chemical mixtures contained in the 77 products were extracted with methanol and extracts were analyzed in a set of four in vitro bioassays and by non-target high-resolution gas or liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. Since an exposure only occurs if chemicals actually leach under realistic conditions, in a third study migration experiments with water were conducted for 24 out of the 77 products. The aqueous migrates were assessed in the same way as the methanolic extracts. In addition, the freshwater invertebrate Daphnia magna was exposed chronically to microplastics made of polyvinylchloride (PVC), polyurethane (PUR) and polylactic acid (PLA) to investigate the contribution of chemicals in microplastic toxicity, in a fourth study.
The experimental findings demonstrate that a wide variety of chemicals is present in plastics. A single plastic product can contain up to several thousand chemical features, most of which unique to that product and at the same time unknown. The results also indicate that the majority of these chemical mixtures are toxic in vitro. Accordingly, 65% of the plastic extracts induced baseline toxicity and 42% an oxidative stress response, while 25% had an antiandrogenic and 6% an estrogenic activity. This implies that chemicals causing unspecific toxicity are more prevalent in plastics than such with endocrine effects. These chemicals can also leach from plastics under realistic conditions. Between 17 and 8936 chemical features were detected in a single migrate sample and all 24 tested migrates induced in vitro toxicity. This means that humans and wildlife can actually be exposed to toxic plastic chemicals under realistic conditions. Generally, each product has its individual toxicological and chemical fingerprint. Thus, neither material type, feedstock, biodegradability nor the food contact suitability of a product can serve as a predictor for the toxicity, the chemical composition or complexity of a product. Likewise, this means that bio-based and biodegradable materials are not superior to their petroleum-based counterparts from a toxicological perspective despite being promoted as sustainable alternatives to conventional plastics.
Moreover, the present thesis demonstrates that plastic chemicals can be the main driver for microplastic toxicity. Irregular microplastics made of PVC, PUR and PLA adversely affected life-history traits of D. magna in a polymer type- and endpoint-dependent manner at concentrations between 100 and 500 mg L-1 and with a higher efficiency than natural kaolin particles. While the toxicity of PVC was triggered by the chemicals used in the material, the effects of PUR and PLA were induced by the physical properties of the particle.
In addition, in the fifth study, results and observations made during this thesis were integrated inter- and transdisciplinarily with the perspectives of a social scientist and a product manufacturer. This elucidated that knowledge on plastic ingredients is often concealed, is lacking or not applicable in practice. These intransparencies hinder the safety evaluation of plastic products as well as the choice and sale of the least toxic packaging material.
Overall, the present thesis highlights that the chemical safety of plastics and their bio-based and biodegradable alternatives is currently not ensured. Thus, chemicals require more consideration in the toxicity and risk assessment of plastics and microplastics. Product-specific and complex chemical compositions, including unknown compounds, pose a challenge here. Two essential steps towards non-toxic products are to increase transparency along the product life cycle and to reduce the chemical complexity of plastics by communication and regulation. The results of the present thesis indicate that products exist which do not contain toxic chemicals. These can serve to direct the design of safer plastics. Since toxicity and chemical complexity seem to increase with processing, the integration of toxicity testing during the production steps would further support the safe and sustainable production and use of plastic products.
Hintergrund: Seit mehr als 50 Jahren werden in Deutschland Herzschrittmacher-Implantationen durchgeführt, mittlerweile mit mehr als 100.000 Implantationen pro Jahr. Obwohl es sich um einen gängigen Eingriff handelt, existieren wenig prospektiv randomisierte Studien zu technischen Aspekten der Implantation, insbesondere dem Wundverschluss am Ende der Operation. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, an einem Kollektiv von Patienten unerwünschte Ereignisse und kosmetische Ergebnisse, in Abhängigkeit des beim Hautverschluss verwendeten Nahtmaterials (resorbierbarer bzw. nicht-resorbierbarer Faden), miteinander zu vergleichen.
Methoden: In einem Zeitraum von Juli 2018 bis April 2019 wurden Patienten mit geplanter de novo Herzschrittmacher-Implantation ohne Defibrillationstherapie prospektiv in die Studie eingeschlossen und anhand einer Randomisierungliste in zwei Probandengruppen eingeteilt: nicht-resorbierbares Nahtmaterial (Gruppe Prolene®) bzw. resorbierbares Nahtmaterial (Gruppe Monocryl®).
Ein Tag (Beobachtungszeitpunkt 1), sechs Wochen (Beobachtungszeitpunkt 2) und ein Jahr post-OP (Beobachtungszeitpunkt 3) erfolgte die Beurteilung der Narbe bezüglich des kosmetischen Ergebnisses und klinisch relevanter, unerwünschter Ereignisse. Zur kosmetischen Beurteilung diente die Wundbreite in mm, eine auftretende Kelloidbildung und die „Patient and Observer Scar Assessment Scale“ (POSA-Score). Dieser wurde zu Beobachtungszeitpunkt 1 seitens des Patienten auf zwei Fragen (Schmerzhaftigkeit, Juckreiz) reduziert. Die erhobenen klinisch relevanten Parameter waren Nachblutungen, Infektionen, Insuffizienz der Naht und Revisions-OP aufgrund eines Lokalbefundes.
Ergebnisse: Es konnten 114 Patienten in die Studie eingeschlossen werden. Zu Beobachtungszeitpunkt 2 und Beobachtungszeitpunkt 3 belief sich die Anzahl auf jeweils 92 Probanden. Zu allen drei Beobachtungszeitpunkten konnte zwischen beiden Gruppen weder ein signifikanter Unterschied im kosmetischen Ergebnis noch im Auftreten klinisch relevanter Ereignisse festgestellt werden.
Schlussfolgerung: Anhand der vorliegenden Studie scheint das verwendete Nahtmaterial keinen großen Einfluss auf das kosmetische Ergebnis der Narbe, sowie auf das Auftreten von unerwünschten Ereignissen zu haben. Eine multizentrische prospektiv randomisierte Studie mit größerer Patientenanzahl ist notwendig, um die hier erhobenen Daten zu verifizieren.
