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Potential energy and dipole moment functions have been calculated for the ground states of the NeH+ (1.0 ≦ R ≦ 15 a. u.) and the KrH+ (1.6 ≦ R ≦ 20 a. u.) ion from highly correlated SCEP/VAR and SCEP/CEPA electronic wave functions. The following spectroscopic constants have been derived: Ne20H+ re = 0.996 ± 0.003 Å, ωe = 2896 ± 20cm-1 , D0(Ne + H+) = 2.10 ± 0.05 eV; Kr84H+ re = 1.419 ± 0.003 Å, ωe = 2561 ±20 cm-1 , D0(Kr + H+) = 4.65 ±0.05 eV. The Einstein transition probability coefficients of spontaneous emission have been calculated for all transitions v ≦ 5 of Ne20H+, Ne20D+, Kr84H+ and Kr84D+, respectively.
Near equilibrium potential energy and dipole moment functions have been calculated for the electronic ground state of the XeH+ ion from highly correlated SCEP/CEPA electronic wavefunctions. The following spectroscopic constants for 132XeH+ are obtained: Re= 1.611 ± 0.005 Å, ωe = 2313 ± 50cm-1, ωexe = 41 ± 5cm-1 and D0(Xe+ + H) = 3.90 ± 0.1 eV.
Infrared transition dipole matrix elements and probability coefficients for 132XeH+ and 132XeD+ are given. The electric dipole moment functions of the protonated rare gas atoms HeH+ to XeH+ are discussed.
The tetraaryl μ‐hydridodiborane(4) anion [2H]− possesses nucleophilic B−B and B−H bonds. Treatment of K[2H] with the electrophilic 9‐H‐9‐borafluorene (HBFlu) furnishes the B3 cluster K[3], with a triangular boron core linked through two BHB two‐electron, three‐center bonds and one electron‐precise B−B bond, reminiscent of the prominent [B3H8]− anion. Upon heating or prolonged stirring at room temperature, K[3] rearranges to a slightly more stable isomer K[3 a]. The reaction of M[2H] (M+=Li+, K+) with MeI or Me3SiCl leads to equimolar amounts of 9‐R‐9‐borafluorene and HBFlu (R=Me or Me3Si). Thus, [2H]− behaves as a masked [:BFlu]− nucleophile. The HBFlu by‐product was used in situ to establish a tandem substitution‐hydroboration reaction: a 1:1 mixture of M[2H] and allyl bromide gave the 1,3‐propylene‐linked ditopic 9‐borafluorene 5 as sole product. M[2H] also participates in unprecedented [4+1] cycloadditions with dienes to furnish dialkyl diaryl spiroborates, M[R2BFlu].
Molecules of the title compound (alternative name: butane-1,4-diyl dinicotinate), C16H16N2O4, lie on a inversion centre, located at the mid-point of the central C—C bond of the aliphatic chain, giving one half-molecule per asymmetric unit. The butane chain adopts an all-trans conformation. The dihedral angle between the mean plane of the butane-3-carboxylate group [for the non-H atoms, maximum deviation = 0.0871 (15) Å] and the pyridine ring is 10.83 (7)°. In the crystal, molecules lie in planes parallel to (122). The structure features weak π–π interactions with a centroid–centroid distance of 3.9281 (11) Å.
The title compound, [Li2(C25H23BN4OP)2], features a centrosymmetric dimeric complex. The four-memberered Li2O2 ring is exactly planar due to symmetry. The Li atom is four-coordinated by two O atoms and by two N atoms of two different pyrazole rings. The dihedral angle between two pyrazole rings bonded to the same B atom is 45.66 (9)°. The B—N—N—Li—N—N metalla ring adopts a boat conformation. The crystal packing is stabilized by van der Waals interactions only.
Biophysical studies of the translation-regulating add adenine riboswitch from Vibrio vulnificus
(2017)
Bacterial gene expression can be regulated at mRNA level by cis-acting mRNA elements termed riboswitches. Riboswitches operate by conformational switching between a ligand-free and a ligand-bound state with different structures that either activate or inhibit gene expression. This PhD thesis contributes to the molecular level understanding of full-length purine riboswitches. It presents biophysical investigations on the ligand-dependent folding of the full-length translation-regulating add adenine riboswitch from the gram-negative human pathogenic marine bacterium Vibrio vulnificus (Asw). Asw has the typical bipartite riboswitch architecture with a 5’ ligand-sensing aptamer domain and a 3’ regulatory domain termed expression platform. According to the working hypothesis, Asw employs a unique thermodynamically-controlled 3-state conformational switching mechanism between an apoB, an apoA and a holo conformation to regulate translation initiation in a temperature-compensated manner. The two apo conformations are the putative translation-OFF states and the holo conformation is the putative translation-ON state of Asw. In the main project of this PhD thesis, an integrated nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and smFRET spectroscopic study of the full-length 112-nucleotide Asw (112Asw) was performed. The adenine-dependent folding of 112Asw was monitored at the level of base pairing interactions by NMR of the RNA imino protons, and at the level of three long-range intramolecular distances by smFRET of immobilized molecules. The integrated NMR and smFRET spectroscopic study of 112Asw yielded two major findings. First, NMR and smFRET both revealed that adenine binding to 112Asw impedes apoB formation by stabilizing the apoA secondary structure in the holo conformation without modulating tertiary structural interactions between the two riboswitch domains. This highlights the central role of competitive P1 and P4 helix formation at the interface of the aptamer and the expression platform for switching the accessibility of the ribosome binding site of 112Asw. Moreover, it strongly corroborates the hypothesis that purine riboswitches in general operate according to the key principle of a spatially decoupled secondary structural allosteric switch that proceeds without ligand-induced tertiary structural interactions between the aptamer domain and the expression platform. Second, it was uncovered by smFRET that the apoA and the holo conformation of 112Asw do not adopt a single folding state at near-physiological Mg2+ concentration. Instead, apoA and holo exhibit a persistent dynamic equilibrium between substates with an undocked (U), a short-lived docked (D1; ~s) and a Mg2+-bound long-lived docked (D2; ~10 s) aptamer kissing loop motif. In the holo conformation, the fractional population of the long-lived docked substate is ~2-fold increased compared to the apoA conformation, but undocked and docked substates are still comparably stable. The here described multiple folding states of the apoA and the holo conformation might have regulatory properties that are in between the apoB translation-OFF state and the holo-D2 translation-ON state. Additonally, an integrated NMR and smFRET analysis of 127-nucleotide Asw (127Asw) is presented. Compared to 112Asw, 127Asw is 3’-elongated by 15 nucleotides of the adenosine deaminase encoding sequence of the add gene from Vibrio vulnificus. 127Asw was chosen as mRNA template for future investigations of the interaction between Asw and the 30S ribosomal subunit. The NMR spectra of 127Asw demonstrated that 127Asw has the same overall secondary structure as 112Asw. Like for 112Asw, the combined NMR and smFRET analysis of 127Asw showed that adenine binding impedes apoB formation and stabilizes a long-lived docked aptamer kissing loop fold. However, compared to 112Asw, 127Asw has a destabilized aptamer kissing loop motif and a stabilized P4 helix in the expression platform. Finally, ligand-observed studies of the transient encounter complex between Asw and the near-cognate ligand hypoxanthine are described. By competition binding WaterLOGSY NMR experiments with hypoxanthine and the adenine analogue 2,6-diaminopurine, it could be shown that hypoxanthine binds to the same binding site of 112Asw as the cognate ligand adenine. The hypoxanthine binding constant measured with the WaterLOGSY method is in the low mM range (1.8 mM) and substantially exceeds the physiological hypoxanthine concentration in E. coli (~0.3 mM), thus ruling out that hypoxanthine binding can significantly impact the translational regulation of Asw in vivo. Also, preliminary FTIR difference spectra of 13C,15N-labelled and unlabelled hypoxanthine in complex with the pbuE adenine riboswitch aptamer and the xpt guanine riboswitch aptamer are discussed. These spectra showed a pattern of multiple IR bands that appeared to be characteristic for the respective complex.
Biological membranes separate the cell interior from the outside and have diverse functions from signal transduction, apoptosis to transportations of ions and small molecules in and out of the cell. Most of these functions are fulfilled by proteins incorporated in the membrane. However, lipids as the main component of membrane not only serve as structural element for bilayer formation but they are also directly involved e.g. signalling processes and bilayer properties are important to mediate protein interactions. To fully understand the role of lipids, it is necessary to develop a molecular understanding of how certain membrane components modify bulk bilayer structure and dynamics. Membranes are known to have many different motions in different conditions and time scales. Temperature, pH, water content and many other conditions change membrane dynamics in a high degree. In addition to this, time scales of motions in membranes vary from ns to ms range corresponding to fast motion and slow motion, respectively. Therefore, membranes are needed to be studied systematically by varying the conditions and using methods to investigate motions in various time scales separately. The aim of this study was therefore perform a combined solid-state NMR / molecular dynamics study on model membranes. Different substrates, such as potential drugs, polarizing agents and signaling lipids were incorporated into bilayers and their location within the membrane and their effect onto the membrane was probed. NSAIDs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs), pirinixic acid derivatives, ceramides and polarizing agents were the substrates for membranes in this study. There were several experimental methods that were applied in order to investigate effects of these substrates on membrane dynamics. Different kind of phospholipids including POPC, DMPC and DPPC were used. In addition to experimental work, with the information gathered from solid state NMR experiments molecular dynamics simulations were performed to obtain more information about the membranes at the molecular level. As a result, combination of solid-state NMR with molecular dynamics simulations provides very systematic way of investigating membrane dynamics in a large range of time scales.
