Biologische Hochschulschriften (Goethe-Universität)
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Integral membrane proteins (IMPs) account for 20-40% of all open reading frames in fully sequenced genomes and they are target of approximately 60% of all modern drugs. So far, cellular expression systems are often very insufficient for the high-level production of IMPs. Toxic effects, instability or formation of inclusion bodies are frequently observed effects that prevent the synthesis of sufficient amounts of functional protein. I have successfully established an individual cell-free (CF) expression system to overcome these IMP synthesis difficulties. The CF system was established in two different expression modes. If no hydrophobic compartment is provided, the IMPs precipitate in the reaction mixture. Interestingly, these insoluble proteins are found to differ from inclusion bodies as they readily solubilize in mild detergents and the bacterial small multi drug transporter EmrE, expressed in the insoluble mode was shown to reconstitute into liposomes in an active form. Alternatively, IMPs can be synthesized in a soluble way by supplementing the CF system with detergents. A comprehensive overview of 24 commonly used detergents was provided by analyzing their impact on the CF system as well as their ability to keep three structurally very different proteins in solution. The class of long chain polyoxyethylene-alkyl-ethers turned out to be most suitable for soluble expression of a-helical EmrE, the bacterial b-barrel type nucleoside transporter Tsx and the porcine vasopressin receptor type 2, resulting in several mg of protein per mL of reaction mixture. So far IMPs have almost completely been excluded from solution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analyses. I could demonstrate that CF expression enables efficient isotopic labeling of IMPs for NMR analysis and further facilitates selective labeling strategies with combinations of 13C and 15N enriched amino acids that have not been feasible before. Four different G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) were successfully CF expressed in preparative scale and for the human endothelin B receptor (ETB), ligand binding ability was observed. A series of truncated ETB derivatives containing nested terminal deletions have been CF produced and functionally characterized. The core area essential for Endothelin-1 binding as well as a central region responsible for ETB oligomer formation was confined to a 39 amino acid fragment including the proposed transmembrane segment 1. The binding constant (KD) of ETB was determined to 6 nM for circular ET-1 by SPR and 29 nM for linear ET-1 by TIRFS. This data indicate a large potential of the established individual CF expression system for functional IMP synthesis.
The adaptive immune system of jawed vertebrates is based on recognition and elimination of cells that are either invaded by intracellular pathogens or malignantly transformed. One essential component of these processes is the cell surface presentation of antigenic peptides via major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules to cytotoxic T-cells (CTLs). Cells degrade defective ribosomal products and misfolded or unwanted proteins by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. The resulting degradation products are recognized and translocated by the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) lumen, where they are loaded onto MHC I molecules. Assembled peptide-MHC complexes are then shuttled by the secretory pathway to the cell surface for antigen presentation to CTLs, leading in the case of viral infection or malignant transformation to lysis and apoptosis of the target cell. Due to the fact that the TAP complex represents a key control point within the antigen presentation pathway, several viruses have evolved sophisticated strategies to evade immune surveillance by interfering with TAP function.
Detailed studies of the TAP mechanism or its viral inhibition have been severely impeded by difficulties in expressing sufficient amounts of functional heterodimeric TAP complex. Thus, the overexpression of TAP in the methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris was established for functional analysis of this important ABC complex. Biomass production was scaled up by fermentation using classical batch and feed methods. Extensive screening of optimal solubilization and purification conditions allowed the isolation of the heterodimeric transport complex. Notably, only the very mild detergent digitonin preserved TAP function. Hereby, the optimal solubilization and purification strategy yielded in 30 mg TAP transporter per liter culture. Remarkably, the protein amount was 50-fold increased compared to previously described expression/purification in cultured insect cells.
The high yield and quality of TAP produced in P. pastoris allowed an extensive analysis of substrate binding and transport kinetics of the transport complex in the membrane, its solubilized and purified state, as well as the reconstituted state. Thereby, a strong and direct effect of the lipid bilayer on ATP hydrolysis and peptide transport was discovered. These important results were extended further by successful functional reconstitution of the antigen translocation machinery in different lipid environments. For the first time, a stimulation of the transport activity by phosphatidylinositol (PI) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) was observed, whereas cholesterol was identified as an inhibitor of TAP activity.