Im EU-Projekt „Regulatory Control Networks of Synthetic Lethality“ (SYNLET) wurden durch Vergleich der Genexpressionsprofile auf Transkriptionsebene von parentalen sensitiven Neuroblastom-Zelllinien und ihren Vincristin-resistenten Sublinien bioinformatisch 40 Kandidatengene ermittelt, die für Vincristin-Resistenz und damit Zellüberleben essentiell sein könnten. Diese Kandidatengene wurden im Rahmen dieser Dissertation einzeln in Neuroblastomzellen der Vincristin-resistenten Sublinie UKF-NB-2rVCR20 herunterreguliert durch Transfektion (Elektroporation) von small interfering RNAs (siRNAs; knock down). Anschließend wurden die Zellen ohne und mit verschiedenen Vincristin-Konzentrationen auf Zellviabilitätsveränderungen getestet. Beim Kandidatengen mit den niedrigsten Zellviabilitäten (SMARCC1) wurde ein Western Blot gemacht, um die Herunterregulierung zu bestätigen. Zu Beginn wurde das effektivste Programm zur Elektroporation der UKF-NB-2rVCR20-Zellen durch eine Transfektionsoptimierung ermittelt. Alle Kandidatengene wurden 2x transfiziert, bei unklaren oder besonders interessanten Ergebnissen auch 3x. Als positive Kontrolle wurde der ABC-Transporter MDR1 herunterreguliert, da hier die Auswirkungen auf die Resistenz gegen Vincristin bekannt sind. Bei 10 von 40 Kandidatengenen waren die Zellviabilitäten ohne Vincristin und/oder bei mindestens einer Vincristin-Konzentration extrem verändert (FOXJ1, MAP2K1, NFYB, RICS, SMARCA1, SMARCB1, SMARCC1, STK35, TOCA1 und TPM2). Das entspricht einem Prozentsatz von 25 % Kandidatengenen, bei denen die bioinformatisch vorhergesagte Wirkung in vitro bestätigt werden konnte. Allerdings sind bei diesen 10 effektiven Kandidatengenen auch 2 Gene dabei, nach deren Herunterregulierung es zu einer erhöhten Zellviabilität kam (FOXJ1 und RICS). Bei der Frage, welche Gene das Absterben der Tumorzellen beschleunigen und als ein mögliches Therapieziel in Frage kommen könnten, bleiben also 8 Kandidatengene (20 % aller Kandidatengene). Das interessanteste Kandidatengen ist SMARCC1, da die Herunterregulierung alleine (ohne Zugabe von Vincristin) zu einer massiven Abnahme der Zellviabilität führte. Damit stellt SMARCC1 ein interessantes Ziel zur Therapie in Tumorzellen dar.
This dissertation analyses the degrees and trajectories of financialisation in the region of South-Eastern Europe. It modifies and applies an eclectic comparative framework for comparing the degrees of financialisation across time and space on different levels. The thesis finds that from the turn of the century until the Great Financial Crisis of 2008, most South-Eastern European countries have increased their degree of financialisation on the different levels, especially on the levels of household, international financialisation and partly the financial sector. Financialisation of non-financial companies is barely existing. After the financial crisis, financialisation is revealed to stagnate in the region. In a second step, the dissertation conducts three case studies on extreme cases: financial sector financialisation in Bulgaria, international financialisation in Serbia and non-financial company and household financialisation in Croatia. Their trajectories are exposed to be mainly driven by deregulation, changed practices by foreign banks, the privatisation of public goods and the liberation of capital controls. The dissertation serves to geographically enlarge the research of financialisation to a peripheral region of the Global North and to add to the discussion on comparative financialisation approaches.
The role of orthographic knowledge for reading performance in German elementary school children
(2021)
Reading is crucial for successful participation in the modern world. However, 3-8% (e.g., Moll et al., 2014) of children in elementary school age show reading difficulties, which can lead to limited education and enhance risks of social and financial disadvantages (Valtin, 2017). Therefore, it is important to identify reading relevant components (Tippelt & Schmidt-Hertha, 2018). In this context, especially phonological awareness (i.e., awareness of the sound structure of the language) and naming speed (i.e., fast and automatized retrieval of information) were identified as significant components for reading skills (e.g., Georgiou et al., 2012; Landerl & Thaler, 2006; Vellutino, Fletcher, Snowling, & Scanlon, 2004). One further component, which is of growing interest to the recent research, is orthographic knowledge. It comprises the knowledge about the spelling of specific words (word-specific orthographic knowledge) and about legal letter patterns (general orthographic knowledge; Apel, 2011).
Previous research focused predominantly on examining the role of orthographic knowledge on basic reading level, including word identification and word meaning (Conrad et al., 2013; Rothe et al., 2015). The relationship between orthographic knowledge and reading comprehension as the core objective of reading, including understanding of the relationship between words within a sentence as well as building a coherence between sentences (Perfetti et al., 2005), was on the contrary scarcely the object of research. The first goal of this dissertation is, therefore, to provide a remedy by investigating the role of orthographic knowledge on higher reading processes (sentence- and text-level). The scarce body of research investigating children with reading difficulties provide a mixed result pattern (e.g., Ise et al., 2014). Therefore, this dissertation aims at clarifying the influence of orthographic knowledge on word-, sentence-, and text-level in children without and with reading difficulties.
A thorough understanding of reading relevant components is also important for conception of interventions aiming at individual reading performance improvements in order to prevent school failure. One promising approach to help children to overcome their reading difficulties is a text-fading based reading training. During this procedure, reading material is faded out letter by letter in reading direction (i.e., in German from left to right; Breznitz & Nevat, 2006). The aim of this manipulation is to prompt the individual to read faster than usual, resulting in reading rate and comprehension improvements (e.g., Nagler et al., 2015). However, the underlying mechanisms leading to improvements of reading performance are still unclear. Considering previous findings showing orthographic skills to influence training outcomes (Berninger et al., 1999), and also word reading performance after a reading intervention (Stage et al., 2003), it seems plausible to include orthographic knowledge when investigating potential training effects. Therefore, this dissertation aims at investigating the predictive value of orthographic knowledge for comprehension performance during the text-fading based reading training.
In order to answer the first research question, two empirical papers are implemented (see Appendix A: Zarić et al., 2020 and Appendix B: Zarić & Nagler, 2021), which investigate the role of orthographic knowledge for reading at word-, sentence-, and text-level in German school children without and with reading difficulties. The study by Zarić et al. (2020) examines the incremental predictive value for explained reading variance of both word-specific and general orthographic knowledge in relation to variance amount explained by general intelligence and phonological awareness. For this purpose, data from 66 German third-graders without reading difficulties were analyzed. Correlation and multiple regression analyses have shown that word-specific and general orthographic knowledge contribute a unique significant amount to the variance of reading comprehension on word-, sentence-, and text-level, over and above the explained variance by general intelligence and phonological awareness. In order to answer the question whether word-specific and general orthographic knowledge also explain variance in children with poor reading proficiency, in addition to established predictors phonological awareness and naming speed, the data from 103 German third-graders with reading difficulties were analyzed in a second study (Zarić & Nagler, 2021). The analyses revealed that word-specific and general orthographic knowledge explain a unique significant amount of the variance of reading on word- and sentence-level. On text-level, these two components did not explain a significant amount of unique variance. Here, only phonological awareness was shown to be a significant predictor. The results indicate that the knowledge about the spelling of specific words (word-specific orthographic knowledge) and the knowledge about legal letter patterns (general orthographic knowledge) contribute to reading comprehension on word-level. Following the assumptions, for instance, of the Lexical Quality Hypothesis (Perfetti & Hart, 2002) high-quality orthographic representations are considered to be important for higher reading processes, such as comprehension.
