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1. Die beiden Spargelkäfer sind über die Spargelkulturen fast der ganzen Erde verbreitet. 2. Morphologische Unterschiede zwischen den zwei Arten: Körperform, Färbung, Zeichnung. Insbesondere Cr. asparagi zeigt eine außerordentlich starke Variation des Flügeldeckenmusters. Das Material aus unserem hessischen Beobachtungsgebiet wurde daraufhin an anderer Stelle von mir vergleichend untersucht. Beide Käfer besitzen ein Stridulationsorgan (daher "Zirpkäfer"), dessen Bau und Wirkungsweise beschrieben werden. Vasa Malpighi bei Cr. 12punctata schwarzbraun, bei Cr. asparagi weiß. Weibliche Genitalorgane: Ovarien mit durchschnittlich je 12 telotrophen Ovariolen, Receptaculum seminis, keine Anhangsdrüsen; Unterschiede bei beiden Arten in der Form des Receptaculums und vor allem im Bau des Ohitingerüstes. Ein Weibchen bringt etwa 70-100 Eier hervor. Männliche Genitalorgane : Lebhaft dunkelgelb gefärbte, annähernd kugelige Hoden, Vasa deferentia mit je zwei verschieden geformten Drüsen, unpaarer Ductus innerhalb des Penisgerüstes zur Ampulle erweitert. 3. Biologische Unterschiede der beiden Arten: "Hähnchen" mehr eurytherm, größere Neigung zum "Totstellen", Antennen in der Ruhe parallel nach vorne gerichtet, geringere Thigmotaxis, früherer Beginn der Eiablage; die bräunlich schwarzen Eier werden mit dem einen Pol an die Pflanze geklebt. Larve im allgemeinen dunkel grünlichgrau, Kopf schwarz. "Zwölfpunkt" lebhafter, neigt mehr zum Abfliegen, Antennen in der Ruhe in spitzem Winkel nach vorne gerichtet; die helleren, bräunlich grünen Eier werden der Länge nach an die Zweige geklebt. Larve (ob durchwegs?) schmutziggelb mit gelber Kopfkapsel. Wenigstens in der zweiten Generation in den Spargelbeeren lebend. Beide Arten haben höchstwahrscheinlich doppelte Generation. Überwinterung als Käfer am Boden, unter Pflanzenresten, in Spargelstrünken usw. 4. Die Käfer und besonders ihre Larven skelettieren durch ihren Fraß die grünen Spargeltriebe, indem sie sie ihres Chlorophylls berauben. Die dadurch am meisten gefährdete Altersstufe ist die einjährige Pflanze.
Über ein cretaceisches Geschiebe mit Rhizocorallium Gläseli n. sp. aus dem Diluvium bei Leipzig
(1913)
Die vorliegende Arbeit soll einen Beitrag zur Biologie der Honigbiene darstellen. Sie ist zunächst eine biologisch-deskriptive Arbeit. Ich habe die Biene bei ihrer mannigfachen Tätigkeit in freier Natur wie auch in ihrem Stocke beobachtet und habe festzustellen versucht, wie sie sich verhält, wenn ihr Körper mit irgendeinem Schmutzstoff in Berührung kommt. ...
1. Die Feldbeobachtungen der vorliegenden Untersuchung sind in der Zeit vom 10. VII. bis 9. VIII. 1964 in Westspitzbergen in den Gebieten von Isfjorden und Hornsund (Abb. 2) gemacht worden. Die Fjeldheidevegetation wurde auf 58 Probeflächen von je 25 m2 untersucht. 2. Bei der Besprechung der Fjeldheidevegetation wird zunächst der Begriff »Fjeldheide» definiert und mit dem Begriff »Tundra» verglichen. Zugleich wird die Zonität der (oro)arktischen Vegetation erörtert und mit den in Grönland, Fennoskandien und Nowaja Semlja vorgenommen Zoneneinteilungen verglichen. Im Rahmen der Dreizoneneinteilung der (oro)arktischen Vegetationszone werden in Spitzbergen die mittel- und die oberoroarktische Stufe angetroffen. 3. In der untersuchten Fjeldheidevegetation wurden 5 Artengruppen und entsprechend 5 Heidetypen herausgearbeitet: 1. Deflations-, 2. Flechten-, 3. trockene und 4. frische Moosheide sowie 5.Schneebodenstellen. Die Grenze zwischen den Typen und auch zwischen den innerhalb eines jeden Typs anzutreffenden Westküsten- und Binnengebietvarianten sind fliessend. Das Westküstengebiet umfasst die Untersuchungsstellen 1-6, das Binnengebiet (=Innenfjord- und Binnenlandgebiet) die Punkte 7-20. 4. Das Westküstengebiet gehört vorwiegend ins Bereich der metamorphierten, das Binnengebiet wiederum ins Gebiet der nicht metamorphierten Gesteine. Für die Entstehung der die obigen Gebiete charakterisierenden Varianten wird jedoch nach meiner Meinung dem Grossklima die ausschlaggebende Bedeutung beigemessen. Die Westküste ist hygrisch und thermisch ozeanischer als das Binnengebiet (Abb. 6). Dieser Umstand macht sich in der Vegetation auch in den Mangenverhältnissen der Typen geltend: an der Westküste viele Deflationsheiden und SchneebodensteIlen (siehe S. 43). Ferner ist die Höhengrenze der mittelarktischen Stufe an der Westküste tiefer (siehe S. 43). Die Phänologie der Pflanzen lässt an der Westküste Verspätung der Entwicklung erkennen (siehe Tab. 9 und 10). An der Westküste steht die Fjeldheidevegetation auf gröberem Untergrund (siehe Tab. 8), und das Eis reicht weiter herunter als im Binnengebiet. 