Purification of TAP and subsequent thin-layer chromatography (TLC)/liquid chromatography Fourier transform-mass spectrometry (LC FT-MS) fingerprinting of residual lipids exhibited specifically associated glycerophospholipids; mainly PC, PE, and PI species. Strikingly, these lipids not only represent the primary class of phospholipids of the ER but were also shown to be essential for functional reactivation of delipidated, and thus inactive, TAP. The results demonstrate that transport of antigenic peptides by the ABC transporter TAP strictly requires specific glycerophospholipids.
In addition to the biochemical characterization of heterologous produced TAP, the soluble domain of the viral inhibitor US6 from human cytomegalovirus was expressed in E. coli. Optimization of the purification and refolding strategy yielded in functional protein, with a 35-fold increased protein amount compared to previous purification procedures. Protein activity was analyzed by specific inhibition of ATP binding to TAP. Furthermore, high protein yields allowed detailed investigation of TAP-dependent spatial and mechanistic separation of MHC I restricted cross-presentation in professional antigen presenting cells (pAPC).
This dissertation constitutes a series of successive research papers, starting with the characterization of various optogenetic tools up to the establishment of purely optical electrophysiology in living animals.
Optogenetics has revolutionized neurobiology as it allows stimulation of excitable cells with exceptionally high spatiotemporal resolution. To cope with the increasing complexity of research issues and accompanying demands on experimental design, the broadening of the optogenetic toolbox is indispensable. Therefore, one goal was to establish a wide variety of novel rhodopsin-based actuators and characterize them, among others, with respect to their spectral properties, kinetics, and efficacy using behavioral experiments in Caenorhabditis elegans. During these studies, the applicability of highly potent de- and hyperpolarizers with adapted spectral properties, altered ion specificity, strongly slowed off-kinetics, and inverted functionality was successfully demonstrated. Inhibitory anion channelrhodopsins (ACRs) stood out, filling the gap of long-sought equivalent hyperpolarizing tools, and could be convincingly applied in a tandem configuration combined with the red-shifted depolarizer Chrimson for bidirectional stimulation (Bidirectional Pair of Opsins for Light-induced Excitation and Silencing, BiPOLES). A parallel study aimed to compare various rhodopsin-based genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs) in the worm: In addition to electrochromic FRET-based GEVIs that use lower excitation intensity, QuasAr2 was particularly convincing in terms of voltage sensitivity and photostability in C. elegans. However, classical optogenetic approaches are quite static and only allow perturbation of neural activity. Therefore, QuasAr2 and BiPOLES were combined in a closed-loop feedback control system to implement the first proof-of-concept all-optical voltage clamp to date, termed the optogenetic voltage clamp (OVC). Here, an I-controller generates feedback of light wavelengths to bidirectionally stimulate BiPOLES and keep QuasAr’s fluorescence at a desired level. The OVC was established in body wall muscles and various types of neurons in C. elegans and transferred to rat hippocampal slice culture. In the worm, it allowed to assess altered cellular physiology of mutants and Ca2+-channel characteristics as well as dynamical clamping of distinct action potentials and associated behavior.
Ultimately, the optogenetic actuators and sensors implemented in the course of this cumulative work enabled to synergistically combine the advantages of imaging- and electrode-based techniques, thus providing the basis for noninvasive, optical electrophysiology in behaving animals.