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B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (B-ALL) is characterized by the overproduction of lymphoblasts in the bone marrow (BM), and it is the most common cancer in children while being comparatively uncommon in adults. On the other hand, in chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML), 70% of cases are found in patients older than 50 years, making it uncommon in children. All CML cases and up to 3% of paediatric B- ALL (and 25% of adult B-ALL) cases are due to fusion gene BCR-ABL1, which gives rise to the cytoplasmatic, constitutively active oncoprotein, tyrosine kinase BCR-ABL1 through a reciprocal translocation between chromosomes 9 and 22. The constitutively active BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase leads to deregulation of different signal transduction pathways such as cell growth, proliferation and cell survival. The role of the bone marrow microenvironment (BMM) can mediate disease initiation (only in mice), progression, therapy resistance, and relapse, as has been increasingly recognized over the last two decades. In general, the BMM is a very complex arrangement of various cell types such as osteoblasts, osteoclasts, endothelial cells, adipocytes, mesenchymal stromal cells, macrophages and several others. In addition, the BMM is composed of multiple chemical and mechanical factors and extra cellular matrix (ECM) proteins which contribute to the BMM’s features influencing leukaemia behaviour. Considering the incidence of B-ALL and CML in children and in adults respectively, we hypothesized that the young and/or an aged BMM might also play a previously unrecognized role in the aggressiveness of B-ALL and CML. We proposed that BM, transduced with BCR-ABL1-expressing retrovirus in the murine transduction/transplantation model of B-ALL, transplanted into young versus old recipient mice would lead to a more aggressive disease in young mice, and similarly CML would be more aggressive in old recipient mice. In close recapitulation with the human incidence, induction of CML led to a significantly shorted survival in old recipient mice. On the other hand, induction of B-ALL showed a shortened survival in young compared to old syngeneic mice, as well as in a xenotransplantation model. Among the highly heterogenous composition of the BMM, we implicate young BM macrophages as a supportive niche for B-ALL cells. The results were found to be mostly due to potential soluble factors differentially secreted from young and old macrophages. Therefore, we hypothesized that the chemokine CXCL13, which has been demonstrated to play a role in B cell migration and act as a diagnostic marker in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with neuroborreliosis, might be responsible for the observed phenotype. CXCL13 was found to be more highly expressed in healthy and leukaemic young mice as well as in conditioned medium of young macrophages. Using a variety of in vitro experiments, CXCL13 showed to significantly increase the proliferation and the migration of leukaemia cells when exposed to young macrophages, and the phenotype was rescued while using a CXCL13 neutralizing antibody. The CXCL13 role was also confirmed in vivo, since macrophage ablation led to a prolongation of survival in young mice and a reduction of CXCL13 levels. The use of an additional mouse model, leukaemia cells with CXCR5 deficiency, led to a significant prolongation of survival of young mice, confirming the importance of the CXCL13-CXCR5 axis in B-ALL. In line with our murine results, we found that human macrophages and CXCL13 levels were higher in pediatric B-ALL patients than in adults. Consistent with our murine data, the expression level of CXCR5 may act as a prognostic marker in B-ALL, as well as a predictive marker for central nervous system relapse in human B-ALL. The overall findings show that a young BMM, and in particular macrophages, influences B-ALL progression. We specifically identified CXCL13, secreted by young macrophages, as a promoter of proliferation of B-ALL cells, influencing survival in B-ALL via CXCR5. The CXCR5-CXCL13 axis may be relevant in human B-ALL, and higher CXCR5 expression in human B-ALL may act as a predictive marker.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde das Zinkfinger-µ-Protein HVO_2753 des halophilen Archaeons Haloferax volcanii hinsichtlich seiner biologischen Funktion und seiner Struktur charakterisiert.
Zinkfinger-µ-Proteine wurden bisher nur sehr wenig untersucht, während ihnen jedoch in den letzten Jahren steigendes Interesse entgegengebracht wird. Im Genom von H. volcanii sind mehr als 40 solcher Zinkfinger-µ-Proteine codiert. Von diesen besitzt mit HVO_2753 lediglich eines nicht nur zwei, sondern vier der charakteristischen C(P)XCG-Muster, was für die Anwesenheit von zwei Zinkfinger-Motiven spricht. Während Homologe von HVO_2753 in vielen Euryachaeota vorkommen und manche davon als Zink-Ribbon RNA-Bindeproteine annotiert sind, ist über ihre Funktion jedoch nichts bekannt. Zur Charakterisierung des Proteins wurde zunächst eine in frame-Deletionsmutante seines Gens erstellt und diese einer phänotypischen Charakterisierung unterzogen. Die Mutante wies, verglichen mit dem Wildtyp, keine Unterschiede im Wachstum in Komplexmedium oder in synthetischem Medium mit Glukose als Kohlenstoffquelle auf. Ein schweres Defizit konnte jedoch sowohl bei der Adhäsion und Biofilmbildung als auch der Schwärmfähigkeit der Deletionsmutante festgestellt werden. Während die Schwärmfähigkeit des Wildtyps durch plasmidische Expression von HVO_2753 in der Deletionsmutante teilweise wiederhergestellt werden konnte, war eine solche Komplementation bei der Biofilmbildung nicht möglich. Die Analyse der Relevanz ausgewählter Aminosäuren, wie beispielsweise das jeweils erste Cystein in jedem C(P)XCG-Muster zeigte, dass die Substitution jeder einzelnen der getesteten Aminosäuren einen Funktionsverlust des Proteins nach sich zieht. Die Untersuchung des HVO_2753-Transkripts mittels Northern Blot-Analyse bestätigte erste Hinweise aus vorangegangenen dRNA- und RNA-Seq-Studien, die eine Co-Transkription von HVO_2753 mit dem Nachbargen HVO_2752, das für den Translations-Elongationsfaktor aEF-1 beta codiert, aufzeigten. Daraufhin erfolgte eine Untersuchung des Ribosomenprofils, bei der keine Unterschiede zwischen der Deletionsmutante und der Überexpressionsmutante von HVO_2753 festgestellt werden konnten.