5. Beim Vergleich der Fjeldheidetypen miteinander wurden Unterschiede in der Dicke des Auftaubodens und in der Phänologie der Pflanzen beobachtet, welche Umstände mit der Dicke der Schneedecke zusammenhängen dürften. Die Dicke des Auftaubodens wird zu den frischen Moosheiden hin geringer und nimmt dann an den SchneebodensteIlen wieder zu (Tab. 8). Die Entwicklung der Pflanzen setzt umso zeitiger ein, je trockener der Typ ist (Tab. 9 und 10). 6. Mit Hilfe der Literatur wird der Versuch gemacht, Vegetationen ausfindig zu machen, die sich mit den Fjeldheidetypen Spitzbergens identifizieren (= Horistisch gleichartig sind; vgL Abb. 11) oder vergleichen lassen (= floristisch andersartig, aber an mehr oder minder gleichartigen Standorten). Zusammenfassend wird hauptsächlich anhand der Literatur ein vorläufiger Vorschlag für die Vegetations gebiete Spitzbergens gemacht (Abb. 10).
Die Wege, die zur Erreichung homozygoter Bestände führen, sind die Inzucht und die Selektion. In der bisher über das Inzuchtgeschehen vorliegenden Literatur ist der stets gleichzeitig wirksame Einfluß der Selektion mit einer Ausnahme (Robbins 21) unberücksichtigt gelassen. Um zu einem möglichst exakten Vergleichsmaßstab zwischen Erwartung und Beobachtung bei Inzuchtversuchen zu kommen, muß die Selektion mit einbezogen werden. Es wurde sowohl für 1 als auch 2 Anlagenpaare unter jeweiliger Aufstellung eines Systems von Differenzengleichungen die prozentuale Zunahme der reinerbigen Individuen bei Geschwisterpaarung + Selektion nach dem Dominantphänotyp ermittelt. Zum Vergleich der anteiligen Häufigkeit der reinerbigen Individuen in den einzelnen Generationen wurde bei 1 Anlagenpaar die Selektion und die Geschwisterpaarung, bei 2 Anlagenpaaren nur die Selektion herangezogen. Der Prozentsatz der homozygoten Individuen liegt bei Geschwisterpaarung + Selektion jeweils über dem bei ausschließlicher Selektion oder Geschwisterpaarung. Um einen zu 99 % homozygoten Bestand zu erhalten, sind im Falle der Monohybridspaltung bei Selektion 198 Generationen, bei Geschwisterpaarung 20 Generationen und bei Geschwisterpaarung + Selektion 12 Generationen notwendig; im Falle der Dihybridspaltung benötigt die Selektion 396 Generationen, die Geschwisterpaarung + Selektion 14 Generationen. Bei Selektion nach dem Dominantphänotyp ist die zur Erreichung eines bestimmten Homozygotenprozentsatzes notwendige Generationenzahl eine lineare Funktion der Zahl der Anlagenpaare. Zum Beispiel gilt y = 19S x; dabei bedeutet x die Zahl der Anlagenpaare und y die Anzahl der Generationen, die notwendig ist, damit der Bestand zu 99% aus Homozygoten besteht. Die Schaffung erbreiner Bestände würde wesentlich b!=günstigt sein, wenn man einige erbreine Tiere kennen würde. Zur Prüfung eines Tieres auf seine Erbveranlagung werden in der Literatur 1. Paarung an die rezessive Form, 2. Paarung an sichere Heterozygote und 3, Paarung an eigene Nachkommen angegeben. Für diese 3 Verfahren ist die notwendige Mindestzahl von Nachkommen von nur dominante Phänotyp bei Monohybridspaltung bereits berechnet. Es wurden die entsprechenden Werte für Dihybridspaltung errechnet und gleichzeitig die Geschwisterpaarung mit einbezogen. Die sich für 2 Anlagenpaareergebendcn Werte liegen nur um ein Geringes höher als die entsprechenden bei einem Anlagenpaar. Bei Geschwisterpaarung werden weniger Anpaarungen benötigt als bei Eltern-Nachkommenpaarung; die erstere Form der Prüfung ist bei uniparen Tieren nicht durchführbar. Abschließend kann man sagen, daß es durchaus möglich ist auch bei den Haustieren erbreine Stämme in zum mindesten 2 Anlagenpaaren planmäßig herauszüchten. Gelingt es nicht, nach einem der entwickelten Genotypprüfungsverfahren einzelne in den gewünschten Erbanlagen erbreine Individnen festzustellen, so ist immer durch Inzucht und planmäßige Selektion - allerdings erst in durchschnittlich längerer Zeit - die Möglichkeit gegeben, solche in größerer Zahl zu erhalten. Für polyhybrid geartete ZüchtuDgsaufgaben kann man eine Aufgabe nach der anderen lösen. Hat man z. B. einen Bestand von der genetischen Konstitution AaBbCcDdEe, dann faßt man zunächst nur 2 Anlagenpaare