Pirinixic acid derivatives were special interest of this study because of their activity on peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) as an agonist as well as on enzymes of microsomal prostaglandin E2 synthase-1 (PGE2s) -1 and 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) as dual inhibitor. Two potent pirinixic acid derivatives, 2-(4-chloro-6-(quinolin-6-ylamino)pyrimidin-2-ylthio)octanoic acid (compound 2) and 2-(4-chloro-6-(quinolin-6-ylamino)pyrimidin-2-ylthio)octanoate (compound 3), have been worked and their insertion depts were investigated by combining of solid state NMR and molecular dynamics simulations. Both experimental and theoretical results pointed out that compound 3 was inserted the phospholipid bilayer more deeply than 2. NSAIDs – lipid mixtures have been also studied here. It is known that consumption of NSAIDs as in mixture with lipids results much fewer side effects than consumption of the drugs alone. Thus, it is crucial to understand interactions of NSAIDs with lipids and investigate the possible complex formation of drugs with lipids. In this study, interactions of three widely used NSAIDs, ibuprofen, diclofenac and piroxicam, with DPPC were investigated by solid-state NMR. 1H and 31P NMR results depicted that ibuprofen and diclofenac had interactions with lipids, which is an indication of drug-lipid complex formation whereas piroxicam didn’t show any interactions with lipids suggesting that no complex formation occurred in the case of piroxicam. Ceramides are known to play key roles in many cell processes and many studies showed that the functions of ceramides are related with the ceramide effects on biological membranes. Therefore, in this study, influences of ceramides on biophysics of lipid bilayers were investigated by using various solid state NMR techniques and molecular dynamics simulations. Results from molecular dynamics simulations clearly showed that ceramide and lipids have strong interactions. More evidences about ceramide-lipid interactions were provided from 1H and 14N NMR results. In addition, it was indicated by both simulation and experimental methods that ceramide increased the rigidity of DMPC by increasing chain order parameters. BTbk is a biradical, which is used as polarizing agent for dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) experiments and found to be more efficient than other widely used polarizing agents such as TOTAPOL. Since it is a hydrophobic compound, which prefers to stay inside lipid bilayer it is important to investigate the location and orientation of bTbk along the bilayer in order to understand its enhancement profile in DNP measurements. In this study, both NMR relaxation time measurements and molecular dynamics simulations revealed that bTbk tends to stay more close to hydrophobic chain of lipids than the interfacial part of lipids at bilayer surface.
In the first part of this work, a brief introduction on lipid membranes as well as a theoretical summary on both methods of solid-state NMR and molecular dynamics simulations is given. Then, in the second part methodology is introduced for both solid-state NMR spectrometer and theoretical calculations. Afterwards, results of different membrane systems are discussed in the following parts for both solid state NMR and MD. Finally, in the last part, a summary and the conclusion of the overall results together with some future plans are explained.
The increasing resistance of almost all pathogenic bacteria to antibiotics (multidrug resistance) causes a severe threat to public health. The mechanisms underlying multidrug resistance include the induced over expression of multidrug transporters which extrude a variety of lipophilic and toxic substrates in an energy dependent fashion through the membrane out of the cell. These proteins are found in all transporter families. The work described in this thesis is dedicated to drug-proton antiporters from the small multidrug resistance (SMR) family. These efflux pumps with just four transmembrane helices per monomer are so far the smallest transporters discovered. Their oligomeric state, topology, three dimensional structure, catalytic cycle and transport mechanism are still rather controversial. Therefore, the aim of this thesis was to directly address these questions for the small multidrug resistance proteins Halobacterium salinarium Hsmr and Escherichia coli (E. coli) EmrE using a number of biophysical methods such as NMR, transport assays, mass spectrometry and analytical ultracentrifugation. Especially the work on Hsmr has been challenging due to the halophilic nature of this protein. In Chapter 1, key questions and the most important biophysical techniques are introduced followed by Material and Methods in Chapter 2. Depending on experimental requirements, cell free or ‘classical’ in vivo expression has been used for this thesis. Cell free expression as an option for the production of small multidrug transporters has been explored in Chapter 3. It has been possible to produce the SMR family members Hsmr, EmrE, TBsmr and YdgF in vitro. The expression of Hsmr was investigated in more detail under different experimental conditions. Hsmr was either refolded from precipitate or maintained in a soluble form during expression in the presence of detergents and liposomes. Furthermore, amino acids for which no auxotrophic strains were available could be labelled successfully. This expression system has been also used for preparing labelled samples of EmrE as described in Chapter 9. In vivo in E. coli expression of Hsmr, as described in Chapter 4, provided large amounts of proteins if fermenter production was used. Uniform labelling and selective unlabelling with stable isotopes (13C, 15N) for NMR spectroscopy was achieved in vivo in a more efficient and cost effective manner than using the cell free approach for this protein. Hsmr could be purified successfully from both in vitro and in vivo expression media. Hsmr is expressed in vivo and in vitro with N-terminal formylation. The Nterminal formylation is unstable and Hsmr in the presence of low salt concentrations was amenable to N-terminal degradation. It was found that Hsmr shows longest stability in Fos-ß-choline® 12 and sodium dodecyl sulphate, but best reconstitution conditions were found, when dodecyl maltoside is used and exchanged with Escherichia coli lipids. A molar protein lipid ratio of 1 to 100, amenable to solid state nuclear magnetic resonance, has been achieved. Sample homogeneity was shown by freeze fracture electron microscopy. The oligomeric state of Hsmr in detergent has been assessed by SDS PAGE, blue native PAGE, size exclusion chromatography, analytical ultracentrifugation and laser induced liquid bead ion desorption mass spectrometry (LILBID) as described in Chapter 5. A concentration and detergent dependent monomer-oligomer equilibrium has been found by all methods. The activity of Hsmr under the sample preparation conditions used here was shown using radioactive and fluorescence binding as well as fluorescence and electrochemical transport assays (Chapter 6). For transport studies, a stable pH gradient was generated by co-reconstitution of Hsmr with bacteriorhodopsin and subsequent sample illumination. Based on the observed long term stability of Hsmr in Fos-ß-choline® 12 and sodium dodecyl sulphate, liquid state NMR experiments were attempted in order to assess the correct folding of Hsmr in detergent micelles (Chapter 7). 1D proton and 2D HSQC spectra of U-15N Hsmr revealed a poor spectral dispersion, low resolution and only a small number of peaks. These are at least partly due to long rotational correlation times of the large protein detergent complex. This problem has been overcome by applying solid-state NMR to Hsmr reconstituted into E. coli lipids (Chapter 8). Uniform 13C labelled samples were prepared and two dimensional proton-driven spin diffusion and double quantum-single quantum correlation spectra were acquired successfully. Unfortunately, the spectral resolution was not yet sufficient for further structural studies. Reasons for the observed linebroadening could be structural heterogeneity or molecular motions which interfere with the NMR timescale. Therefore, the protein mobility has been probed using static 2H solid state NMR on Ala-d3-Hsmr. It could be shown, that parts of Hsmr are remarkably mobile in the membrane and that this mobility can be limited by the addition of the substrate ethidium bromide. Ethidium bromide as well as tetraphenylphosphonium (TPP+) is typical multidrug transporter substrates. The membrane interaction of TPP+ in DMPC membranes has been resolved by 1H MAS NMR. It was found that it penetrates into the interface region of the lipid bilayers and therefore behaves like many other transporter substrates adding to the hypothesis that the membrane could act as a pre-sorting filter. Finally, Chapter 9 is dedicated to the characterisation of the essential and highly conserved residue Glu-14 in EmrE by solid-state NMR. In order to avoid spectral overlap, the single Glu EmrE E25A mutant was chosen instead of the wildtype. The protein has been produced in vitro to take advantage of reduced isotope scrambling in the cell free expression system as verified by analytical NMR spectroscopy. Correct labelling of EmrE was tested by MALDI-TOF and solid-state NMR. The dimeric state of DDM solubilised EmrE has been probed by LILBID. The labelled protein was reconstituted into E. coli lipids to ensure a native membrane environment. Activity was determined by measuring ethidium bromide transport. Freeze fracture EM revealed very homogeneous protein incorporation even after many days of MAS NMR experiments. 2D 13C double quantum filtered experiments were used to obtain chemical shift and lineshape information of Glu-14 in EmrE. Two distinct populations were found with backbone chemical shift differences of 4 - 6 ppm which change upon substrate binding. These findings indicate a structural asymmetry at the assumed dimerisation interface and are discussed in the context of a model for shared substrate/proton binding. These studies represent the first successful use of cell free expression to prepare labelled membrane proteins for solid-state NMR and allow for the first time an NMR insight into the binding pocket of a multidrug efflux pump.
In this study, a portable electronic nose (E-nose) prototype is developed using metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) sensors to detect odors of different wines. Odor detection facilitates the distinction of wines with different properties, including areas of production, vintage years, fermentation processes, and varietals. Four popular machine learning algorithms—extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost), random forest (RF), support vector machine (SVM), and backpropagation neural network (BPNN)—were used to build identification models for different classification tasks. Experimental results show that BPNN achieved the best performance, with accuracies of 94% and 92.5% in identifying production areas and varietals, respectively; and SVM achieved the best performance in identifying vintages and fermentation processes, with accuracies of 67.3% and 60.5%, respectively. Results demonstrate the effectiveness of the developed E-nose, which could be used to distinguish different wines based on their properties following selection of an optimal algorithm.