Tumor development usually follows predictable paths where tumor cells acquire common characteristics and features known as the hallmarks of cancer. Recently, additional characteristics have been added to these hallmarks since solid tumors are composed of a very heterogeneous population of transformed, formerly normal tissue cells and stromal cells, e.g. immune cells and fibroblasts. Compelling evidence suggests that stromal cells and tumor cells maintain a symbiotic relationship to build up the tumor microenvironment and to fuel tumor growth. In cancer therapies, common features of tumors such as unrestricted cell growth, suppression of immunological responses, and the ability to form new blood vessels (angiogenesis) have emerged as the main targets of interest. The lipid mediator prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is known to promote all these features and thus, is connected to cancer progression in general. Its synthesis is triggered in response to stress factors or during inflammation. Inducible PGE2 production relies on the enzymes cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) and microsomal prostanglandin E synthase 1 (mPGES-1), which are simultaneously expressed in response to a variety of different stimuli and are functionally coupled. Inhibition of COX-2 with non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for cancer treatment is, however, limited by cardiovascular risks, since selective COX-2 inhibition disrupts the prostacyclin/thromboxane balance. Therefore targeting mPGES-1 downstream of COX-2 for PGE2 inhibition was evaluated in this work in different steps of carcinogenesis. Knockdown of mPGES-1 in DU145 prostate cancer cells revealed that the mPGES-1 status did not affect growth of monolayer tumor cells, but significantly impaired 3D growth of multi-cellular tumor spheroids (MCTS). Spheroid formation induced COX-2 in DU145 and other prostate cancer spheroids. High levels of PGE2 were detected in supernatants of DU145 MCTS as opposed to monolayer DU145 cells. Pharmacological inhibition of COX-2 and mPGES-1 confirmed the pivotal role of PGE2 for DU145 MCTS growth. Besides promoting spheroid growth, MCTS-derived PGE2 also inhibited cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) activation. When investigating the mechanisms of COX-2 induction during spheroid formation, the typical tumor microenvironmental factors such as glucose deprivation, hypoxia or tumor cell apoptosis failed to enhance COX-2. Interestingly, when interfering with apoptosis in DU145 spheroids, the pan-caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-FMK triggered a Summary 12 shift towards necrosis, thus enhancing COX-2 expression. Coculturing viable DU145 monolayer cells with isolated heat-shocked-treated necrotic DU145 cells, but not with necrotic cell supernatants, induced COX-2 and PGE2, confirming the impact of necrosis for MCTS growth and CTL inhibition. As mentioned, in vivo tumors are very heterogenous mixtures of tumor cells and stromal cells e.g. immune cells. Hence, the interaction of the immune system with tumors was investigated in further experiments. When coculturing MCF-7 breast cancer spheroids with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), only low levels of PGE2 were detected, since MCF-7 cells did not upregulate COX-2 during spheroid formation and did not induce PGE2 production by PBMCs. Under inflammatory conditions, by adding the toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) agonist lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to cocultures, PGE2 production was triggered, spheroid sizes were reduced, and numbers of high levels of granzyme B expressing (GrBhi) CTLs were increased, while CD80 expression by tumor-associated phagocytes was also elevated. Inhibition of CD80 but not CD86 diminished numbers of GrBhi CTLs and attenuated spheroid lysis. To determine the role of ctivation-induced PGE2 production, use of the COX-2 inhibitor celecoxib and the experimental mPGES-1 inhibitor C3 further increased CD80 expression. Addition of PGE2, the prostaglandin E2 (EP2) receptor agonist butaprost, and the phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) inhibitor rolipram reduced LPS/C3-triggered CD80 expression, confirming the impact of COX- 2/mPGES-1-derived PGE2 on shaping phagocyte phenotypes in an EP2/cAMP-dependent manner. In a spontaneous breast cancer model (MMTV-PyMT), mPGES-1-deficiency significantly delayed tumor growth in mice, confirming an overall protumorigenic role of mPGES-1 in breast cancer development in vivo. However in tumors of mPGES-1-/- mice, tumor-infiltrating phagocytes expressed low levels of CD80 similar to their wildtype counterparts. These data suggest that the immunosuppressive microenvironment does not allow for immunostimulatory effects by mPGES-1 inhibition without an activating stimulus. Evidences in this study recommend the application of mPGES-1 inhibitors for treating cancer diseases, since mPGES-1 promotes tumor growth in multiple steps of carcinogenesis, ranging from well-characterized effects of tumor cell growth to immune suppression of CTL activity and phagocyte polarization. Regarding the latter, blunting PGE2 during immune activation may limit the tumor-favoring features of inflammation and improve the efficiency of TLR4 based immune therapies.