ins Auge - etwa AaBb - und schafft sich die Tiere, welche in diesen beiden Faktorenpaaren homozygot sind - alle anderon merzt man. Nun geht man zu den nächsten 2 Faktorenpaarcn - CcDd - über und züchtet auf die gleiche Weise AABBOCDD-Tiere. Der Zufall könnte es wollen, daß man gleichzeitig in dem Faktorenpaar EE .homozygote Tiere erhält. Ist dies aber nicht der Fall, so kann man nun in höchstens 2 Schritten auch in dem Anlagenpaar EE homozygote Individuen herauszüchten. Also auch in dem Fall des Polyhybridismus kann man nach und nach erbreine Stämme erhalten. Wünschenswert wäre es allerdings, wenn man auch für den Fall der Mehranlagigkeit möglichst exakte Vergleichsmaßstäbe für die Beurteilung der Inzucht- und Auslesevorgänge haben würde. Es wird eine spätere Aufgabe sein die prozentuale Zunahme der Homozygotie bei Geschwisterpaarung für 2 Anlagenpaare zu ermitteln und dieselben Untersuchungen auf 3 Anlagenpaare auszudehnen. Dann läßt sich vielleicht schon eine Abhängigkeit von der Anzahl der Anlagenpaare erkennen und der Prozentsatz der Homozygoten in einem Bestand bei Inzucht- und Selektionsversuchen als Funktion der Anzahl der Anlagenpaare und der Generationenzahl darstellen. Ferner wird es notwendig sein, die gleichen Untersuchungen unter verschiedenen Selektionsvoraussetzungen und auch für verschiedene Arten der Verwandtschaftspaarung durchzuführen. Schließlich ist bei all diesen Untersuchungen noch ein Moment unerwähnt geblieben: Es kann der Fall eintreten, daß mehrere Genpaare miteinander gekoppelt sind; folglich bleibt auch noch die Abhängigkeit vom Koppelungsgrad zu ermitteln. Aus diesen kurzen Hinweisen geht schon hervor, daß die Mathematik noch viel Arbeit zu leisten hat, damit der Biologie das Rüstzeug erhält, welches er für eine exakte Beurteilung der überall wirksamen Inzucht- und Auslesevorgänge benötigt.
Diese Arbeit beschreibt die verschiedenen Celltypen (ungefähr dreizig), die in die Larve von Alcyonidium ployoum (Hassall) sind, und zeigt ihre Verschiedenheit und ihren specifischen Merkmale, hesonders wegen der elektronischcn Mikroskopie. Die ektodermischen Zellstoffe sind viel mehr verschieden, als die Arbeiten den alten Autoren es zu glauben lasscn. Aborale und pericoronale Zellstoffe, deren einige von Warzen und mancherlei Wimper bedeckt sind, sind beschreibt. Ein besonderer Zellstoff, der die Einmündung des Saugnapfs beschränkt, ist im Kleine gelernt. Ein Ring von infracoronalen und sehr besonderen Wimperzellen, die nachher den grössten Teil der Anfang des ersten Polypid geben werden, hat sehr genau geanalisiert. Speziale palleale und des Saugnapfs Zellstoffekörnchen werden nachher die Kutukula der Ancestrula zu geben. Der verwickelte Bau der Musultnlareinpflanzungzellen ihre ektodermale Natur, der desmosomiale Anblick der Einfüngungen der Muskularfasern sind entdecken. Die mesodermalen Zellstoffe sind sehr verändert, und kann man die Verwandlung einer Typus von mesenchymalen Zell in einen anderen Typus folgen, in Beziehung auf dem Alter der Larve, Die Verteilung und der Bau der verschieden Muskeln sind geanalisiert, und mit den der anderen bekannten Ectoproctlarven vergleichen. Eine kritische Studium der mancherleien Kategorien von mesenchymalen Zellen ist bezüglich auf die histologischen Beschreibungen früherer Autoren gemacht. Die morulären Zellen, die bis nun allein bei die tätigen Alcyonidium´s Zoecien kurz beschreibt waren, sind hier einzeln gelernt, Ein Haupteingebrachte unserer Erforschung bewilligt den Bau des neuroempfindlichkeiten Ganze dieser Larve. Empfindungszellen stellen in der Mitte der Kappe, und sind in Verbindung, wegen synaptischen Vereinigungen, mit einem Dorsalganglion wo ein von einem mesodermalen zusammenhängenden Muff beschtzer Nerv anfangt. Axonen gehen unter dem Nerv fort, folgen den ganzen larva´s peripherie in der untercoronalen Gegend, und bezüglich mehreren Synapsen verbinden sie mit den allen regsamen Wimperstoffe der Larve. Es gibt kein nervöse Zellkörper neben deIn birniformingen Organ (der nun uns «complexe ectodernlique ventro-anterieur» vorziehen nennen); da bermerckt man nur ein Axonenhalftern. Mit den Gesamtheit der vereinigten Urkunden kannt man ein genau Kenntnis der Larva von Alcyonidium haben. Diese Kenntnis war die nötige Vorbedingung für das Studiaum der Vorfälle von der Verwandlung und Polypids´ Ancestrularbildung unternehmen. Dieses Studium wird logisch für uns diese Arbeit folgen.