Succinate:quinone oxidoreductases (SQORs) are integral membrane protein complexes, which couple the two-electron oxidation of succinate to fumarate (succinate → fumarate + 2H+ + 2e-) to the two-electron reduction of quinone to quinol (quinone + 2H+ + 2e- → quinol) as well as catalyzing the opposite reaction, the reduction of fumarate by quinol. In mitochondria and some aerobic bacteria, succinate:ubiquinone reductase, also known as complex II of the aerobic respiratory chain or as succinate dehydrogenase from the tricarboxylic acid (TCA or Krebs) cycle, catalyzes the oxidation of succinate by ubiquinone, which is mildly exergonic under standart conditions and not directly associated with energy storage in the form of a transmembrane electrochemical proton potential (Δp). Gram-positive bacteria do not contain ubiquinone but rather menaquinone, a quinone with significantly lower oxidation-reduction (“redox”) midpoint potential. In these cases, the catalyzed oxidation of succinate by quinone is endergonic under standard conditions. Consequently, these bacteria face a thermodynamic problem in supporting the catalysis of this reaction in vivo. Based on experimental evidence obtained on whole cells and purified membranes, it had previously been proposed that the SQR from Gram-positive bacteria supports this reaction at the expense of the protonmotive force, Δp. Nonetheless, it has been argued that the observed Δp dependence is not associated specifically with the activity of SQR because the occurrence of artifacts in experiments with bacterial membranes and whole cells can not be fully excluded. Clearly, definitive insight into the mechanism of catalysis of this intriguing reaction required a corresponding functional characterization of an isolated, membranebound SQR from a Gram-positive bacterium. The first aim of the present work addresses the question if the general feasibility of the energetically uphill electron transfer from succinate to menaquinone is associated specifically to a single enzyme complex, the SQR. The prerequisite to achieve this goal was stable preparation of this enzyme.
The universal biological energy currency adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is synthesized by the F1Fo-ATP synthase in most living organisms. The overall structure and function of F-type ATPases is conserved in the different organisms. The F1Fo-ATP synthase consist of two domains; the soluble F1 complex has the subunit stoichiometry α3β3γδε and the membrane embedded Fo complex consists of subunits ab2c10-15 in its simplest form found in bacteria. F1 and Fo both function as reversible rotary motors that are connected by a central stalk (γε) and a peripheral stalk (b2δ).
For ATP synthesis, the electrochemical energy formed by a proton or sodium ion gradient is required. The ion translocation across the Fo subcomplex induces torque in the motor part of the enzyme (cnγε), which causes conformational changes in the α3β3 domain leading to ATP synthesis from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) catalyzed in the β-subunits. ATP hydrolysis causes a reverse torque in the Fo subcomplex triggering uphill ion translocation from cytoplasm to periplasm, and the enzyme functions as an ion pump.
The ATP synthesis mechanism is well understood, since several high-resolution structures of F1 are available. In contrast, the ion translocation mechanism across the membrane, mediated by the Fo subcomplex, is not understood in its structural detail.
Subunit a and the c-ring form an ion pathway, but subunit b is needed to form an active ion translocation pathway in both H+- and Na+-dependent systems. Several high-resolution structures of c-rings have provided insights in the ion translocation mechanism. The different ion translocation models based on biochemical, biophysical and structural analysis are in agreement in the fact that ions are translocated through a periplasmic ion access pathway in subunit a to the middle of the membrane and there to the binding site of a c-subunit. After almost a whole rotation of the c-ring the ion returns into the a-c interface, where it can be released to the cytoplasm. In the different models the cytoplasmic access pathway has been proposed to be located in subunit a, at the a-c interface or within the c-ring. The driving force of torque generation has been proposed to be the pH gradient or membrane potential. Several biochemical studies show that a conserved arginine in helix four of subunit a (R226 in Ilyobacter tartaricus or R210 in Escherichia coli)plays a critical role in the ion translocation. The arginine has been proposed to function as an electrostatic separator between the cytoplasmic and periplasmic pathways and as a mediator of the ion exchange into the c-ring ion-binding site.
Structural data of a related enzyme (V1Vo-ATPase from Thermus thermophilus) has provided insight into the helical arrangement of the ion translocating subunits I and Lring (related to subunit a and the c-ring). These structures indicated a small interface between subunit I and the L-ring, and two four-helix bundles in the N-terminal domain of subunit I were proposed to build the periplasmic and cytoplasmic ion pathways. To comprehend the ion-translocation and torque generation mechanism in F1Fo-ATP synthase, structural data of an intact a-c complex is needed.
The goal of this work was to obtain structural data of subunit a, most preferably in a complex with the c-ring or additionally with subunit b. Therefore, a new purification procedure for the I. tartaricus Fo-subcomplex, heterologously expressed in E. coli cells, was established. The purified Fo was characterized biochemically and by Laserinduced liquid bead ion desorption mass spectrometry (LILBID-MS). These analyses showed that pure and completely assembled Fo containing all its subunits in the correct stoichiometry (ab2c11) was obtained. The purified Fo complex was stable at 4°C for several months and at room temperature in the presence of lipids for several weeks. A lipid analysis was performed by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) to investigate the qualitative lipid composition of I. tartaricus whole lipid extract and various I. tartaricus F1Fo isolates. The whole lipid extract contained PC, PG and PE lipids and probably cardiolipin. PC, PG and PE lipids were bound to wild type I. tartaricus F1Fo, whereas recombinant I. tartaricus F1Fo did not have any bound lipids, but was able to bind the synthetic lipids POPC and POPG if they were provided during the purification.
For subsequent structural studies the purified Fo was subjected to two-dimensional (2D) crystallization trials. Vesicles and sheets tightly packed with protein and crystals with a rare plane group for I. tartaricus c11 (p121) were obtained. The c-ring was visible in the CCD images, and immunogold-labeling revealed the presence of the His-tagged a-subunit in the reconstituted vesicles. Furthermore, atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging showed protein densities next to the c-rings, which protruded less from the membrane (0.4±0.1 nm) than the c-ring (0.7±0.1 nm). These protein densities presumably belonged to subunit a.
Cryo-electronmicroscopy (cryo-EM) was used to collect data of the p121 crystals and a merged projection density map was calculated to 7.0 Å resolution. The unit cell of the crystals (81 × 252 Å) contained two asymmetric units with three c-rings in each and next to the c11-rings new prominent densities were visible. In each extra density up to 7 transmembrane helices were visible, belonging to the stator subunit a and/or subunit b. To elucidate whether there are conserved elements in the three extra densities non-crystallographic averaging was applied using a single-particle approach.
Six possible arrangements for the c-rings and the extra densities were identified and used for the averaging. The extra densities were enhanced only in one of the possible arrangements. The average showed a four-helix bundle and a fifth helix in close proximity to the c-ring. Two more helices were present in each position but their position was ambivalent. The data obtained in this work provides the first insight in the helical arrangement in the a-c interface of F1Fo-ATP synthase.
ATP synthases are multi-subunit membrane enzymes, which utilize the energy stored in a transmembrane electrochemical ion gradient to produce adenosine-5´-triphosphate (ATP), the universal energy carrier in biological systems. Research on these important enzymes goes back more than 50 years and has produced innumerable studies. The F-type ATP synthase consists of two functionally distinct, but tightly coupled subcomplexes, the water-soluble F1 and the membrane-embedded Fo complex. In its simplest form, F1 consists of five different subunits with a stoichiometry of α 3β3γδε, and harbors three catalytic centers in the α 3β3-headpiece, while Fo consists of three different subunits in a stoichiometry of ab2cn, where n varies between 8 to 15 depending on the species. From a mechanistic standpoint, the complex can also be divided into two different units, namely a stator, α3β3δ-ab2, and a rotor, γε-cn. The enzyme utilizes the energy stored in a transmembrane electrochemical gradient of protons, or in some cases Na+, to drive ATP synthesis. In particular, the downhill translocation of these ions across the Fo complex drives rotation of the γε-cn unit, which is then transduced to the active centers, catalyzing the phosphorylation of adenosine-5`-diphosphate (ADP) with inorganic phosphate (Pi), and the release of ATP....