The multidrug resistance like protein 1 (Mdl1p) belongs to the class of ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporters which comprise a large family of membrane proteins utilising ATP hydrolysis to drive up-hill transport of a wide variety of solutes across membranes. Mdl1p is a mitochondrial ABC transporter involved in the export of protein fragments derived from the proteolysis of non-assembled inner membrane proteins out of the mitochondrial matrix. Mdl1p forms a homodimeric complex consisting of two polytrophic transmembrane domains (TMDs) and two nucleotide binding domains (NBDs). The transport function and structural organisation of Mdl1p have not been elucidated yet. To characterise the ATP hydrolysis cycle of Mdl1p, the His-tagged NBD (amino acids D423-R695) was over-expressed in Escherichia coli and purified to homogeneity. The isolated NBD was active in ATP binding and hydrolysis. The ATPase activity was non-linear regarding to the protein concentration, indicating that the functional state is a dimer. Dimeric catalytic transition states could be trapped and three different intermediate states were isolated, containing two ATPs, one ATP and one ADP, or two DPs, which are trapped by orthovanadate or beryllium fluoride. These experiments showed that (i) ATP binding to the NBDs induces dimerisation, (ii) in all isolated dimeric states, two nucleotides are present, (iii) phosphate can dissociate from the dimer, (iv) both nucleotides are hydrolysed, and (v) hydrolysis occurs in a sequential mode. Studies in the workgroup systematically screened for over-expression of the full-length Mdl1p and expression conditions were optimised. These studies showed that highest expression was obtained in S. cerevisiae, where the protein was over-expressed 100-fold. In this work over-expressed His-tagged protein was purified via immobilised metal-ion affinity chromatography that was active in ATP binding and hydrolysis with a turn-over of 2.5 ATP per second. N-terminal amino acid sequencing of purified Mdl1p by Edman degradation confirmed experimentally a N-terminal targeting sequence of a mitochondrial ABC transporter of S. cerevisiae for the first time. This sequence was determined to be 59 amino acids in length. Mdl1p was reconstituted into liposomes, which was confirmed by freeze fracture electron microscopy. The reconstituted protein showed ATP hydrolysis similar to the solubilised Mdl1p. However peptide translocation with radiolabelled X(8) or X(23) libraries as done for the transporter associated with antigen processing TAP could not be shown with this setup. Furthermore, structural insights of the mitochondrial transport complex and its oligomeric state were obtained via single particle electron microscopy. It was shown that Mdl1p forms a homodimer in detergent. These in vitro studies provide the basis for further detailed investigation of the mitochondrial ABC transporter Mdl1p.
Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit unterschiedlichen Aspekten der Faltung von Tendamistat, einem aus 74 Aminosäuren bestehenden a-Amylase lnhibitor aus Streptomyces tendae. Bei der oxidativen Rückfaltung des Tendamistats konnten bisher drei kinetische Phasen (t1, t2 und t3) identifiziert werden. Die mittlere (t2) bzw. langsame (ti) kinetische Phase, resultiert als Folge einer cis/trans lsomerisierung um eine der drei Xaa-Pro Bindungen im Tendamistat. Wie im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit gezeigt werden konnte, entsteht die prolinabhängige lsomerisierungsreaktion während der Rückfaltung (t3) als Folge einer trans -> cis Umlagerung um die A1a49-Pro50 Amidbindung nach Entfaltung des Proteins. Der Nachweis einer solchen lsomerisierung gelang auf rekombinantem Weg, durch gezielten Austausch der einzelnen Proline. Im Gegensatz dazu resultiert die mittlere kinetischen Phase (t2) als Folge einer Prolin-unabhängigen cis/trans-lsomerisierungsreaktion um mindestens eine vorhandenen nicht-Prolinbindungen