Eine Variante von HVO_2753 mit N-terminalem Hexahistidin-Tag wurde homolog überproduziert und aufgereinigt. Die Überproduktion und Aufreinigung wurden im Zuge dieser Arbeit weiter, speziell für HVO_2753, optimiert. So konnten große Mengen von HVO_2753n überproduziert und bei nativen Salzbedingungen mittels Nickel-Affinitätschromatographie und anschließender Größenausschlusschromatographie aufgereinigt werden. Eine massenspektrometrische Analyse bestätigte sowohl das Molekulargewicht als auch die Abwesenheit posttranslationaler Modifikationen. Die Untersuchung der Menge an gebundenem Zink im Protein erfolgte beim Zink-Assay mit Hilfe des hochsensitiven und hochspezifischen Fluorophors ZnAF-2F. Dabei konnte gezeigt werden, dass überraschenderweise lediglich ein Zink-Ion in HVO_2753 gebunden vorliegt.
Zur weiteren Funktionsaufklärung erfolgte eine Interaktionspartnersuche. Hierfür wurde HVO_2753 überproduziert, ein in vivo-Crosslink und anschließend eine native Aufreinung durchgeführt. Die massenspektrometrische Analyse ausgewählter Fraktionen nach der Größenausschlusschromatographie ergaben eine Vielzahl an möglichen Bindepartnern. Besonders häufig wurde hier die GalE family Epimerase/Dehydratase gefunden. Eine weitere Methode zur Suche nach Interaktionspartnern richtete sich auf RNAs. Hier konnten mittels eines eigens entwickelten Protokolls neben RNAs des Translationsapparates auch mehrfach die tRNA(Glu) gefunden werden.
Zusätzlich sollte die Transkriptomanalyse mittels RNA-Sequenzierung Unterschiede zwischen Wildtyp, Deletionsmutante und Komplementationsmutante aufzeigen. Hier wurden weitreichende Auswirkungen der Deletion von HVO_2753 gefunden. Zahlreiche Gene in mehreren Operons zur Motilität und Chemotaxis lagen in der Deletionsmutante stark herunterreguliert vor, während die Gene einiger Metallionen-Transporter und der Eisen(III)-Siderophor-Biosynthese hochreguliert vorlagen. In der Komplementationsmutante konnten nur von den letzteren Genen Transkriptlevel vergleichbar mit denen des Wildtyps wiedergefunden werden.
In dieser Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass das kleine Zinkfinger-Protein HVO_2753 eine essenzielle Rolle in der positiven Regulation der Motilität, Chemotaxis und der Adhäsion bzw. Biofilmbildung spielt. Gleichzeitig übt HVO_2753 eine negative Regulation auf den Metallionen-Transport und die Biosynthese des Eisen(III)-Siderophors aus.
Ziel der Studie: Eine psychische Komorbidität spielt im Kontext mit weiteren persönlichen, sozialen und beruflichen Faktoren bei der Ermittlung des spezifischen Rehabilitationsbedarfs der Patienten in Deutschland eine immer bedeutendere Rolle. Um die Zuweisung von Patienten zu einer Rehabilitationsform besser ausdifferenzieren zu können, soll im Rahmen dieser retrospektiven Analyse ermittelt werden, von welchem der beiden untersuchten Rehabilitationskonzepte (OR/VMO) Patienten mit psychischer Komorbidität unter Berücksichtigung von Geschlecht, Erwerbsstatus und orthopädischer Hauptdiagnose stärker profitieren.
Methodik: Mittels der Screening-Fragebögen HADS-A, HADS-D, SIMBO und BPI sowie eines Klinikfragebogens zu Beginn der Rehabilitation wurden Angaben von 913 Probanden (529 m/384 w) ausgewertet. Hiervon wurden 43 % der OR und 57 % der VMO zugewiesen. So wurde die Häufigkeitsverteilung der Faktoren psychische Komorbidität, Geschlecht, Erwerbsstatus und orthopädische Hauptdiagnose festgestellt. Mittels HADS wurde am Ende der Therapie der Benefit durch Vergleich der Scorewert-Mediane ermittelt.
Ergebnisse: Häufigkeitsverteilungen und die Entwicklung der HADS-Scores zeigen, dass die im Vorfeld erfolgte Einteilung gemäß psychischer Komorbidität korrekt war. Frauen waren häufiger von einer psychischen Komorbidität betroffen und erzielten in der VMO größere Erfolge. Bezüglich der orthopädischen Hauptdiagnose ergab sich eine hohe Prävalenz von HWS- und LWS-Beschwerden. Beim Erwerbsstatus (Arbeits(un)fähigkeit, Arbeitslosigkeit, berufliche Problemlage) zeigte sich ein diffuseres Bild, das keine generalisierende Aussage bezüglich der arbeitsweltbezogenen Faktoren zulässt.
Schlussfolgerungen: Das Vorliegen einer psychischen Komorbidität stellt einen zielführenden Indikator dar, der als eines der Hauptzuweisungskriterien zur VMO beizubehalten ist. Auch das weibliche Geschlecht in Verbindung mit dem Vorliegen einer psychischen Komorbidität ist als adäquates Kriterium anzusehen. Bezüglich der orthopädischen Hauptdiagnose können insbesondere HWS-Beschwerden als Zuweisungskriterium geeignet sein. Aufgrund der sehr heterogenen Ergebnisse hinsichtlich der Aspekte des Erwerbsstatus lässt sich festhalten, dass diesbezüglich eine Zuweisung zu einem arbeitsweltbezogenen Therapiekonzept (z. B. MBOR) zielführender erscheint.
We provide extensions of the dual variational method for the nonlinear Helmholtz equation from Evéquoz and Weth. In particular we prove the existence of dual ground state solutions in the Sobolev critical case, extend the dual method beyond the standard Stein Tomas and Kenig Ruiz Sogge range and generalize the method for sign changing nonlinearities.
Despite major improvements of the therapy, many B-cell Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (B-NHL) entities still have a poor prognosis. New therapeutic options are urgently needed. Therefore this study sets out to investigate oncogenic signalling pathways in the two B-NHL entities mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) in order to define new potential therapeutic targets.