G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the key players in signal perception and transduction and one of the currently most important class of drug targets. An example of high pharmacological relevance is the human endothelin (ET) system comprising two rhodopsin-like GPCRs, the endothelin A (ETA) and the endothelin B (ETB) receptor. Both receptors are major modulators in cardiovascular regulation and show striking diversities in biological responses affecting vasoconstriction and blood pressure regulation as well as many other physiological processes. Numerous disorders are associated with ET dysfunction and ET antagonism is considered an efficient treatment of diseases like heart failure, hypertension, diabetes, artherosclerosis and even cancer. This study exemplifies strategies and approaches for the preparative scale synthesis of GPCRs in individual cell-free (CF) systems based on E. coli, a newly emerging and promising technique for the production of even very difficult membrane proteins. The preparation of high quality samples in sufficient amounts is still a major bottleneck for the structural determination of the ET receptors. Heterologous overexpression has been a challenge now for decades but extensive studies with conventional cell-based systems had only limited success. A central milestone of this study was the development of efficient preparative scale expression protocols of the ETA receptor in qualities sufficient for structural analysis by using individual CF systems. Newly designed optimization strategies, the implementation of a variety of CF expression modes and the development of specific quality control assays finally resulted in the production of several milligrams of ETA receptor per one millilitre of reaction mixture. The versatility of CF expression was extensively used to modulate GPCR sample quality by modification of the solubilization environment with detergents and lipids in a variety of combinations at different stages of the production process. Downstream processing procedures of CF synthesized GPCRs were systematically optimized and sample properties were analysed with respect to homogeneity, protein stability and receptor ligand binding competence. Evaluation was accomplished by an array of complementary and specifically modified techniques. Depending on its hydrophobic environment, CF production of the ETA receptor resulted in non-aggregated, monodisperse forms with sufficient long-term stability and high degrees of secondary structure thermostability. The obtained results document the CF production of the ETA receptor in two different modes as an example of a class A GPCR in ligand-binding competent and non-aggregated form in quantities sufficient for structural approaches. The presented strategy could serve as basic guideline for the production of related receptors in similar systems.
Background: Threonine Aspartase 1 (Taspase1) mediates cleavage of the mixed lineage leukemia (MLL) protein and leukemia provoking MLL-fusions. In contrast to other proteases, the understanding of Taspase1's (patho)biological relevance and function is limited, since neither small molecule inhibitors nor cell based functional assays for Taspase1 are currently available. Methodology/Findings: Efficient cell-based assays to probe Taspase1 function in vivo are presented here. These are composed of glutathione S-transferase, autofluorescent protein variants, Taspase1 cleavage sites and rational combinations of nuclear import and export signals. The biosensors localize predominantly to the cytoplasm, whereas expression of biologically active Taspase1 but not of inactive Taspase1 mutants or of the protease Caspase3 triggers their proteolytic cleavage and nuclear accumulation. Compared to in vitro assays using recombinant components the in vivo assay was highly efficient. Employing an optimized nuclear translocation algorithm, the triple-color assay could be adapted to a high-throughput microscopy platform (Z'factor = 0.63). Automated high-content data analysis was used to screen a focused compound library, selected by an in silico pharmacophor screening approach, as well as a collection of fungal extracts. Screening identified two compounds, N-[2-[(4-amino-6-oxo-3H-pyrimidin-2-yl)sulfanyl]ethyl]benzenesulfonamideand 2-benzyltriazole-4,5-dicarboxylic acid, which partially inhibited Taspase1 cleavage in living cells. Additionally, the assay was exploited to probe endogenous Taspase1 in solid tumor cell models and to identify an improved consensus sequence for efficient Taspase1 cleavage. This allowed the in silico identification of novel putative Taspase1 targets. Those include the FERM Domain-Containing Protein 4B, the Tyrosine-Protein Phosphatase Zeta, and DNA Polymerase Zeta. Cleavage site recognition and proteolytic processing of these substrates were verified in the context of the biosensor. Conclusions: The assay not only allows to genetically probe Taspase1 structure function in vivo, but is also applicable for high-content screening to identify Taspase1 inhibitors. Such tools will provide novel insights into Taspase1's function and its potential therapeutic relevance.
Acinetobacter baumannii is an important nosocomial pathogen that requires thoughtful consideration in the antibiotic prescription strategy due to its multidrug resistant phenotype. Tetracycline antibiotics have recently been re-administered as part of the combination antimicrobial regimens to treat infections caused by A. baumannii. We show that the TetA(G) efflux pump of A. baumannii AYE confers resistance to a variety of tetracyclines including the clinically important antibiotics doxycycline and minocycline, but not to tigecycline. Expression of tetA(G) gene is regulated by the TetR repressor of A. baumannii AYE (AbTetR). Thermal shift binding experiments revealed that AbTetR preferentially binds tetracyclines which carry a O-5H moiety in ring B, whereas tetracyclines with a 7-dimethylamino moiety in ring D are less well-recognized by AbTetR. Confoundingly, tigecycline binds to AbTetR even though it is not transported by TetA(G) efflux pump. Structural analysis of the minocycline-bound AbTetR-Gln116Ala variant suggested that the non-conserved Arg135 interacts with the ring D of minocycline by cation-π interaction, while the invariant Arg104 engages in H-bonding with the O-11H of minocycline. Interestingly, the Arg135Ala variant exhibited a binding preference for tetracyclines with an unmodified ring D. In contrast, the Arg104Ala variant preferred to bind tetracyclines which carry a O-6H moiety in ring C except for tigecycline. We propose that Arg104 and Arg135, which are embedded at the entrance of the AbTetR binding pocket, play important roles in the recognition of tetracyclines, and act as a barrier to prevent the release of tetracycline from its binding pocket upon AbTetR activation. The binding data and crystal structures obtained in this study might provide further insight for the development of new tetracycline antibiotics to evade the specific efflux resistance mechanism deployed by A. baumannii.
ncubation of class II chloroplasts of spinach with copper in the light at pH = 8 in concentrations that inhibit oxygen evolution results in the formation of a copper (II) protein complex with the photosynthetic membrane. The EPR spectra indicate that the four nearest ligands to Cu(II) consist of three oxygen atoms and one nitrogen atom. The copper (II) protein appears to be pre dominantly associated with photosystem II. The formation of this protein as measured by the EPR signal amplitude of its room temperature spectrum correlates with the inhibition of oxygen evolution and of electron transport within photosystem I. This result indicates that the inhibition of photosynthetic electron transport by copper may be due to the formation of a copper (II) chelate with a membrane protein.
The C. elegans nervous system is particularly well suited for optogenetic analyses of circuit function: Essentially all connections have been mapped, and light can be directed at the neuron of interest in the freely moving, transparent animals, while behavior is observed. Thus, different nodes of a neuronal network can be probed for their role in controlling a particular behavior, using different optogenetic tools for photo-activation or –inhibition, which respond to different colors of light. As neurons may act in concert or in opposing ways to affect a behavior, one would further like to excite these neurons concomitantly, yet independent of each other. In addition to the blue-light activated Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2), spectrally red-shifted ChR variants have been explored recently. Here, we establish the green-light activated ChR chimera C1V1 (from Chlamydomonas and Volvox ChR1′s) for use in C. elegans. We surveyed a number of red-shifted ChRs, and found that C1V1-ET/ET (E122T; E162T) works most reliable in C. elegans, with 540–580 nm excitation, which leaves ChR2 silent. However, as C1V1-ET/ET is very light sensitive, it still becomes activated when ChR2 is stimulated, even at 400 nm. Thus, we generated a highly efficient blue ChR2, the H134R; T159C double mutant (ChR2-HR/TC). Both proteins can be used in the same animal, in different neurons, to independently control each cell type with light, enabling a further level of complexity in circuit analyses.
HER2 belongs to the ErbB sub-family of receptor tyrosine kinases and regulates cellular proliferation and growth. Different from other ErbB receptors, HER2 has no known ligand. Activation occurs through heterodimerization with other ErbB receptors and their cognate ligands. This suggests several possible activation paths of HER2 with ligand-specific, differential response, which so far remained unexplored. Using single-molecule tracking and the diffusion profile of HER2 as a proxy for activity, we measured the activation strength and temporal profile in live cells. We found that HER2 is strongly activated by EGFR-targeting ligands EGF and TGFα, yet with a distinguishable temporal fingerprint. The HER4-targeting ligands EREG and NRGβ1 showed weaker activation of HER2, a preference for EREG and a delayed response to NRGβ1. Our results indicate a selective ligand response of HER2 that may serve as a regulatory element. Our experimental approach is easily transferable to other membrane receptors targeted by multiple ligands.
Highlights
HER2 exhibits heterogeneous motion in the plasma membrane
The fraction of immobile HER2 correlates with phosphorylation levels
Diffusion properties serve as proxies for HER2 activation
HER2 exhibits ligand-specific activation strength and temporal profiles
HER2 belongs to the ErbB sub-family of receptor tyrosine kinases and regulates cellular proliferation and growth. Different from other ErbB receptors, HER2 has no known ligand. Activation occurs through heterodimerization with other ErbB receptors and their cognate ligands. This suggests several possible activation paths of HER2 with ligand-specific, differential response, which so far remained unexplored. Using single-molecule tracking and the diffusion profile of HER2 as a proxy for activity, we measured the activation strength and temporal profile in live cells. We found that HER2 is strongly activated by EGFR-targeting ligands EGF and TGFα, yet with a distinguishable temporal fingerprint. The HER4-targeting ligands EREG and NRGβ1 showed weaker activation of HER2, a preference for EREG, and a delayed response to NRGβ1. Our results indicate a selective ligand response of HER2 that may serve as a regulatory element. Our experimental approach is easily transferable to other membrane receptors targeted by multiple ligands.
HER2 belongs to the ErbB sub-family of receptor tyrosine kinases and regulates cellular proliferation and growth. Different from other ErbB receptors, HER2 has no known ligand. Activation occurs through heterodimerization with other ErbB receptors and their cognate ligands. This suggests several possible activation paths of HER2 with ligand-specific, differential response, which has so far remained unexplored. Using single-molecule tracking and the diffusion profile of HER2 as a proxy for activity, we measured the activation strength and temporal profile in live cells. We found that HER2 is strongly activated by EGFR-targeting ligands EGF and TGFα, yet with a distinguishable temporal fingerprint. The HER4-targeting ligands EREG and NRGβ1 showed weaker activation of HER2, a preference for EREG, and a delayed response to NRGβ1. Our results indicate a selective ligand response of HER2 that may serve as a regulatory element. Our experimental approach is easily transferable to other membrane receptors targeted by multiple ligands.