im Protein. Diese Schlußfolgerung konnte durch Vergleich mit zahlreichen Literaturdaten und Experimenten weiter gestützt werden. Tendamistat ist damit das erste Protein in der Literatur, bei dem es gelang, eine solche Prolin-unabhängige lsomerisierungsreaktion experimentell nachzuweisen. Wie mit Hilfe von weiteren Substitutionsexperimenten im zweiten Teil der Arbeit gezeigt werden konnte, tragen hydrophobe Oberflächencluster entscheidend zur Stabilisierung des lnhibitors bei. Die dabei gemessenen Stabilisierungsbeiträge stehen in einem linearen Verhältnis zum Seitenkettenvolumen der eingeführten Aminosäurereste (Alanin << Valin << Isoleucin). Hierdurch ließ sich zeigen, daß der stabilisierende Einfluß solcher Cluster im Wesentlichen auf das Vorhandensein von hydrophoben Wechselwirkungen zurückzuführen ist. Für die Faltung von Proteinen, die wie das Tendamistat ausschließlich aus ß-Faltblättern bestehen, spielt die Bildung von ß-Hairpinstrukturen eine entscheidende Rolle Die in dieser Arbeit untersuchten ß-Hairpinmutanten L14A bzw. N25A zeigen im Vergleich zum Wildtyp eine extreme Destabilisierung der ß-Faltblattstruktur. Durch Vergleich der Aktivierungsenergien (DeltadeltaGD-TS) mit den freien Enthalpien (DeltadeltaG0N-D) konnte die strukturelle Entwicklung des ß-Hairpins im Übergangszustand an den beiden Positionen 14 bzw. 25 mitverfolgt werden (~-Wert Analyse). Entgegen den Erwartungen zeigen diese Untersuchungen, daß beide Positionen im Übergangszustand noch weitestgehend solvatisiert vorliegen. Damit scheint die nativ-ähnliche Zusammenlagerung des ersten ß-Hairpins erst nach Erreichen des Übergangszustands stattzufinden. Alle in dieser Arbeit vorgelegten Daten über die Faltung des alpha-Amylase lnhibitors sind konsistent mit dem Nukleations-Kondensations Modell. Analog der Tröpfchenbildung bei unterkühlten Gasen kommt es nach dem kollabieren der Proteinkette als Reaktion auf die veränderten Lösungsmittelbedingungen zur intramolekularen Suche nach Nukleationsstellen. Der Übergangszustand wird erreicht, wenn sich eine kritische Zahl stabilisierender Kontakte (unspezifische Nukleation) ausbilden konnte. Ob an einem solchen Nukleationskern stets bestimmte Seitenketten beteiligt sind (spezifische Nukleation), bleibt an dieser Stelle noch offen.
Der Ein-Elektron Transporter Adrenodoxin spielt in der Steroidhormonbiosynthese eine entscheidende Rolle. Bislang konnte der Elektronentransportmechanismus zwischen der Adrenodoxin-Reduktase und dem Cytochrom P450 mittels Adrenodoxin nicht eindeutig nachgewiesen werden. Um die molekularen Wechselwirkungen besser verstehen zu können wurden in der vorliegenden Arbeit strukturelle Untersuchungen am Rinderadrenodoxin durchgeführt. Nachdem es bereits 1998 gelang die Struktur des oxidierten Zustands des Adrenodoxins aufzuklären [Müller et al. 1998], sollte die Struktur des reduzierten Zustands Aufschluss über mögliche redoxbedingte konformationelle Änderungen geben. Die Strukturaufklärung mittels NMR erfordert hohe Expressionsausbeuten und effektive Aufreinigungsstrategien des rekombinant hergestellten Proteins. Deshalb wurde zunächst eine Steigerung der Expression von löslichem Adrenodoxin in E.coli angestrebt. In Minimalmedium lieferte die Expression unter Zusatz von 2,5g Glycerin und 1g Glucose optimale Ergebnisse. So konnte nach Optimierung der Aufreinigungsabfolge aus einem Liter M9-Medium bis zu 50 mg homogenes Protein isoliert werden. Nach Optimierung der Expressionsbedingungen und der Aufreinigungsstrategie konnte das Adrenodoxin mit den NMR aktiven Isotopen 15N sowie 13C angereichert werden. Die Reduktion des Adrenodoxins erfolgte durch Zusatz von Natriumdithionit unter strikt anaeroben Bedingungen. Die strukturelle Untersuchung mittels NMR setzt eine Zuordnung der Proteinresonanzen voraus. Diese erfolgte unter Verwendung verschiedener Tripleresonanzexperimente. Eine Zuordnung war aufgrund des stark ausgeprägten Paramagnetismus nur für solche Reste möglich, die sich