Die Knochenansammlung im grauen vulkanischen Tuff der Südserengeti gibt als ökologisch unmögliches
Gemisch ein gutes Abbild des Gesamtbestandes und des Lebensraumes der altquartärcn ost- und innerafrikanischen Fauna. Diese lebte formenreich in Urwald, Savanne und offener Steppe. Das Fehlen wasserlebender Tiere ist hier auf örtliche Umstände zurückzuführen: die vulkanischen Aschen gingen auf Steppenboden nieder, Die benachbarten, ungefähr gleichalten Knochenlager enthalten solche Tiere. Neu ist an der Serengetifauna der bereits beträchtliche Anteil von Kleinsäugern (Nager; Insektivoren fehlen noch). Diese wird weitere Forschung vermehren. Die klimatische Entsprechung der Fauna wird in tropischen, feuchtwarmen Bedingungen erblickt. Obwohl viele tertiäre Formen enthaltend, wird die Fauna nicht als jungtertiär angesehen, sondern wegen des Auftretens moderner· Formen als eine Tiergesellschaft, welche das Quartär eröffnet. Als Leitfossil für dessen Beginn wird der Gattung Archidiskodon, aus welcher die echten Elefanten, darunter auch der afrikanische (Loxodonta africana ) entstanden sind, vor den Equiden der Vorzug gegeben.
Ostafrika, das ja als Tierparadies schlechthin gilt, lebte bis vor kurzem noch im Quartär. Das Schrifttum über seine Tierwelt scheint zwar fast unermeßlich groß, aufs Ganze gesehen ist das Wissen weder tief noch auch nur oberflächlich vollständig. Die Hauptleistung des "weißen Mannes" bestand in der Störung und Vernichtung der Fauna. Aber die Natur ist groß; sie hält noch einen Schatz im Inneren ihrer Gebirge bereit, damit der Mensch seine Stellung zu ihr und den Sinn seines Lebens ergründe, einen von vielen: dle quartäre Lebewelt selbst. Möge die hohe Aufgabe, ihn zu heben, uns Deutschen vergönnt sein! Eine Probe hat Dr. KOHL-LARSEN gesichert.
Die Pilzgattung Hygrocybe wird taxonomisch besprochen, wobei die bisherige Sektion Oreocybe Boertmann (subgenus Cuphophyllus) den Status einer eigenen Untergattung erhält. Ein Bestimmungsschlüssel zur Gattung wird vorgelegt, wobei Gruppen sehr ähnlicher Arten, die früher teilweise nicht getrennt wurden, im Hauptschlüssel zu Aggregaten zusammen gefaßt wurden. Diese Aggregate werden getrennt aufgeschlüsselt. 50 europäische Arten der Gattung Hygrocybe werden schließlich hinsichtlich ihrer Morphologie, Taxonomie, Ökologie und Verbreitung vorgestellt.