EDTA is commonly used as an efficient chelator of metal ion enzyme cofactors. It is highly soluble, optically inactive and does not interfere with most chemicals used in standard buffers making EDTA a common choice to generate metal-free conditions for biochemical and biophysical investigations. However, the controversy in the literature on metal-free enzyme activities achieved using EDTA or by other means called our attention to a putative effect of EDTA beyond chelation. Here, we show that EDTA competes for the nucleotide binding site of the nucleotide hydrolase dUTPase by developing an interaction network within the active site similar to that of the substrate. To achieve these findings, we applied kinetics and molecular docking techniques using two different dUTPases. Furthermore, we directly measured the binding of EDTA to dUTPases and to two other dNTPases, the Taq polymerase and MutT using isothermal titration calorimetry. EDTA binding proved to be exothermic and mainly enthalpy driven with a submicromolar dissociation constant considerably lower than that of the enzyme:substrate or the Mg:EDTA complexes. Control proteins, including an ATPase, did not interact with EDTA. Our findings indicate that EDTA may act as a selective inhibitor against dNTP hydrolyzing enzymes and urge the rethinking of the utilization of EDTA in enzymatic experiments.
Gastric cancer is one of the most common malignancies and a leading cause of cancer death worldwide. The prognosis of stomach cancer is generally poor as this cancer is not very sensitive to commonly used chemotherapies. Epigenetic modifications play a key role in gastric cancer and contribute to the development and progression of this malignancy. In order to explore new treatment options in this target area we have screened a library of epigenetic inhibitors against gastric cancer cell lines and identified inhibitors for the BET family of bromodomains as potent inhibitors of gastric cancer cell proliferations. Here we show that both the pan-BET inhibitor (+)-JQ1 as well as a newly developed specific isoxazole inhibitor, PNZ5, showed potent inhibition of gastric cancer cell growth. Intriguingly, we found differences in the antiproliferative response between gastric cancer cells tested derived from Brazilian patients as compared to those from Asian patients, the latter being largely resistant to BET inhibition. As BET inhibitors are entering clinical trials these findings provide the first starting point for future therapies targeting gastric cancer.
Transport processes across the membrane are essential to ensure survival of every living cell. Therefore, the exchange of membrane impermeable molecules is mediated by specific transport proteins, which are embedded in the lipid bilayer.
One important class comprises secondary active transporters, which couple very efficiently the uphill transport of the main substrate against its concentration gradient to the downhill transport of an additional substrate. These transporters are widely distributed among all kingdoms of life and accomplish many crucial functions. One function is to counteract the deleterious effect of hyperosmotic stress in bacteria. Several members of the BCCT (betaine-choline-carnitinetransport) family of secondary transporters mediate osmostress protection by the accumulation of the compatible solute betaine or its precursor choline (Lamark et al., 1991; Peter et al., 1996; Ziegler et al., 2010). Besides osmo-dependent sodium or proton-coupled symporters, the BCCT family includes few rare representatives of osmo-independent transporters such as the substrate:product antiporter CaiT from E. coli (Jung et al., 2002; Ziegler et al., 2010).
The best-characterized member of the BCCT family is the sodium-coupled betaine transporter BetP from Corynebacterium glutamicum. BetP together with the ABCtransporter OpuA and the H+-solute symporter ProP, became a paradigm for osmoregulated osmolyte transport. Although, all three transporters were extensively studied, the general mechanism of osmoregulation is still far from being understood. Thus, one task of this thesis was to elucidate further the regulatory properties of BetP.
BetP is tightly regulated by osmotic stress and is able to increase its basal betaine uptake activity dramatically upon elevated osmolalities within one second (Peter et al., 1998a). The osmotic stress is sensed by BetP via two stimuli, one is the increase of the internal K+ concentration above a threshold of 220 mM (Rübenhagen et al., 2001), the second is related to a change in the physical state of the membrane (Maximov et al., 2014). So far, several solved crystal structures in combination with functional and computational analysis provided insights into the coupling mechanism of betaine and its co-substrate sodium (Khafizov et al., 2012; Perez et al., 2012). Despite the wealth of data, the precise regulatory mechanism of trimeric BetP is still unclear.
Bacterial porin disrupts mitochondrial membrane potential and sensitizes host cells to apoptosis
(2009)
The bacterial PorB porin, an ATP-binding beta-barrel protein of pathogenic Neisseria gonorrhoeae, triggers host cell apoptosis by an unknown mechanism. PorB is targeted to and imported by host cell mitochondria, causing the breakdown of the mitochondrial membrane potential (delta psi m). Here, we show that PorB induces the condensation of the mitochondrial matrix and the loss of cristae structures, sensitizing cells to the induction of apoptosis via signaling pathways activated by BH3-only proteins. PorB is imported into mitochondria through the general translocase TOM but, unexpectedly, is not recognized by the SAM sorting machinery, usually required for the assembly of beta-barrel proteins in the mitochondrial outer membrane. PorB integrates into the mitochondrial inner membrane, leading to the breakdown of delta psi m. The PorB channel is regulated by nucleotides and an isogenic PorB mutant defective in ATP-binding failed to induce delta psi m loss and apoptosis, demonstrating that dissipation of delta psi m is a requirement for cell death caused by neisserial infection.
Resonance assignments are challenging for membrane proteins due to the size of the lipid/detergent-protein complex and the presence of line-broadening from conformational exchange. As a consequence, many correlations are missing in the triple-resonance NMR experiments typically used for assignments. Herein, we present an approach in which correlations from these solution-state NMR experiments are supplemented by data from 13C unlabeling, single-amino acid type labeling, 4D NOESY data and proximity of moieties to lipids or water in combination with a structure of the protein. These additional data are used to edit the expected peaklists for the automated assignment protocol FLYA, a module of the program package CYANA. We demonstrate application of the protocol to the 262-residue proton pump from archaeal bacteriorhodopsin (bR) in lipid nanodiscs. The lipid-protein assembly is characterized by an overall correlation time of 44 ns. The protocol yielded assignments for 62% of all backbone (H, N, Cα, Cβ, C′) resonances of bR, corresponding to 74% of all observed backbone spin systems, and 60% of the Ala, Met, Ile (δ1), Leu and Val methyl groups, thus enabling to assign a large fraction of the protein without mutagenesis data. Most missing resonances stem from the extracellular half, likely due intermediate exchange line-broadening. Further analysis revealed that missing information of the amino acid type of the preceding residue is the largest problem, and that 4D NOESY experiments are particularly helpful to compensate for that information loss.
The photoregulation of nucleic acids by azobenzene photoswitches has recently attracted considerable interest in the context of emerging biotechnological applications. To understand the mechanism of photoinduced isomerisation and conformational control in these complex biological environments, we employ a Quantum Mechanics/Molecular Mechanics (QM/MM) approach in conjunction with nonadiabatic Surface Hopping (SH) dynamics. Two representative RNA–azobenzene complexes are investigated, both of which contain the azobenzene chromophore covalently attached to an RNA double strand via a β-deoxyribose linker. Due to the pronounced constraints of the local RNA environment, it is found that trans-to-cis isomerization is slowed down to a time scale of ∼10–15 picoseconds, in contrast to 500 femtoseconds in vacuo, with a quantum yield reduced by a factor of two. By contrast, cis-to-trans isomerization remains in a sub-picosecond regime. A volume-conserving isomerization mechanism is found, similarly to the pedal-like mechanism previously identified for azobenzene in solution phase. Strikingly, the chiral RNA environment induces opposite right-handed and left-handed helicities of the ground-state cis-azobenzene chromophore in the two RNA–azobenzene complexes, along with an almost completely chirality conserving photochemical pathway for these helical enantiomers.