mindestens 8 Å vom [2Fe-2S]-Cluster des Adrenodoxins entfernt befinden. Trotzdem konnten wichtige Regionen, die sich außerhalb des Einflussbereichs des [2Fe-2S]- Clusters befinden, zugeordnet und mit dem oxidierten Zustand verglichen werden. Aus den 15N-NOESY-HSQC und 13C-NOESY-HSQC-Spektren wurden für den reduzierten Zustand unter Zuhilfenahme des Programms NMR2st 1300 effektiv abstandsbeschränkende NOESignale eindeutig zugeordnet. Nach Minimierung der Zielfunktion wurden im letzten Schritt 50 Strukturen mit dem Strukturkalkulationsprogramm DYANA berechnet. Die 20 Strukturen mit den besten Targetfunkionen wurden als Strukturensemble dargestellt. Für das Proteinrückrat beträgt der RMSD 2,34 Å. Anhand der chemischen Verschiebungsänderungen konnten erste Unterschiede zwischen oxidierten und reduzierten Zustand des Adrenodoxins festgestellt werden. Besonders markant sind diese Veränderungen im Bereich des C-Terminus und des Loops 80-86. Änderungen konnten auch im "Chemical Shift Index" und beim Vergleich der NOE-Konnektivitäten beider Redoxzustände beobachtet werden. Gerade für die Aminosäurereste Asp76 und Asp79, die für die Wechselwirkung zu den Redoxpartnern essentiell sind, konnten Veränderungen im Aufspaltungsmuster der "NOE-Pattern" nachgewiesen werden, was auf konformationelle Änderungen im Bereich der Wechselwirkungsdomäne hindeutet. Der Vergleich der beiden Tertiärstrukturen lieferte weitere Indizien dafür, dass der C-Terminus redoxbedingte konformationelle Änderungen erfährt. Während des Erstellens dieser Arbeit konnte eine US-amerikanische Gruppe durch Zufall die Existenz eines Adrenodoxin (oxidiert) Dimers bei physiologisch relevanten Konzentrationen nachweisen [Pikuleva et al. 2000]. Bei der Dimerisierung spielt der C-Terminus eine entscheidende Rolle. Zwei intermolekulare Wasserstoffbrücken bilden sich zwischen CTerminus und Protein des jeweils anderen Partners aus. Redoxbedingte konformationelle Änderungen im Bereich des C-Terminus sollten die Auflösung des Dimers begünstigen. Um diese Vermutung zu bestätigen wurden Cross-Linking Experimente mit dem reduzierten und oxidierten Zustand des Adrenodoxins durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse bestätigten die Annahme, dass sich das Adrenodoxin Dimer nach Reduktion auflöst. Außerdem konnte anhand der voll funktionsfähigen C-terminal verkürzten Mutante Adx(4-108) die tragende Rolle des CTerminus bei der Dimerbildung bewiesen werden. Aus den experimentell erhaltenen Daten wurde ein neuer Elektronentransportmechanismus postuliert, der sowohl Adrenodoxin Dimere als auch Adrenodoxin Monomere als Elektronentransporter annimmt [Beilke et al. 2002]. Die streng kontrollierte Steroidhormonbiosynthese wird durch den Einsatz von Adrenodoxin Dimeren beschleunigt und durch die redoxbedingte Auflösung der Dimere optimert. Die redoxbedingte Auflösung eines Dimers ist in der Biochemie einzigartig und kann zum Verständnis molekularer Wechselwirkungen beitragen. Für die gesamte Gruppe der vertebraten Ferredoxine sind aufgrund der Struktur- und Sequenzhomologie ähnliche Ergebnisse zu erwarten. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit sollte die Ferredoxin-NADP -Reduktase (FNR) für strukturelle Untersuchungen mittels NMR zugänglich gemacht werden. Durch Verwendung von bakteriellen Expressionssystemen, insbesondere dem pQE30-Expressionssystem, konnte der Anteil an löslichem Protein im Vergleich zum Ursprungssystem um den Faktor 12 erhöht werden. Dabei führten möglichst niedrige Expressionstemperaturen und IPTG Konzentrationen zu den höchsten Proteinausbeuten. Ein verbessertes Isolationsverfahren wurde etabliert und ermöglicht die Darstellung von bis zu 90 mg FNR aus einem Liter LB-Medium. Eine Verlängerung der Expressionsdauer, hervorgerufen durch das Wachstum in M9-Medium und in D2O, verringerte den Anteil an vollständig intaktem Protein, weshalb auf eine kostspielige Proteinpräparation in dreifach angereicherten Minimalmedium verzichtet wurde.