1975 wurden in diesem Mitteilungsblatt zwei Beiträge mit Fledermaus-Verbreitungskarten von Nordrhein-Westfalen veröffentlicht. In Fortsetzung dieser Kartierung der Bundesrepublik Deutschland legen wir nachfolgend die Ergebnisse des norddeutschen Raumes für den Zeitraum von 1945-75 vor. Die Zahl der hier nachgewiesenen Fledermausarten beläuft sich auf 15. Zur leichteren Übersicht wurde wiederum eine Zweiteilung vorgenommen. In den Listen sind sämtliche erreichbaren Fledermaus-Vorkommen nach Arten getrennt unter Angabe der LokalitSt, des Funddatums, des Quartiertyps sowie der Anzahl nachgewiesener individuen in chronologisclier Reihenfolge zusammengefaßt. Darüber hinaus wurden die Fundorte unter Berücksichtigung der Jahreszeit (Sommer- und Winteraufenthaltsort) und des Quartiertyps (Wochenstubenquartierei) in UTM-Gitterkarten, und zwar getrennt nach den Bundesländern Niedersachsen & Bremen sowie Schleswig-Holstein & Hamburg, eingetragen. Der starke Rückgang einzelner Species machte es aus Gründen der Erhaltung noch besetzter Quartiere in einigen Fällen erforderlich, von einer exakten Ortsangabe in den Listen abzusehen. Es sei darauf hingewiesen, daß diese Verbreitungskarten kein lückenloses Bild vom Vorkommen der Fledermäuse des Gebietes vermitteln können. Das gilt namentlich für unser nördlichstes Bundesland Schleswig-Holstein, wo vielleicht mit Ausnahme des Segeberger Raumes und des Seengebietes um Plön bisher keine systematischen Fledermaus-Beobachtungen vorliegen.
On the occurence of bats (Chiroptera) in South Tyrol (2): Vespertilionidae Since 1988 the author has been collecting and recording bat observations in South Tyrol. From 1990 to 1991 and from 1995 to 1997, in two different studies, he carried on a survey on the presence, the frequency and the horizontal and vertical dispersal of the various species of bats. The first task was on one hand to search the attics and steeples of about 700 churches and chapels; and, on the other hand, to answer the numerous calls telling of the presence of bats in private houses, to capture bats for a check-up and to inform people about European bats beeing harmless for humans, animals and houses. There is good evidence of 23 species of bats in South Tyrol since 1988 and of the reproduction of 18 of them, as well as there are single discoveries of three further species, and finally summer colonies of two species. As there is no certified evidence of the presence of Pipistrellus pygmaeus and of Plecotus alpinus they have not been included in this record. The data-base already provides a good idea of the presence and frequency of bat-species. Species which are frequent in Central Europe have been found almost everywhere in South Tyrol (e.g. Pipistrellus pipistrellus, Plecotus sp.), some of them in several colonies with a considerable number of individuals. The Etsch/ Adige Valley as far up as Meran/Merano - due to its mild climate - makes home for a few Mediterrean species. The few possibilities we got from scientific pubblications to make a comparison with former times let suppose that the bat occurences have diminued only in a few species. The reasons are to search mainly in the diminued offer of food.
I) Durch die vielen Extrem-Faktoren, die im Seewinkel zusammentreffen, erscheint dieses Steppengebiet, das östlich des Neusiedlersees gelegen ist, als besonders geeignetes Untersuchungsobjekt, sowohl für faunistische als auch für ökologische Forschungen. II) Die geologischen Verhältnisse und III) die Entstehungstheorien der Lacken werden in großen Zügen skizziert. IV) Das Klima ist als kontinental zu bezeichnen, es unterscheidet sich aber vom typischen Steppenklima der Ungarischen Tiefebene. V) Die Salzlacken sind durch eine hohe Alkalinitkit, bedeutende Salzgehalte, die zum Großteil auf Soda zurückzuführen sind, ihre große Härte, vor allem aber die Schwankungen im Ionenverhältnis und in der Gesamtkonzentration gekennzeichnet. Die Brunnen sind ebenso wie die Schottergruben als Süßwasser anzusprechen. VI) Es wurden insgesamt 32 Locken, 3 Brunnen, 3 Schottergruben und 7 Kanäle auf ihre Turbellarienfauna untersucht. VII) Die in den Gewässern gefundenen Turbellarien (30 an der Zahl) werden systematisch geordnet. Auch ihre Verteilung auf die einzelnen Lacken in den verschiedenen Monaten wird erläutert. Castrada gigantea ist eine neue Castrada-Art, die in zwei chemisch sehr verschiedenen Lacken gefunden wurde. Die allgemeine Organisation weicht von der der anderen Castraden nicht ab, auffallend ist hier lediglich der sehr große Kopulatiol1sapparat und die eigenartige "pflastersteinartige" Bestachelung der Bursa. Es sind vor allem die Karbonat-, in geringem Maße die Chlorid- und Sulfatkonzentrationen, die für das Artengefüge ausschlaggebend und als auslesender Faktor wirksam sind. Die meisten Turbellarien vertragen nur mittlere und niedere Konzentrationen, die Art der Ionen scheint dann eine untergeordnetere Rolle zu spielen. VIII) Zur Autökologie der Arten in den einzelnen Gewässertypen wird Stellung genommen und mit ihrem von anderen Autoren beschriebenen Vorkommen verglichen. Auf Grund der großen jahreszeitlichen Temperaturschwankungen ist es verständlich, daß wir im Gebiet einen starken Faunenwechsel vermerken können. In den Lacken haben die Temperaturänderungen aber gleichzeitig eine solche der Konzentration zur Folge, diese beiden Faktoren ließen sich nur im Experiment trennen. Man findet in den Lacken hauptsächlich Frühjahrsformen, einige davon erscheinen neben neu hinzutretenden auch im Herbst. Stenostomum leucops ist die einzige Art, die das ganze Jahr hindurch zu finden ist. Übersichtlich sind die Verhältnisse in den Brunnen, da hier die Schwankungen im Chemismus nicht so groß sind. Da das Brunnenwasser viel kühler ist und auch im Sommer nicht versiegt, können sich hier mehrere Arten über das ganze Jahr behaupten. IX) Abschließend wird auf den Entwicklungszyldus von Monocystella Arndti, einer parasitischen Gregarine, die in den Planarien des Brunnens am Sandeck vorkommt, eingegangen.