Das Hauptziel dieser Dissertation lag in der Verbesserung einzelner Schritte im Prozess der automatischen Proteinstrukturbestimmung mittels Kernmagnetischer Resonanz (NMR). Dieser Prozess besteht aus einer Reihe von sequenziellen Schritten, welche zum Teil bereits erfolgreich automatisiert wurden. CYANA ist ein Programmpaket, welches routinemäßig zur automatischen Zuordnung der chemischen Verschiebungen, der Nuclear Overhauser Enhancement (NOE) Signalen und der Strukturrechnung von Proteinen verwendet wird. Einer der Schritte, der noch nicht erfolgreich automatisiert wurde, stellt die Signalidentifizierung von NMR Spektren dar. Dieser Schritt ist besonders wichtig, da Listen von NMR-Signalen Grundlage aller Folgeschritte sind. Fehler in den Signallisten pflanzen sich in allen Folgeschritten der Datenauswertung fort und können am Ende in falschen Strukturen resultieren. Daher war ein Ziel dieser Arbeit, einen robusten und verlässlichen Algorithmus zur Signalidentifizierung von NMR Spektren in CYANA zu implementieren. Dieser Algorithmus sollte mit dem in FLYA implementierten Ansatz zur automatischen Resonanzzuordnung, der automatischen NOE-Zuordnung und der Strukturrechnung mit CYANA kombiniert werden. Der in CYANA implementierte CYPICK Algorithmus ahmt den von Hand durchgeführten Ansatz nach. Bei der manuellen Methode schaut sich der Wissenschaftler zweidimensionale Konturliniendarstellungen der NMR Spektren an und entscheidet anhand verschiedener Geomtrie- und Ähnlichkeitskriterien, ob es sich um ein Signal des Proteins oder um einen Artefakt handelt. Proteinsignale sind ähnlich zu konzentrischen Ellipsen und erfüllen bestimmte geometrische Kriterien, wie zum Beispiel ungefähr kreisförmiges Aussehen nach entsprechender Skalierung der spektralen Achsen und gänzlich konvexe Formen, die Artefakte nicht aufzeigen. CYPICK bewertet die Konturlinien lokaler Extrema nach diesen Bedingungen und entscheidet anhand dieser, ob es sich um ein echtes Signal handelt oder nicht. Das zweite Ziel dieser Arbeit war es ein Maß zur Quantifizierung der Information von strukturellen NMR Distanzeinschränkungen zu entwickeln. Der sogenannte Informationsgehalt (I) ist vergleichbar mit der Auflösung in der Röntgenkristallographie. Ein weiteres Projekt dieser Dissertation beschäftigte sich mit der strukturbasierten Medikamentenentwicklung (SBDD). SBDD wird meist von der Röntgenkristallographie durchgeführt. NMR hat jedoch einige Vorteile gegenüber der Röntgenkristallographie, welche interessant für SBDD sind. Daher wurden Strategien entwickelt, die NMR für SBDD zugänglicher machen sollen.
Understanding the nano-architecture of protein machines in diverse subcellular compartments remains a challenge despite rapid progress in super-resolution microscopy. While single-molecule localization microscopy techniques allow the visualization and identification of cellular structures with near-molecular resolution, multiplex-labeling of tens of target proteins within the same sample has not yet been achieved routinely. However, single sample multiplexing is essential to detect patterns that threaten to get lost in multi-sample averaging. Here, we report maS3TORM (multiplexed automated serial staining stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy), a microscopy approach capable of fully automated 3D direct STORM (dSTORM) imaging and solution exchange employing a re-staining protocol to achieve highly multiplexed protein localization within individual biological samples. We demonstrate 3D super-resolution images of 15 targets in single cultured cells and 16 targets in individual neuronal tissue samples with <10 nm localization precision, allowing us to define distinct nano-architectural features of protein distribution within the presynaptic nerve terminal.
Understanding the nano-architecture of protein machines in diverse sub-cellular compartments remains a challenge despite rapid progress in super-resolution microscopy. While singlemolecule localization microscopy techniques allow the visualization and identification of cellular structures with near-molecular resolution, multiplex-labeling of tens of target proteins within the same sample has not yet been achieved routinely. However, single sample multiplexing is essential to detect patterns that threaten to get lost in multi-sample averaging. Here, we report maS3TORM (multiplexed automated serial staining stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy), a microscopy approach capable of fully automated 3D dSTORM imaging and solution exchange employing a re-staining protocol to achieve highly multiplexed protein localization within individual biological samples. We demonstrate 3D super-resolution images of 15 target proteins in single cultured cells and 16 targets in individual neuronal tissue samples with <10 nm localization precision. This allowed us to define novel nano-architectural features of protein distribution within the presynaptic nerve terminal.
The three-dimensional structure determination of RNAs by NMR spectroscopy relies on chemical shift assignment, which still constitutes a bottleneck. In order to develop more efficient assignment strategies, we analysed relationships between sequence and 1H and 13C chemical shifts. Statistics of resonances from regularly Watson– Crick base-paired RNA revealed highly characteristic chemical shift clusters. We developed two approaches using these statistics for chemical shift assignment of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA): a manual approach that yields starting points for resonance assignment and simplifies decision trees and an automated approach based on the recently introduced automated resonance assignment algorithm FLYA. Both strategies require only unlabeled RNAs and three 2D spectra for assigning the H2/C2, H5/C5, H6/C6, H8/C8 and H10/C10 chemical shifts. The manual approach proved to be efficient and robust when applied to the experimental data of RNAs with a size between 20 nt and 42 nt. The more advanced automated assignment approach was successfully applied to four stemloop RNAs and a 42 nt siRNA, assigning 92–100% of the resonances from dsRNA regions correctly. This is the first automated approach for chemical shift assignment of non-exchangeable protons of RNA and their corresponding 13C resonances, which provides an important step toward automated structure determination of RNAs.
Macrophages ingesting apoptotic cells attenuate inflammatory responses, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. In atherosclerosis, ongoing inflammation and accumulation of apoptotic/necrotic material are observed, suggesting defects of phagocytes in recognizing or responding to dying cells. Modified lipoproteins such as oxidized LDL (oxLDL) are known to promote inflammation and to interfere with apoptotic cell clearance. Here, we studied the impact of cells exposed to oxLDL on their ability to interfere with the oxidative burst in phagocytes. In contrast to apoptotic cells, cells dying in response to or in the presence of oxLDL failed to suppress ROS generation despite efficiently being taken up by phagocytes. In addition, apoptotic cells, but not oxLDL-treated cells, inhibited phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase, which is important for NADPH oxidase activation. oxLDL treatment did not interfere with activation of the antiinflammatory transcriptional regulator peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma by apoptotic cells. Moreover, cells exposed to oxLDL failed to suppress lipopolysaccharide- induced proinflammatory cytokine expression, whereas apoptotic cells attenuated these phagocyte responses. Thus, the presence of oxLDL during cell death impaired the ability of apoptotic cells to act antiinflammatory with regard to oxidative burst inhibition and cytokine expression in phagocytes.
Attenuated NOX2 expression impairs ROS production during the hypoinflammatory phase of sepsis
(2012)
Background: The multicomponent phagocytic NADPH oxidase produces reactive oxygen species (ROS) after activation by microorganisms or inflammatory mediators. In the hypoinflammatory phase of sepsis, macrophages are alternatively activated by contact with apoptotic cells or their secretion products. This inhibits NADPH oxidase and leads to attenuated ROS production and furthermore contributes among others to a hyporeactive host defense. Due to this immune paralysis, sepsis patients suffer from recurrent and secondary infections. We focused on the catalytic subunit of NADPH oxidase, the transmembrane protein NOX2. We assume that after induction of sepsis the expression of NOX2 is reduced and hence ROS production is decreased.
Methods: We induced polymicrobial sepsis in mice by cecal ligation and puncture. The ability of peritoneal macrophages (PMs) to produce ROS was determined by FACS via hydroethidine assay. NOX2 expression of PMs was determined by western blot and qPCR. To elucidate the mechanism causing mRNA destabilization, we performed in vitro experiments using J774 macrophages. To obtain an alternatively activated phenotype, macrophages were stimulated with conditioned medium from apoptotic T cells (CM). By luciferase assays we figured out a 3'UTR-dependent regulation of NOX2 mRNA stability. Assuming that a protein is involved in the mRNA degradation, we performed a RNA pulldown with biotinylated NOX2-3'UTR constructs followed by mass spectrometry. We verified the role of SYNCRIP by siRNA approach. Additionally, we overexpressed NOX2 in J774 cells and analyzed the ROS production (w/wo CM treatment) by FACS.
Results: We found an impaired expression of NOX2 at RNA and protein level along with decreased ROS production after induction of sepsis in mice as well as stimulating J774 macrophages with CM of apoptotic T cells. This is due to a time-dependent NOX2 mRNA degradation depending on SYNCRIP, a RNA-binding protein, which stabilizes NOX2 mRNA through binding to its 3'UTR under normal conditions. In line, knockdown of SYNCRIP also decreases NOX2 mRNA expression. We assume that a CM-dependent modification or degradation of SYNCRIP prevents its stabilizing function. As the overexpression of NOX2 restores ROS production of CM-treated J774 cells, we assume that NOX2 expression is crucial for maintaining NADPH activity during the hypoinflammatory phase of sepsis.
Conclusion: Our data imply a regulatory impact of SYNCRIP on NOX2 stability during the late phase of sepsis. Therefore, further understanding of the regulation of NADPH oxidase could lead to the design of a therapy to reconstitute NADPH oxidase function, finally improving immune function in sepsis patients.
Atomic-level analyses of non-native protein ensembles constitute an important aspect of protein folding studies to reach a more complete understanding of how proteins attain their native form exhibiting biological activity. Previously, formation of hydrophobic clusters in the 6 M urea-denatured state of an ultrafast folding mini-protein known as TC5b from both photo-CIDNP NOE transfer studies and FCS measurements was observed. Here, we elucidate the structural properties of this mini-protein denatured in 6 M urea performing 15N NMR relaxation studies together with a thorough NOE analysis. Even though our results demonstrate that no elements of secondary structure persist in the denatured state, the heterogeneous distribution of R2 rate constants together with observing pronounced heteronuclear NOEs along the peptide backbone reveals specific regions of urea-denatured TC5b exhibiting a high degree of structural rigidity more frequently observed for native proteins. The data are complemented with studies on two TC5b point mutants to verify the importance of hydrophobic interactions for fast folding. Our results corroborate earlier findings of a hydrophobic cluster present in urea-denatured TC5b comprising both native and non-native contacts underscoring their importance for ultra rapid folding. The data assist in finding ways of interpreting the effects of pre-existing native and/or non-native interactions on the ultrafast folding of proteins; a fact, which might have to be considered when defining the starting conditions for molecular dynamics simulation studies of protein folding.