MCL cells overexpress the anti-apoptotic protein BCL-2, thereby they evade apoptosis. With venetoclax, the first-in-class BCL-2 specific inhibitor was approved and achieved good response rates in MCL. However, some cases display intrinsic or acquired resistance to venetoclax. In order to improve the therapy, this study aimed to identify genes which confer sensitivity or resistance towards venetoclax upon their respective knockout. To this end, a genome-wide CRISPR/Cas9-based loss-of-function screen was conducted in the MCL cell line Maver-1. The E3 ubiquitin
ligase MARCH5 was identified as one of the top hits conferring sensitivity
towards venetoclax upon its knockout. This finding was validated in a competitive growth assay including two more MCL cell lines, Jeko-1 and Mino. MARCH5 knockout also sensitised Jeko-1 cells towards venetoclax even though this cell line was insensitive towards venetoclax in its wild-type form. Using BH3 profiling, an increased dependency on BCL-2 of MARCH5-depleted cells confirmed this finding. The sensitisation was found to be based on induction of apoptosis upon MARCH5 knockout and to an even higher extent upon additional treatment of MARCH5-depleted cells with venetoclax. As already described for epithelial cancer entities, the BCL-2 family members MCL-1 and NOXA were upregulated in MCL cell lines upon MARCH5 knockout. This led to the hypothesis that MARCH5 is a potential
regulator of intrinsic apoptosis with NOXA as a key component. A competitive growth assay with MARCH5 and NOXA co-depleted cells revealed a partial reversion of the BCL-2 sensitisation compared to MARCH5 knockout alone. Furthermore, mass spectrometry-based methods were used to gain more insight into other cellular pathways and networks which might be regulated in a MARCH5-dependent manner. In an interactome analysis, proteins which regulate mitochondrial morphology, such as Drp-1 were identified as MARCH5 interactors. Besides this expected finding, interaction between MARCH5 and several members of the BCL-2 family as well as a potential connection between MARCH5 and vesicular trafficking was discovered. As expected, an ubiquitinome analysis of MARCH5-depleted cells revealed decreased levels of MCL-1 and NOXA ubiquitination. Additionally, a potential role of MARCH5 in the ubiquitination of several members of the cell cycle regulatory
pathway was discovered. Based on the broad spectrum of cellular pathways which seem to be regulated in a MARCH5-dependent manner, it was hypothesised that MARCH5 primarily regulates BCL-2 family members which in turn regulate intrinsic apoptosis on the one hand and additionally are involved in the regulation of various other pathways on the other hand.
In summary, this study provides insight into a MARCH5-dependent MCL1-1/NOXA axis in MCL cells and potential implications into related cellular processes.
In addition to the anti-apoptotic pathways described above, B-cell receptor (BCR) signalling is known to provide a pro-survival signal to both normal and malignant B-cells. Targeting the BCR signalling pathway therefore is a promising therapeutic target for B-cell malignancies. In order to gain more insight into the differential modes of BCR signalling of ABC- and GCB-DLBCL cells, genes/proteins which displayed differential essentiality in ABC- and GCB-DLBCL cells were aimed to be defined. Consequently, data sets from a CRISPR/Cas9-based loss-of-function screen
were re-analysed. SASH3 was identified as a gene which was essential for GCB- but not for ABC-DLBCL cells. Since this protein is known to be involved in T-cell receptor (TCR)-signalling, SASH3 was assumed to play a potential role in BCR signalling as well and was therefore investigated in more detail. A competitive growth assay confirmed that SASH3 knockout was toxic exclusively for GCB-DLBCL cell lines. An interactome analysis in ABC- and GCB-DLBCL cells revealed interaction between SASH3 and many components of the proximal BCR signalling pathway as well as several downstream signalling pathways such as the PI3K or the NF-ΚB pathway.
An integration of the interactome with data from the CRISPR/Cas9-based loss-offunction screen revealed differential essentiality of the SASH3-interacting proteins in ABC- and GCB-DLBCL cells. It was hypothesised that SASH3 might regulate PI3K signalling on which GCB- but not ABC-DLBCL cells are known to dependent. Discontinuation of the regulation of PI3K signalling could therefore be exclusively toxic to GCB-DLBCL cells.
Taken together, this study describes a subtype-specific dependency of GCB-DLBCL cells on SASH3. Furthermore, the SASH3 interactome has been investigated in B-cells for the first time, thereby highlighting a potential role in proximal BCR signalling and involvement in specific BCR-related downstream signalling pathways.
Using walls to navigate the room: egocentric representations of borders for spatial navigation
(2021)
Spatial navigation forms one of the core components of an animal’s behavioural repertoire. Good navigational skills boost survival by allowing one to avoid predators, to search successfully for food in an unpredictable world, and to be able to find a mating partner. As a consequence, the brain has dedicated many of its resources to the processing of spatial information. Decades of seminal work has revealed how the brain is able to form detailed representations of one’s current position, and use an internal cognitive map of the environment to traverse the local space. However, what is much less understood is how neural computations of position depend on distance information of salient external locations such as landmarks, and how these distal places are encoded in the brain.
The work in this thesis explores the role of one brain region in particular, the retrosplenial cortex (RSC), as a key area to implement distance computations in relation to distal landmarks. Previous research has shown that damage to the RSC results in losses of spatial memory and navigation ability, but its exact role in spatial cognition remains unclear. Initial electrophysiological recordings of single cells in the RSC during free exploration behaviour of the animal resulted in the discovery of a new population of neurons that robustly encode distance information towards nearby walls throughout the environment. Activity of these border cells was characterized by high firing rates near all boundaries of the arena that were available to the animal, and sensory manipulation experiments revealed that this activity persisted in the absence of direct visual or somatosensory detection of the wall.
It quickly became apparent that border cell activity was not only modulated by the distance to walls, but was contingent on the direction the animal was facing relative to the boundary. Approximately 40% of neurons displayed significant selectivity to the direction of walls, mostly in the hemifield contra-lateral to the recorded hemisphere, such that a neuron in left RSC is active whenever a wall occupies proximal space on the right side of the animal. Using a cue-rotation paradigm, experiments initially showed that this egocentric direction information was invariant to the physical rotation of the arena. Yet this rotation elicited a corresponding shift in the preferred direction of local head-direction cells, as well as a rotation in the firing fields of spatially-tuned cells in RSC. As a consequence, position and direction encoding in RSC must be bound together, rotating in unison during the environmental manipulations, as information about allocentric boundary locations is integrated with head-direction signals to form egocentric border representations.
It is known that the RSC forms many anatomical connections with other parts of the brain that encode spatial information, like the hippocampus and para-hippocampal areas. The next step was to establish the circuit mechanisms in place for RSC neurons to generate their activity in respect to the distance and direction of walls. A series of inactivation experiments revealed how RSC activity is inter-dependent with one of its communication partners, the medial entorhinal cortex (MEC). Together they form a wider functional network that encodes precise spatial information of borders, with information flowing from the MEC to RSC but not vice versa. While the conjunction between distance and heading direction relative to the outer walls was the main driver of neural activity in RSC, border cells displayed further behavioural correlates related to movement trajectories. Spiking activity in either hemisphere tended to precede turning behaviour on a short time-scale in a way that border cells in the right RSC anticipated right-way turns ~300 ms into the future.