Zur Toxikologie des Antimons
(1927)
Antimontrioxyd, Antimonpentoxyd, Kaliumantimoniat, Natriummetantimoniat und Brechweinstein wurden, zum Teil mehrere Monate lang, an Ratten, Mäuse, Hunde und Katzen verfüttert. Dabei ergab sich, daß Ratten und Mäuse verhältnismäßig große Mengen von Antimontrioxyd, Antimonpentoxyd und Natriummetantimoniat ohne schwerere Gesundheitsschädigung ertragen. Einmalige Dosen von 2–3 g dieser Verbindungen sind für Ratten so gut wie ungiftig. Daß die praktisch unlöslichen, vom fünfwertigen Antimon abgeleiteten Verbindungen aber für höhere Tiere durchaus nicht harmlos sind, zeigt sich bei Hunden und Katzen deutlich. Hunde sind empfindlicher als die kleinen Nagetiere; sie erkranken nach Darreichung von mehreren Gramm an Verdauungsstörungen, Erbrechen und Durchfällen. Bei Katzen treten nach länger dauernder Zufuhr von Antimontrioxyd und Pentoxyd, etwa nach 450 mg täglich, Krankheitserscheinungen mit Abmagerung auf. Weitaus am giftigsten ist der Brechweinstein; die Erbrechen erregende Dosis liegt für Katzen bei etwa 10 mg per os pro Kilogramm Körpergewicht, für Hunde schon bei etwa 4 mg/kg. Kleine Mengen von Antimonverbindungen, auch von Brechweinstein, können bei wiederholter Darreichung beschleunigend auf das Wachstum junger Ratten wirken, nach größeren Mengen kommt es, auch bei sonst kaum giftigen Antimonverbindungen, zu mehr oder weniger deutlichen Verzögerungen des Wachstums. Für eine Gewöhnung an Antimon ergaben sich keine sicheren Anhaltspunkte.
Die Gattung Phormictopuswurde im Jahre 1901 von POCOCK aufgestellt. In seine neue Gattung nahm er als Typusart Mygale cancerides LATREILLE, 1806 von der Insel Hispaniola auf, dazu kam Lasiodora cautus AUSSERER, 1875, eine Art, die ohne Angabe des locus typicus beschrieben worden war. Bisher waren 14 Arten und 2 Unterarten bekannt, von denen 5 aus Südamerika stammen. Die vorliegende Arbeit reduziert die Artenzahl auf 12, wobei 5 neue Arten beschrieben und 4 synonymisiert, 3 zu nomina dubia (Typus verschollen), und 3 "incertae sedis" (in andere Gattungen gehörig) erklärt werden.