The enantioselective synthesis of 2-aryl-substituted 2,3-dihydroquinolin-4-ones, a class of heterocyclic compounds with interesting biological activities, has been achieved through a Brønsted acidcatalyzed enantioselective intramolecular Michael addition. The products are available in moderate to high yields and with good enantioselectivities.
We have investigated the mechanism responsible for half-of-the-sites activity in the dimeric cytochrome bc(1) complex from Paracoccus denitrificans by characterizing the kinetics of inhibitor binding to the ubiquinol oxidation site at center P. Both myxothiazol and stigmatellin induced a 2-3 nm shift of the visible absorbance spectrum of the b(L) heme. The shift generated by myxothiazol was symmetric, with monophasic kinetics that indicate equal binding of this inhibitor to both center P sites. In contrast, stigmatellin generated an asymmetric shift in the b(L) spectrum, with biphasic kinetics in which each phase contributed approximately half of the total magnitude of the spectral change. The faster binding phase corresponded to a more symmetrical shift of the b(L) spectrum relative to the slower binding phase, indicating that approximately half of the center P sites bound stigmatellin more slowly and in a different position relative to the b(L) heme, generating a different effect on its electronic environment. Significantly, the slow stigmatellin binding phase was lost as the inhibitor concentration was increased. This implies that a conformational change is transmitted from one center P site in the dimer to the other upon stigmatellin binding to one monomer, rendering the second site less accessible to the inhibitor. Because the position that stigmatellin occupies at center P is considered to be analogous to that of the quinol substrate at the moment of electron transfer, these results indicate that the productive enzyme-substrate configuration is prevented from occurring in both monomers simultaneously.
The cytochrome bc1 complex recycles one of the two electrons from quinol (QH2) oxidation at center P by reducing quinone (Q) at center N to semiquinone (SQ), which is bound tightly. We have analyzed the properties of SQ bound at center N of the yeast bc1 complex. The EPR-detectable signal, which reports SQ bound in the vicinity of reduced bH heme, was abolished by the center N inhibitors antimycin, funiculosin, and ilicicolin H, but was unchanged by the center P inhibitors myxothiazol and stigmatellin. After correcting for the EPR-silent SQ bound close to oxidized bH, we calculated a midpoint redox potential (Em) of approximately 90 mV for all bound SQ. Considering the Em values for bH and free Q, this result indicates that center N preferentially stabilizes SQ.bH(3+) complexes. This favors recycling of the electron coming from center P and also implies a >2.5-fold higher affinity for QH2 than for Q at center N, which would potentially inhibit bH oxidation by Q. Using pre-steady-state kinetics, we show that Q does not inhibit the initial rate of bH reduction by QH2 through center N, but does decrease the extent of reduction, indicating that Q binds only when bH is reduced, whereas QH2 binds when bH is oxidized. Kinetic modeling of these results suggests that formation of SQ at one center N in the dimer allows stabilization of SQ in the other monomer by Q reduction after intradimer electron transfer. This model allows maximum SQ.bH(3+) formation without inhibition of Q binding by QH2.
Antigen presentation to cytotoxic T lymphocytes via major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC I) molecules depends on the heterodimeric transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP). For efficient antigen supply to MHC I molecules in the ER, TAP assembles a macromolecular peptide-loading complex (PLC) by recruiting tapasin. In evolution, TAP appeared together with effector cells of adaptive immunity at the transition from jawless to jawed vertebrates and diversified further within the jawed vertebrates. Here, we compared TAP function and interaction with tapasin of a range of species within two classes of jawed vertebrates. We found that avian and mammalian TAP1 and TAP2 form heterodimeric complexes across taxa. Moreover, the extra N-terminal domain TMD0 of mammalian TAP1 and TAP2 as well as avian TAP2 recruits tapasin. Strikingly, however, only TAP1 and TAP2 from the same taxon can form a functional heterodimeric translocation complex. These data demonstrate that the dimerization interface between TAP1 and TAP2 and the tapasin docking sites for PLC assembly are conserved in evolution, whereas elements of antigen translocation diverged later in evolution and are thus taxon specific.
Artificial splitting of a non‐ribosomal peptide synthetase by inserting natural docking domains
(2020)
The interaction in multisubunit non‐ribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPSs) is mediated by docking domains that ensure the correct subunit‐to‐subunit interaction. We introduced natural docking domains into the three‐module xefoampeptide synthetase (XfpS) to create two to three artificial NRPS XfpS subunits. The enzymatic performance of the split biosynthesis was measured by absolute quantification of the products by HPLC‐ESI‐MS. The connecting role of the docking domains was probed by deleting integral parts of them. The peptide production data was compared to soluble protein amounts of the NRPS using SDS‐PAGE. Reduced peptide synthesis was not a result of reduced soluble NRPS concentration but a consequence of the deletion of vital docking domain parts. Splitting the xefoampeptide biosynthesis polypeptide by introducing docking domains was feasible and resulted in higher amounts of product in one of the two tested split‐module cases compared to the full‐length wild‐type enzyme.
Artificial environments for the co-translational stabilization of cell-free expressed proteins
(2013)
An approach for designing individual expression environments that reduce or prevent protein aggregation and precipitation is described. Inefficient folding of difficult proteins in unfavorable translation environments can cause significant losses of overexpressed proteins as precipitates or inclusion bodies. A number of chemical chaperones including alcohols, polyols, polyions or polymers are known to have positive effects on protein stability. However, conventional expression approaches can use such stabilizing agents only post-translationally during protein extraction and purification. Proteins that already precipitate inside of the producer cells cannot be addressed. The open nature of cell-free protein expression systems offers the option to include single chemicals or cocktails of stabilizing compounds already into the expression environment. We report an approach for systematic screening of stabilizers in order to improve the solubility and quality of overexpressed proteins co-translationally. A comprehensive list of representative protein stabilizers from the major groups of naturally occurring chemical chaperones has been analyzed and their concentration ranges tolerated by cell-free expression systems have been determined. As a proof of concept, we have applied the method to improve the yield of proteins showing instability and partial precipitation during cell-free synthesis. Stabilizers that co-translationally improve the solubility and functional folding of human glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase have been identified and cumulative effects of stabilizers have been studied.
Cardiac arrhythmias are often associated with mutations in ion channels or other proteins. To enable drug development for distinct arrhythmias, model systems are required that allow implementing patient-specific mutations. We assessed a muscular pump in Caenorhabditis elegans. The pharynx utilizes homologues of most of the ion channels, pumps and transporters defining human cardiac physiology. To yield precise rhythmicity, we optically paced the pharynx using channelrhodopsin-2. We assessed pharynx pumping by extracellular recordings (electropharyngeograms--EPGs), and by a novel video-microscopy based method we developed, which allows analyzing multiple animals simultaneously. Mutations in the L-type VGCC (voltage-gated Ca(2+)-channel) EGL-19 caused prolonged pump duration, as found for analogous mutations in the Cav1.2 channel, associated with long QT syndrome. egl-19 mutations affected ability to pump at high frequency and induced arrhythmicity. The pharyngeal neurons did not influence these effects. We tested whether drugs could ameliorate arrhythmia in the optogenetically paced pharynx. The dihydropyridine analog Nemadipine A prolonged pump duration in wild type, and reduced or prolonged pump duration of distinct egl-19 alleles, thus indicating allele-specific effects. In sum, our model may allow screening of drug candidates affecting specific VGCCs mutations, and permit to better understand the effects of distinct mutations on a macroscopic level.
Arrangement of electron transport chain components in bovine mitochondrial supercomplex I1III2IV1
(2011)
The respiratory chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane contains three large multi-enzyme complexes that together establish the proton gradient for ATP synthesis, and assemble into a supercomplex. A 19-Å 3D map of the 1.7-MDa amphipol-solubilized supercomplex I1III2IV1 from bovine heart obtained by single-particle electron cryo-microscopy reveals an amphipol belt replacing the membrane lipid bilayer. A precise fit of the X-ray structures of complex I, the complex III dimer, and monomeric complex IV indicates distances of 13 nm between the ubiquinol-binding sites of complexes I and III, and of 10–11 nm between the cytochrome c binding sites of complexes III and IV. The arrangement of respiratory chain complexes suggests two possible pathways for efficient electron transfer through the supercomplex, of which the shorter branch through the complex III monomer proximal to complex I may be preferred.
The thermodynamics of base pairing is of fundamental importance. Fluorinated base analogs are valuable tools for investigating pairing interactions. To understand the influence of direct base–base interactions in relation to the role of water, pairing free energies between natural nucleobases and fluorinated analogs are estimated by potential of mean force calculations. Compared to pairing of AU and GC, pairing involving fluorinated analogs is unfavorable by 0.5–1.0 kcal mol -1. Decomposing the pairing free energies into enthalpic and entropic contributions reveals fundamental differences for Watson–Crick pairs compared to pairs involving fluorinated analogs. These differences originate from direct base–base interactions and contributions of water. Pairing free energies of fluorinated base analogs with natural bases are less unfavorable by 0.5–1.0 kcal mol -1 compared to non-fluorinated analogs. This is attributed to stabilizing C–F…H–N dipolar interactions and stronger N…H–C hydrogen bonds, demonstrating direct and indirect influences of fluorine. 7-methyl-7H-purine and its 9-deaza analog (Z) have been suggested as members of a new class of non-fluorinated base analogs. Z is found to be the least destabilizing universal base in the context of RNA known to date. This is the first experimental evidence for nitrogen-containing heterocylces as bioisosteres of aromatic rings bearing fluorine atoms.