The interpretation of these results is that the RSC’s primary role in spatial cognition is not necessarily on the early sensory processing stage as suggested by previous studies. Instead, it is involved in computations related to the generation of motion plans, using spatial information that is processed in other brain areas to plan and execute future actions. One potential function of the RSC’s role in this process could be to act correctly in relation to the nearby perimeter, such that border cells in one hemisphere are involved in the encoding of walls in the contralateral hemifield, after which the animal makes an ipsilateral turn to avoid collision. Together this supports the idea that the MEC→RSC pathway links the encoding of space and position in the hippocampal system with the brain’s motor action systems, allowing animals to use walls as prominent landmarks to navigate the room.
Classical light microscopy is one of the main tools for science to study small things. Microscopes and their technology and optics have been developed and improved over centuries, however their resolution is ultimately restricted physically by the diffraction of light based on its wave nature described by Maxwell’s equations. Hence, the nanoworld – often characterized by sub-100-nm structural sizes – is not accessible with classical far-field optics (apart from special x-ray laser concepts) since its lateral resolution scales with the wavelength.
It was not until the 20th century that various technologies emerged to circumvent the diffraction limit, including so-called near-field microscopy. Although conceptually based on Maxwell’s long known equations, it took a long time for the scientific community to recognize its powerful opportunities and the first embodiments of near-field microscopes were developed. One representative of them is the scattering-type Scanning Near-field Optical Microscope (s-SNOM). It is a Scanning Probe Microscope (SPM) that enables imaging and spectroscopy at visible light frequencies down to even radio waves with a sub-100-nm resolution regardless of the wavelength used. This work also reflects this wide spectral range as it contains applications from near-infrared light down to deep THz/GHz radiation.
This thesis is subdivided into two parts. First, new experimental capabilities for the s-SNOM are demonstrated and evaluated in a more technical manner. Second, among other things, these capabilities are used to study various transport phenomena in solids, as already indicated in the title.
On the technical side, preliminary studies on the suitability of the qPlus sensor – a novel scanning probe technology – for near-field microscopy are presented.
The scanning head incorporating the qPlus sensor–named TRIBUS – is originally intended and built for ultra-high vacuum, low temperature, and high resolution applications. These are desirable environments and properties for sensitive nearfield measurements as well. However, since its design was not planned for near-field measurements, several special technical and optical aspects have to be taken into account, among others the scanning tip design and a spring suspended measurement head.
In addition, in this thesis field-effect transistors are used as THz detectors in an s-SNOM for the first time. Although THz s-SNOM is already an emerging technology, it still suffers from the requirements of sophisticated and specialized infrastructure on both the detector and laser side. Field-effect transistors offer an alternative that is flexible, cost-efficient, room-temperature operating, and easy to handle. Here, their suitability for s-SNOM measurements, which in general require very sensitive and fast detectors, is evaluated.
In the scientific part of this thesis, electromagnetic surface waves on silver nanowires and the conductivity/charge carrier density in silicon are investigated. Both are completely different concepts of transport phenomena, but this already shows the general versatility of the s-SNOM as it can enter both fields. Silver nanowires are analysed by means of near-infrared radiation. Their plasmonic behaviour in this spectral region is studied complementing other simulations and studies in literature performed on them using for example far-field optics.
Furthermore, the surface wave imaging ability of the s-SNOM in the near-infrared regime is thoroughly investigated in this thesis. Mapping surface waves in the mid-infrared regime is widespread in the community, however for much smaller wavelengths there are several important aspects to be considered additionally, such as the smaller focal spot size.
After that, doped and photo-excited silicon substrates are investigated. As the characteristic frequencies of charge carriers in semiconductors – described by the plasma frequency and the Drude model – are within the THz range, the THz s-SNOM is very well suited to probe their behaviour and to reveal contrasts, which has already been shown qualitatively by numerous literature reports. Here, the photo-excitation enables to set and tune the charge carrier density continuously.
Furthermore, the analysis of all silicon samples focuses on a quantitative extraction of the charge carrier densities and doping levels ...
This work comprises the investigation of four different biosynthesis gene clusters from Xenorhabdus. Xenorhabdus is an entomopathogenic bacterium that lives in mutualistic symbiosis with its Steinernema nematode host and together they infect and kill insect larvae. Xenorhabdus is well known for the production of so-called specialised metabolites and many of these compounds are synthesised by non-ribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPSs) or NRPS-polyketide synthase (PKS)-hybrids. These enzymes are organised in a modular manner and produce structurally very diverse molecules, often with the help of modifying domains and tailoring enzymes. In general, the genes involved in the biosynthesis are organised in so-called biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) in the genome of the producing strain. Exchanging the native promoter with an inducible promoter, e.g. PBAD, allows the targeted activation of the BGC and in turn the analysis of the biosynthesis product via LC-MS analysis.
The first BGC investigated in this work is responsible for the biosynthesis of xenofuranones. Based on gene deletions, this work shows that the NRPS-like enzyme XfsA produces a carboxylated furanone intermediate which is subsequently decarboxylated by XfsB to yield xenofuranone B. The next step in xenofuranone biosynthesis is the O-methylation of xenofuranone B to yield xenofuranone A. A comparative proteomics approach allowed the identification of four methyltransferase candidates and subsequent gene deletions confirmed one of the candidates to be responsible for methylation of xenofuranone B. The proteome analysis was based on the comparison of X. szentirmaii WT and X. szentirmaii Δhfq because distinct levels of the methylated xenofuranone A were observed when the xfs BGC was activated in either WT or Δhfq strain. Hfq is a global transcriptional regulator whose deletion is associated with the down regulation of natural product biosynthesis in Xenorhabdus. The strong PBAD activation of the xfs BGC also allowed the detection of two novel xenofuranone derivatives which arise from incorporation of one 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvic acid as first or second building block, respectively.
PBAD based activation of the second BGC addressed in this work lead to the detection of a novel metabolite and compound purification allowed NMR-based structure elucidation. The molecule exhibits two pyrrolizidine moieties and was named pyrrolizwilline (pyrrolizidine + twin (German: “Zwilling”)). The BGC comprises seven genes and single gene deletions as well as heterologous expression in E. coli and NRPS engineering were conducted to investigate the biosynthesis. The first two genes xhpA and xhpB encode a bimodular NRPS and a monooxygenase which synthesise a pyrrolizixenamide-like structure, similar to PxaA and PxaB in pyrrolizixenamide biosynthesis. It is suggested that the acyl side chain incorporated by XhpA is removed by the α,β-hydrolase XhpG. The keto function is then reduced by two subsequent two electron reductions catalysed by XhpC and XhpD. One of these two reduced pyrrolizidine units most likely is extended with glyoxalate prior to non-enzymatic dimerisation with the second pyrrolizidine moiety. To finally yield pyrrolizwilline, L-valine is incorporated, probably by the free-standing condensation domain XhpF.