Two types of proteins transport ions across the membrane – ion channels and ion pumps. Ion pumps transport ions against their electrochemical gradient by co-transporting another ion or a substrate molecule through a concentration gradient or by coupling this process to an energy source like ATP. Those that couple ATP hydrolysis to ion transport are called ion motive ATPases and can be classified as ‘V’, ‘F’ and ‘P’ types. In this thesis, two sub-classes of P-type ATPases, PIIIA and PIB were studied. Attempts were made to over-express and crystallize the plant proton pump AHA2 (a PIIIA-ATPase). Also, the two putative copper transporting ATPases, CtrA3 (CopB-like) and CtrA2 (CopA-like) from Aquifex aeolicus (both PIB pumps) were over-expressed in E. coli and characterized. PIIIA-type pumps transport protons across the membrane and are found exclusively in plants and fungi, and probably some archaea. One of the most characterized proton pump biochemically is the A. thaliana proton pump AHA2. An 8Å projection map of this enzyme is already available (Jahn 2001). PIBATPases, also called CPX type pumps transport heavy metal ions such as Cu+, Cu2+, Zn2+, Pb2+, Cd2+, Co2+ across biological membranes and play an important role in homeostasis and biotolerance of these metals. CopA and CopB are two such proteins that transport copper across cell membrane found in many prokaryotes. CopB-like proteins are found almost exclusively in bacteria, with CPH sequence motif, while CopA-like proteins have CPC sequence motif, also found in eukaryotic copper transporters including human ATP7A and ATP7B. CopB extrudes Cu2+ across the membrane. CopA is activated by and transports Cu+ but the direction of transport is debated. Attempts were made to over-express the plant proton pump AHA2 in yeast Pichia pastoris. However, the yeast expressed only a truncated protein, which could not be used for further studies. It can be concluded that P. pastoris strain SMD1163 is not a good host for expression of AHA2. Focus was then shifted to AHA2 that has been over-expressed and purified from S. cerevisiae strain RS72. Growth and purification protocols had to be changed from published methods because of laboratory constraints and this probably had an effect on the protein produced. The protein purified from S. cerevisiae could not be crystallized reproducibly for structural studies by electron microscopy. CtrA3 was expressed in E. coli and purified using Ni2+-NTA matrix. Like CopB of A. fulgidus (Mana Capelli 2003), it was active only in the presence of Cu2+ and to some extent in Ag+. The protein was maximally active at 75°C, at pH 7 and in presence of cysteine. Lipids were essential for the activity of CtrA3. However, when the protein was purified in Cymal-6, CtrA3 could not hydrolyze ATP, even when lipids were added to the reaction mixture. For reconstitution of CtrA3 into liposomes for 2D crystallization, several lipids were tested. To screen the lipids compatible for protein incorporation, CtrA3 was dialyzed with different lipids at a high lipid-to-protein ratio of 10:1 and centrifuged by sucrose density gradient. Protein incorporated in lipids localized with liposome fraction in the gradient. Most of the CtrA3 was incorporated into DPPC with no aggregation. This lipid was used for reconstitution of CtrA3 at low LPRs, and at an LPR of 0.3-0.5, the protein formed 2D crystals. A NaCl concentration of 50mM was necessary for the formation of crystals. However, salt removal by dialysis prior to harvesting was essential for obtaining wellordered lattices of CtrA3. Addition of preservatives like trehalose and tannin or direct plunging in liquid ethane for cryo-microscopy destroyed the crystal lattice. Similar to CtrA3, the gene responsible for expression of CtrA2 was amplified from genomic DNA of A. aeolicus and expressed in E. coli and purified by Ni2+-NTA. Functional characterization of CtrA2 was done by analyzing ATP hydrolysis activity of the enzyme. Similar to CopA of A. fulgidus (Mandal 2002), CtrA2 was activated in the presence of Ag+ and to some extent, Cu+. It is possible that both the copper ATPases of A. aeolicus have different ion selectivity- CtrA3, specific for Cu2+ and CtrA2, specific for Cu+. Maximal activity of CtrA2 was also at 75°C. Cysteine was essential for activity of CtrA2, but the protein was not dependent on addition of lipids for activation. Reconstitution of CtrA2 was done similar to CtrA3 for screening of lipids for 2D crystallization. Of the lipids tested, DOPC reconstituted the protein best. However, screening at low LPRs did not yield any crystals. Even though both CtrA3 and CtrA2 are similar heavy metal transporting Ptype ATPases from the same organism and have 36% identity, they behaved completely different in their expression levels in E. coli, purification profiles, activity and reconstitution in lipids.