Antigenic and 3D structural characterization of soluble X4 and hybrid X4-R5 HIV-1 Env trimers
(2014)
Background: HIV-1 is decorated with trimeric glycoprotein spikes that enable infection by engaging CD4 and a chemokine coreceptor, either CCR5 or CXCR4. The variable loop 3 (V3) of the HIV-1 envelope protein (Env) is the main determinant for coreceptor usage. The predominant CCR5 using (R5) HIV-1 Env has been intensively studied in function and structure, whereas the trimeric architecture of the less frequent, but more cytopathic CXCR4 using (X4) HIV-1 Env is largely unknown, as are the consequences of sequence changes in and near V3 on antigenicity and trimeric Env structure.
Results: Soluble trimeric gp140 Env constructs were used as immunogenic mimics of the native spikes to analyze their antigenic properties in the context of their overall 3D structure. We generated soluble, uncleaved, gp140 trimers from a prototypic T-cell line-adapted (TCLA) X4 HIV-1 strain (NL4-3) and a hybrid (NL4-3/ADA), in which the V3 spanning region was substituted with that from the primary R5 isolate ADA. Compared to an ADA (R5) gp140, the NL4-3 (X4) construct revealed an overall higher antibody accessibility, which was most pronounced for the CD4 binding site (CD4bs), but also observed for mAbs against CD4 induced (CD4i) epitopes and gp41 mAbs. V3 mAbs showed significant binding differences to the three constructs, which were refined by SPR analysis. Of interest, the NL4-3/ADA construct with the hybrid NL4-3/ADA CD4bs showed impaired CD4 and CD4bs mAb reactivity despite the presence of the essential elements of the CD4bs epitope. We obtained 3D reconstructions of the NL4-3 and the NL4-3/ADA gp140 trimers via electron microscopy and single particle analysis, which indicates that both constructs inherit a propeller-like architecture. The first 3D reconstruction of an Env construct from an X4 TCLA HIV-1 strain reveals an open conformation, in contrast to recently published more closed structures from R5 Env. Exchanging the X4 V3 spanning region for that of R5 ADA did not alter the open Env architecture as deduced from its very similar 3D reconstruction.
Conclusions: 3D EM analysis showed an apparent open trimer configuration of X4 NL4-3 gp140 that is not modified by exchanging the V3 spanning region for R5 ADA.
Phenytoin (PHT), valproic acid, and modern antiepileptic drugs (AEDs), eg, remacemide, loreclezole, and safinamide, are only effective within a maximum of 70%-80% of epileptic patients, and in many cases the clinical use of AEDs is restricted by their side effects. Therefore, a continuous need remains to discover innovative chemical entities for the development of active and safer AEDs. Ligands targeting central histamine H3 receptors (H3Rs) for epilepsy might be a promising therapeutic approach. To determine the potential of H3Rs ligands as new AEDs, we recently reported that no anticonvulsant effects were observed for the (S)-2-(4-(3-(piperidin-1-yl)propoxy)benzylamino)propanamide (1). In continuation of our research, we asked whether anticonvulsant differences in activities will be observed for its R-enantiomer, namely, (R)-2-(4-(3-(piperidin-1-yl)propoxy)benzylamino)propaneamide (2) and analogs thereof, in maximum electroshock (MES)-, pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-, and strychnine (STR)-induced convulsion models in rats having PHT and valproic acid (VPA) as reference AEDs. Unlike the S-enantiomer (1), the results show that animals pretreated intraperitoneally (ip) with the R-enantiomer 2 (10 mg/kg) were moderately protected in MES and STR induced models, whereas proconvulsant effect was observed for the same ligand in PTZ-induced convulsion models. However, animals pretreated with intraperitoneal doses of 5, 10, or 15 mg/kg of structurally bulkier (R)-enantiomer (3), in which 3-piperidinopropan-1-ol in ligand 2 was replaced by (4-(3-(piperidin-1-yl)propoxy)phenyl)methanol, and its (S)-enantiomer (4) significantly and in a dose-dependent manner reduced convulsions or exhibited full protection in MES and PTZ convulsions model, respectively. Interestingly, the protective effects observed for the (R)-enantiomer (3) in MES model were significantly greater than those of the standard H3R inverse agonist/antagonist pitolisant, comparable with those observed for PHT, and reversed when rats were pretreated with the selective H3R agonist R-(α)-methyl-histamine. Comparisons of the observed antagonistic in vitro affinities among the ligands 1-6 revealed profound stereoselectivity at human H3Rs with varying preferences for this receptor subtype. Moreover, the in vivo anticonvulsant effects observed in this study for ligands 1-6 showed stereoselectivity in different convulsion models in male adult rats.
Subvalent boron compounds contain boron atoms with oxidation numbers lower than +III. Over the last decades, the development of isolable derivatives has relied heavily on the use of specially designed ligands capable of stabilizing the electron‐rich boron centers electronically or through steric protection. Herein, we are exclusively reviewing anionic organo(hydro)boranes largely devoid of stabilizing ligands or heteroatom substituents. The restriction to these subvalent species is intended to minimize the risk of ligand artifacts being included when carving out the characteristic properties of the respective boron centers, such as nucleophilic or carbenoid behavior. The scope of this review encompasses triorganoborane radical monoanions ([·BR3]–) along with closed‐shell dianions ([:BR3]2–), boryl anions ([:BR2]–), as well as B–B single‐bonded diborane(6) dianions ([R3B–BR3]2–) and diborane(5) monoanions ([R2B–BR3]–), and finally B=B double‐bonded diborane(4) dianions ([R2B=BR2]2–). We are showing how these species are related to each other and comment on their bonding situations from an experimentalist's perspective.
Membrane proteins frequently assemble into higher order homo- or hetero-oligomers within their natural lipid environment. This complex formation can modulate their folding, activity as well as substrate selectivity. Non-disruptive methods avoiding critical steps, such as membrane disintegration, transfer into artificial environments or chemical modifications are therefore essential to analyze molecular mechanisms of native membrane protein assemblies. The combination of cell-free synthetic biology, nanodisc-technology and non-covalent mass spectrometry provides excellent synergies for the analysis of membrane protein oligomerization within defined membranes. We exemplify our strategy by oligomeric state characterization of various membrane proteins including ion channels, transporters and membrane-integrated enzymes assembling up to hexameric complexes. We further indicate a lipid-dependent dimer formation of MraY translocase correlating with the enzymatic activity. The detergent-free synthesis of membrane protein/nanodisc samples and the analysis by LILBID mass spectrometry provide a versatile platform for the analysis of membrane proteins in a native environment.
This thesis is concerned with protein structures determined by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and the text focuses on their analysis in terms of accuracy, gauged by the correspondence between the structural model and the experimental data it was calculated from, and in terms of precision, i.e. the degree of uncertainty of the atomic positions. Additionally, two protein structure calculation projects are described...
Movement of the Rieske domain of the iron–sulfur protein is essential for intramolecular electron transfer within complex III2 (CIII2) of the respiratory chain as it bridges a gap in the cofactor chain towards the electron acceptor cytochrome c. We present cryo-EM structures of CIII2 from Yarrowia lipolytica at resolutions up to 2.0 Å under different conditions, with different redox states of the cofactors of the high-potential chain. All possible permutations of three primary positions were observed, indicating that the two halves of the dimeric complex act independently. Addition of the substrate analogue decylubiquinone to CIII2 with a reduced high-potential chain increased the occupancy of the Qo site. The extent of Rieske domain interactions through hydrogen bonds to the cytochrome b and cytochrome c1 subunits varied depending on the redox state and substrate. In the absence of quinols, the reduced Rieske domain interacted more closely with cytochrome b and cytochrome c1 than in the oxidized state. Upon addition of the inhibitor antimycin A, the heterogeneity of the cd1-helix and ef-loop increased, which may be indicative of a long-range effect on the Rieske domain.
The yeast fatty acid synthase (FAS) is a barrel-shaped 2.6 MDa complex. Upon barrel-formation, two multidomain subunits, each more than 200 kDa large, intertwine to form a heterododecameric complex that buries 170,000 Å2 of protein surface. In spite of the rich knowledge about yeast FAS in structure and function, its assembly remained elusive until recently, when co-translational interaction of the β-subunit with the nascent α-subunit was found to initiate assembly. Here, we characterize the co-translational assembly of yeast FAS at a molecular level. We show that the co-translationally formed interface is sensitive to subtle perturbations, so that the exchange of two amino acids located in the emerging interface can prevent assembly. On the other hand, assembly can also be initiated via the co-translational interaction of the subunits at other sites, which implies that this process is not strictly site or sequence specific. We further highlight additional steps in the biogenesis of yeast FAS, as the formation of a dimeric subunit that orchestrates complex formation and acts as platform for post-translational phosphopantetheinylation. The presented data supports the understanding of the recently discovered prevalence of eukaryotic complexes for co-translational assembly, and is valuable for further harnessing FAS in the biotechnological production of aliphatic compounds.