The third BGC investigated is responsible for the production of a tripeptide composed of β-D-homoserine, α-hydroxyglycine and L-valine and is referred to as glyoxpeptide. This work demonstrates that the previously observed glyoxpeptide derivative is derived from glycerol present in the culture medium. Furthermore, this work shows that the monooxygenase domain, which is found in an unusual position between motifs A8 and A9 within the adenylation domain, is responsible for the α-hydroxylation of glycine. It is suggested that the α-hydroxylation of glycine renders the tripeptide prone to hydrolysis via hemiacetal formation. Hence, the XgsC_MonoOx domain might be an interesting candidate for further NRPS engineering.
The fourth BGC addressed is responsible for the production of xildivalines and this work describes two additional derivatives which are detected only when the promoter is exchanged and activated in the X. hominickii WT strain but not in X. hominickii Δhfq. Deletion of the methyltransferase encoding gene xisE results in the production of non-methylated xildivalines. It remains to be determined when the N-methylation of L-valine takes place. It is discussed that the methyltransferase could act on the NRPS released product but also during the assembly. The peptide deformylase is not involved in the proposed biosynthesis as xildivaline production is detected in a ΔxisD strain. The PKS XisB features two adjacent, so-called tandem T domains. The inactivation of the first or the second T domain by point mutation causes decreased production titres of detected xildivalines in the respective mutant strain when compared to the wild type.
The oleochemical and petrochemical industries provide diverse chemicals used in personal care products, food and pharmaceutical industries or as fuels, oils, polymers and others. However, fossil resources are dwindling and concerns about these conventional production methods have risen due to their strong negative impact on the environment and contribution to climate change.
Therefore, alternative, sustainable and environmentally friendly production methods for oleochemical compounds such as fatty acids, fatty alcohols, hydroxy fatty acids and dicarboxylic acids are desired. The biotechnological production by engineered microorganism could fulfill these requirements. The concept of metabolic engineering, which is the modification of metabolic pathways of a host organism for increased production of a target compound, is a widely used strategy in biotechnology to generate cell factories or chassis strains for robust, efficient and high production. In this work, the versatile model and industrial yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae was manipulated by metabolic engineering strategies for increased production of the medium-chain fatty acid octanoic acid and de novo production the derived 8-hydroxyoctanoic acid.
Octanoic acid production was enabled by the fatty acid biosynthesis pathway by use of a mutated fatty acid synthase (FASRK) in a wild type FAS deficient strain. The yeast fatty acid synthase (FAS) consists of two polypeptides, α and β, which assemble to a α6β6 complex in a co-translational manner by interaction of the subunits. Because this step might be subject to cellular regulation, the α- and β- subunits of fatty acid synthase were fused to form a single-chain construct (fusFASRK), which displayed superior octanoic acid production compared with split FASRK. Thus, FASRK expression was identified as a limiting step of octanoic acid production. But the strains that produce octanoic acid have a severe growth defect that is undesirable for biotechnological applications and could lead to lower production titers. One reason is the strong
inhibitory effect of octanoic acid. Another possibility is that the mutant FAS no longer produces enough essential long-chain fatty acids. To compensate for this, the mutated split and fused FAS variants were co-expressed individually in a strain harboring genomic wild type FAS alleles. In
addition, mutant and wild type variants of fused and split FAS were co-expressed together in a FAS deficient strain. However, both cases resulted in decreased octanoic acid titers potentially by physical and/or metabolic crosstalk of the FAS variants.
The fatty acid biosynthesis relies on cytosolic acetyl-CoA for initiation and derived malonyl-CoA for elongation and requires NADPH for reductive power. To increase production of octanoic acid, engineering strategies for increased acetyl-CoA and NADHP supply were investigated. First, the flux through the native cytosolic acetyl-CoA and NADPH providing pyruvate dehydrogenase bypass was enhanced by overexpression of the target genes ADH2, ALD6 and ACSL461P from Salmonella enterica in combination or individually. Next, the acety-CoA forming heterologous phosphoketolase/phosphotransacetylase pathway was expressed and NADPH formation was increased by redirecting the flux of glucose-6-phosphate into the NADPH producing oxidative branch of the pentose phosphate pathway. In particular, the flux through glycolysis and pyruvate dehydrogenase bypass was reduced by downregulating the expression of the phosphoglucose isomerase PGI1 and deleting the acetaldehyde dehydrogenase ALD6. Glucose-6-phosphate was guided into the pentose phosphate pathway by overexpressing the glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase ZWF1. The first approach did not influence octanoic acid production but the latter increased yields in the glucose consumption phase by 65 %. However,
combining the superior fusFASRK with acetyl-CoA and NADPH supply engineering strategies did not result in additive production effects, indicating that other limitations hinder high octanoic acid accumulation. Limitations could be caused in particular by the strong inhibitory effects of octanoic acid or by intrinsic limitations of the FASRK mutant. To enlarge the octanoic acid production platform towards other derived valuable oleochemical compounds the de novo production of 8-hydroxyoctanoic acid was targeted. Since short- and medium-chain fatty acids have a strong inhibitory effect on Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the inhibitory effect of hydroxy fatty acid and dicarboxylic with eight or ten carbon atoms were compared and revealed only little or no growth impairment. Subsequently, the formation of 8-hydroxyoctanoic acid was targeted by a terminal hydroxylation of externally supplied octanoic acid in a bioconversion. For that, three heterologous genes, encoding for cytochromes P450 enzymes and their cognate cytochrome P450 reductases were expressed and 8-hydroxyoctanoic acid production was compared. In addition, the use of different carbon sources was compared.
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Für eine erfolgreiche Behandlung mit implantatprothetischen Therapiekonzepten ist eine stabile Implantat-Abutment-Verbindung entscheidend. Vor allem die Abutmentschraube als komplikationsanfälligste Komponente dieser Verbindung steht im Mittelpunkt zahlreicher wissenschaftlicher Untersuchungen. Implantate und Komponenten aus Zirkoniumdioxid sind schon seit einigen Jahren auf dem Markt erhältlich. Dennoch gibt es keine Studien, die sich mit der Vorspannkraft von Schrauben bei Implantaten und Abutments aus Zirkoniumdioxid beschäftigen. Ebenso wurden bisher noch keine Schrauben mit Feingewinde im Bereich der Implantologie untersucht. Die vorliegende Studie soll den beschriebenen Forschungsbedarf abdecken.