Da die gesamte Arbeit nur einen vorläufigen Überblick über das bearbeitete Gebiet gibt, können nur wenige Punkte hier herausgegriffen werden. Die Artendichte ist in der Kieler Bucht in der Vegetationszone (= Phytal) am größten, es folgt die Sandregion, am geringsten ist sie in der Schlammzone. Die Tiere des Phytals, der Sandregion und der Schlammregion zeigen in ihrer Organisation wesentliche Unterschiede. Im Sand ist die Mikrofauna stark, die Makrofauna gering entwickelt, in der Schlammregion umgekehrt. Die Verteilung der sessilen, der hemisessilen und der haptischen Tiere mit ihren Haftorganen auf die drei Hauptbiotope wird untersucht. Die Sandregion ist durch Fehlen der sessilen Tiere, Armut an hemisessilen, aber großer Reichtum an haptischen Tieren ausgezeichnet. Die haptischen Tiere des Sandes besitzen besonders Haftröhrchen, Haftpapillen und Haftringe als Haftorgane und diese in großer Zahl und weit über den Körper verteilt. Im Phytal erreichen die sessilen Tiere ihre maximale Arten- und Individuenzahl, in der Schlammregion dominieren die hemisessilen Arten. Die Lokomotion durch Wimperbewegung ist in der Sandregion am reichsten entwickelt (Kriechen auf Wimpern), wird im Phytal geringer und tritt in der Schlammregion ganz zurück. Eine Übersicht über die Ernährungstypen ergibt, daß im groben Sand die Diatomeenflora der Sandoberfläche als wichtigste Nahrungsquelle der Mikrofauna zu betrachten ist. Im Phytal existieren drei Nahrungswege: 1. Ein Weg von den Partikeln des freien Wassers über Mikrophagen zu einer Mikrofauna und Makrofauna ohne Einschaltung der Nährstoffe der Pflanzen des Phytals. Diesem Weg gehören im gesamten Phytal über ein Drittel der Arten an, im Extremfalle (tiefe Fucusregion) weitaus die Mehrzahl. 2. Ein Weg von der epiphytischen Mikroflora zu einer Mikro- und Makrofauna. 3. Ein Weg von den Teilen der Großpflanzen (Laminaria, Fucus, Zostera, Delesseria) zu einer Mikrofauna und Makrofauna. Diesem letzten Nahrungsweg gehören auffallend wenige Tierarten an, relativ am größten ist der Anteil in der Seegras- und der Ulvaregion. Eine Gliederung in Biozoenosen mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Mikrofauna ergibt für das Benthal, 6 Unterbiozoenosen, 4 davon (die Halammohydra-Biozoenose, die Turbanella-hyalina-B., die Arenicola-B. und die Otoplanen-B.) gehören der Sandregion, 2 (Corbula-B. und Laophonte-horrida-B.) gehören der Schlammregion an. Das Phytal zeigt trotz der starken Biotopunterschiede nur geringe qualitative Unterschiede seiner Fauna, jedoch starke Verschiedenheiten in der Artenzahl, die wohl in erster Linie auf den verschiedenen durchschnittlichen Salzgehalt der Biotope zurückzuführen sind. Die maximale Besiedelungsdichte zeigt die tiefe Fucusregion.
In einem ausführlichen Verzeichnis sind alle bayerischen Fundorte mit näheren Angaben zusammengestellt. Darüber hinaus soll ein Überblick über die Verbreitungsverhältnisse der Art in Europa und auf der Erde vermittelt werden. Die bis heute bekannte Verbreitung tn Europa läßt den Schluß zu, daß Octodiceras fontanum mit großer Wahrscheinlichkeit noch an vielen Stellen aufzufinden sein wird. Die bryosoziologischen Verhältnisse des Octodiceratetum werden durch soziologische Aufnahmen aus Ostbayern belegt. Der Vergleich mit Literaturangaben aus anderen europäischen Gebieten ergibt eine recht einheitliche Ausbildung dieser Wassermoosgesellschaft. Außerdem wird versucht, die ökologischen Verhältnisse des Octodiceratetum zu erfassen. Die entsprechenden Ausführungen müssen sich dabei v.a. auf die Untersuchungen in Ostbayern stützen, da aus anderen europäischen Gebieten nur wenige, vergleichbare Angaben vorliegen. Es wird daher in erster Linie angestrebt, vergleichbare Werte für zukünftige Untersuchungen in anderen Gebieten zu liefern. Die derzeitige Kenntnis des ökologischen Faktorenkomplexes für Octodiceras fontanum läßt noch manche Frage offen. Das Literaturverzeichnis enthält den Großteil der Veröffentlichungen über europäische Octodiceras-Standorte. Es wurden bewußt nur die Arbeiten aufgenommen, die auch eingesehen werden konnten.
Australia has a diversity of vectors and vector-borne human diseases. Mosquito-borne arboviruses are of greatest concern, but there are issues with other vector and pathogen systems. Mosquitoes were responsible for more than 35,000 cases of Ross River virus during 1991-1997. Barmah Forest virus is increasing nationwide, and unidentified bunyaviruses suspected of causing illness have been isolated. Cases of Murray Valley encephalitis have occurred in 14 of the past 20 years in northern Australia. Dengue is a continuing problem for northern Queensland, with various serotypes being active. Japanese encephalitis has appeared in the Torres Strait Islands and threatens mainland Australia. Although malaria is eradicated, almost 1,000 cases are imported annually and occasional cases of local transmission occur. With ticks, paralysis in children occurs annually in eastern Australia. Tick typhus (Queensland Tick Typhus--Rickettsia australis) occurs down the east coast, and (Flinders Island Spotted Fever--Rickettsia honei) in Bass Strait and probably Tasmania. Lyme disease is reported but its presence is controversial. Fleas were responsible for a recent outbreak of murine typhus (Rickettsia typhi) in Western Australia. Mites cause scrub typhus (Orientia tsutsugamushi), and there was a recent fatality in the Northern Territory. Overall, resources for investigation and control of vector-borne disease have generally been meager. However, various avenues of basic and applied research have been pursued, and have included investigations into mosquito ecology, vector competence, disease epidemiology, and vector control. Disease surveillance programs vary between states, and mosquito control programs are organized and effective in only a few regions. There are concerns for import of vectors such as Aedes albopictus and export of pathogens such as Ross River virus; the former has occurred but the species has not become established, and the latter has occurred and has resulted in a major outbreak in the South Pacific. The predicted scenarios of increased temperature and rainfall with global warming are also causing concern for increases in vector-borne diseases, particularly the endemic arboviruses. Interest by health authorities is gravitating more towards epidemiological reporting and less towards public health action. In many respects, humans have much to do to get "on top" of vectors and their pathogens "down under" in Australia.