Ligands of Iron-Sulphur Cluster N2: In this work the ubiquinone reducing catalytic core of NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (complex I) from Y. lipolytica was studied by a series of point mutations replacing conserved histidines or arginines in the 49-kDa subunit. Although the missing 4th ligand of cluster N2 could not be found in the 49-kDa subunit of complex I, it was clearly demonstrated that iron-sulphur cluster N2 resides directly on the interface between the PSST and 49-kDa subunits. The results presented in this work show that residues in the 49-kDa subunit have strong influence on this redox centre and also on catalytic activity. The strong influence of Arg-141 and His-226 residues in 49-kDa subunit on this cluster can be deducted from complete loss of N2 signals in EPR spectra such as in case of mutants H226A and R141A. In the case of mutant H226M the EPR signal from cluster N2 was shifted and cluster N2 even lost the pH dependence of its redox midpoint potential and became more similar to the other so called 'isopotential' clusters. Specifically in the case of mutants R141M and R141K the characteristic signature of cluster N2 became undetectable in EPR spectra. However, specific dNADH:DBQ oxidoreductase activity that could be inhibited with the specific complex I inhibitors DQA and rotenone was not absolutely abolished but rather reduced. These reductions in complex I activity did not correspond to similar reductions in the specific EPR signal of cluster N2 as it was observed in the His-226 mutant series. No indications could be found that these mutations had modified the magnetic properties of cluster N2, resulting in different EPR spectra. From these observations it could be concluded that both mutants R141K and R141M virtually or entirely lack iron-sulphur cluster N2. The rates in complex I activity could be reconciled with electron transfer theory: After removal of a single redox centre in a chain, electron transfer rates are predicted to be still much faster than steady-state turnover of complex I. These results from mutants R141K, R141M and also the result from mutant H226M that protons are being pumped even if the redox midpoint potential of cluster N2 is not pH dependent questions the prominent role in the catalytic mechanism of complex I that has been ascribed to cluster N2. Histidine 91 and 95 were found to be absolutely essential for activity of complex I since in both mutants complex I was fully assembled and artificial NADH:HAR activity was parental whereas complex I specific dNADH:DBQ activity was abolished. The signal from cluster N2 in EPR spectra was parental for all His-91 and -95 mutants. Mutations at the C-terminal arginine 466 affected ubiquinone affinity and inhibitor sensitivity but also destabilised complex I. All these results provide further support for a high degree of structural conservation between the 49-kDa subunit of complex I and the large subunit of water soluble [NiFe] hydrogenases. Remodelling of Human Pathogenic 49-kDa Mutations in Y. lipolytica: Y. lipolytica has been proven a good system for studying complex I properties and thus also for studying defects that occur in humans. In this work pathogenic mutations in the 49-kDa subunit of complex I were recreated and studied. The P232Q mutant showed non-assembly of complex I and this is probably the cause why this mutation was lethal in patients. The mutants R231Q and S416P were parental for the content, artificial and also specific complex I activity, Km for DBQ and IC50 for DQA. From these results we can conclude that these two residues Arg-228 and Ser-413 in mammalian cells have specific structural importance for the 49-kDa subunit even if they are not directly involved in catalytic process.