Um zu ermitteln, in wieweit die Schraubengeometrie Einfluss auf die Vorspannkraft bei Implantat-Abutment-Verbindungen aus Zirkoniumdioxid hat, wurden verschiedene Schrauben hergestellt. Mit einem Schraubenkopfwinkel von 90° wurden Schrauben mit Feingewinde (M1,4x0,2) und 2, 4 und 6 Gewindegängen produziert. Zur Variation des Schraubenkopfwinkels wurden Schrauben mit Feingewinde und 4 Gewindegängen sowie einem Schraubenkopfwinkel von 30° und 60° hergestellt. Es wurden Gewindehülsen als Implantat-Analog und Schraubenkopfauflagen aus Zirkoniumdioxid extern hergestellt und eingekauft (Firma Microceram, Meißen, Deutschland).
Um die Vorspannkraft der Verbindung messen zu können, wurden die Prüfkörper in eine zu diesem Zweck entwickelte Messeinheit integriert. Die Messeinheit besteht aus einem Gerüstzylinder, der als Rahmenkonstrukt dient. Im Inneren des Gerüstzylinders befindet sich die Gewindehülse als Implantat-Analog in einem Spannfutter, das in direkter Verbindung mit dem Messsensor steht. In einer Fassung über der Gewindehülse befindet sich die Schraubenkopfauflage als Abutment-Analog. Gewindehülse und Schraubenkopfauflage stehen dabei nicht in direktem Kontakt. Erst durch die Versuchsschrauben kommt diese Verbindung zustande. Die Zugkraft, die beim Anziehen der Schraubenverbindung entsteht, wird vom Sensor registriert. Er leitet daraus die Vorspannkraft der Verbindung ab.
Jede Prüfverbindung wurde mit vier aufeinander folgenden Anzugsdrehmomenten angezogen (15 Ncm, 20 Ncm, 25 Ncm und 30 Ncm). Nach jedem Anzugsvorgang erfolgte die Messung der Vorspannkraft. Die Messwerte sind somit in Abhängigkeit des Anzugsdrehmoments erhoben worden.
Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Gewindegangzahl der Schrauben keinen Einfluss auf die erzielte Vorspannkraft der Verbindung hat. Die gemessenen Vorspannkräfte bei Schrauben mit 2, 4 und 6 Gewindegängen weisen einen nahezu linearen Einfluss des Anzugsdrehmoments auf die Vorspannkraft nach: Je höher das Anzugsdrehmoment, desto höher auch die ermittelte Vorspannkraft.
Der Schraubenkopfwinkel hingegen zeigte einen Einfluss auf die Vorspannkraft. Bei einem sehr steilen Schraubenkopfwinkel von 30° wurden die geringsten Werte für die Vorspannkraft ermittelt, bei einem Schraubenkopfwinkel von 90° die Höchsten.
Die Ergebnisse dieser Studie wurden mit Ergebnissen einer anderen Versuchsgruppe verglichen, die im selben Versuchsaufbau Schrauben mit gleicher Konfiguration, aber Regelgewinde (M1,6x0,35) statt Feingewinde und größerem Schraubendurchmesser untersuchten. Im Vergleich der Ergebnisse ergab sich kein Vorteil im Bezug auf die erzielte Vorspannkraft bei Schrauben mit Feingewinde.
Schrauben mit 2 Gewindegängen lieferten eine ähnliche Vorspannkraft wie Schrauben mit 4 oder 6 Gewindegängen. Dies legt die Möglichkeit nahe, kürzere Schrauben und somit kürzere Implantate zu entwickeln, um aufwendige Augmentationsmaßnahmen bei geringer Restknochenhöhe umgehen zu können. Vorher müssen jedoch weitere Untersuchungen folgen, um die Stabilität von Schrauben mit 2 Gewindegängen zu überprüfen.
In dieser Arbeit werden die Ergebnisse quantenchemischer Untersuchungen von verschiedenen Siliciumverbindungsklassen vorgestellt, die in weiten Teilen als Begleitung zu experimentellen Arbeiten durchgeführt wurden. Das erste Hauptkapitel befasst sich mit den Chloridkomplexen von Perchlorsilanen, zu denen die inversen Sandwichkomplexe und die Silafullerane mit endohedralem Gast gehören. Der Fokus liegt dabei auf den Bindungseigenschaften zwischen Ligand und Silan. Weiterhin werden thermodynamische Untersuchungen zu Aufbaureaktionen und Eigenschaften der Verbindungen vorgestellt. Mit den durchgeführten Rechnungen kann gezeigt werden, dass durch Wahl geeigneter Substituenten am Siliciumatom ein Wechsel in den Chloridkomplexen von einem hyperkoordinierten Siliciumatom hin zu einem Siliciumatom mit ausgebildeter Tetrelbindung erreicht werden kann. Bei den inversen Sandwichkomplexen sind beide Bindungsmodi möglich, von denen die Tetrelbindung die stärkere darstellt. Neben Chloridionen können hier auch Nitrile und Chlorsubstituenten am eigenen Silangerüst als Liganden fungieren. Die stärksten Tetrelbindungen können bei den endohedral funktionalisierten Silafullerankomplexen gefunden werden. Hier stellt das experimentell isolierte Strukturmotiv mit zwölf äußeren Trichlorsilylsubstituenten das thermodynamisch stabilste Substitutionsmuster dar. Im folgenden Kapitel werden die generellen physikalischen Ursachen für die beobachteten thermodynamischen Trends zwischen Perchlorsilanisomeren sowie Disproportionierungsreaktionen behandelt und ein direkter Vergleich mit Alkanhomologen angestellt. Bei den Perchlorsilanen und den meisten Homologen ist bei den untersuchten Systemen eine energetische Präferenz von verzweigteren Strukturen zu erkennen. Die Ursache hierfür liegt hauptsächlich bei stärkeren attraktiven Wechselwirkungen durch Korrelationseffekte, Hyperkonjugation sowie elektrostatische Effekte, welche stärkere repulsive Wechselwirkungen wie die Pauli-Repulsion überkompensieren. Im letzten Kapitel kommen zu den bisher behandelten Reaktionen unter Si-Cl- und Si-Si-Bindungsbeteiligung noch Reaktionen unter Si-C-Bindungsbeteiligungen hinzu. Dort werden die auch wegen ihrer Elektronentransporteigenschaften interessanten Silacyclopentadiene (Silole) hinsichtlich ihrer Isomerisierung, Dimerisierung und weiteren pericyclischen Reaktivität untersucht. Gegenüber dem verwandten Cyclopentadien zeigen diese eine deutlich erhöhte Reaktivität, was zu verschiedenen Dimerisierungsreaktionen führt, solange keine Abfangreagenzien im Überschuss zugegen sind.