Recently, the first part of the morphological revision of the Southeast Asian water monitor lizards of the Varanus salvator (Laurenti, 1768) species group provided a taxonomic overview over the members of this successful and widespread species complex (Koch et al. 2007). There, the Philippine taxa marmoratus, nuchalis and cumingi were reelevated to species status due to diagnostic morphological characteristics, e.g. significantly enlarged scales on the neck region. In this second part of the ongoing revision, these three species are re-investigated using additional voucher specimens and advanced statistical techniques including canonical variates analysis and principal component analysis. Our new investigations indicate that V. marmoratus represents a composite species, comprising at least three distinct taxa. Hence, the populations of the Sulu Archipelago (Tawi-Tawi Island) and those of the Palawan region are described as new species, viz. Varanus rasmusseni sp. nov. and V. palawanensis sp. nov., respectively. The allopatric island populations of V. cumingi inhabiting Samar, Leyte, and Bohol (the East Visayan subregion) show characteristic and geographically correlated colour patterns distinct from the type locality Mindanao (the second subregion of Greater Mindanao), warranting subspecific partition of this species. The new subspecies is named V. cumingi samarensis ssp. nov. In contrast, the taxonomic status of V. nuchalis remained unchanged, although this species shows some considerable variation in colour pattern. The systematic chapters are supplemented with notes about biology and conservation status. The hitherto underestimated diversity and zoogeography of Philippine water monitors is discussed in the light of Pleistocene sea level fluctuations. Finally, we introduce a scenario for the evolution and spread of Southeast Asian water monitor lizards and provide an identification key for the Philippine members of the V. salvatoI' complex.
Trématodes parasites provenant des campagnes scientifiques du Prince Albert Ier de Monaco <1886-1912
(1938)
The siliceous claystone and chert lithologic units of the Triassic-Jurassic chert-clastic sequence are well exposed in the Inuyama, Mt. Kinkazan and Hisuikyo areas of the southeastern Mino Terrane. Twenty-one continuous sections from those areas were investigated in order to establish comprehensive radiolarian biozones and clarify the successive lithologic changes through the Triassic and lowest Jurassic. Twenty new radiolarian zones are established; the lowest two are assemblage zones and the others are defined by the first or last occurrence of index taxa. The definitions are as follows in chronological order: TR 0, Follicucullus Assemblage Zone (early Spathian or older); TR 1, Parentactinia nakatsugawaensis Assemblage Zone (late Spathian); TR 2A, Eptingium nakasekoi Lowest-occurrence Zone (early Anisian); TR 2B, Triassocampe coronata group Lowest-occurrence Zone (early Anisian); TR 2C, Triassocampe deweveri Lowest-occurrence Zone (late Anisian); TR 3A, Spine A2 (possiblly derived from Oertlispongus inaequispinosus) Lowest occurrence Zone (late Anisian) ; TR 3B, Yeharaia elegans group Lowest-occurrence Zone (early Ladinian); TR 4A, Muelleritortis cochleata Lowest-occurrence Zone (late Ladinian); TR 4B, Spongoserrula dehli Lowest-occurrence Zone (late Ladinian to early Carnian); TR 5A, Capnuchosphaera Lowest-occurrence Zone (early Carnian); TR 5B, Poulpus carcharus sp. nov. Lowest-occurrence Zone (early to late Carnian); TR 6A, Capnodoce- Trialatus Concurrentrange Zone (late Carnian to early Norian), TR 6B, Trialatus robustus-Lysemelas olbia gen. et sp. nov. Partial-range Zone (early Norian); TR 7, Lysemelas olbia gen. et sp. nov. Lowest-occurrence Zone (early to late Norian); TR 8A: Praemesosaturnalis multidentatus group Lowest-occurrence Zone (late Norian); TR 8B: Praemesosaturnalis pseudokahleri sp. nov. Lowest-occurrence Zone (late Norian) ; TR 8C: Skirt F (possiblly derived from Haeckelicyrtium takemurai) Lowest-occurrence Zone (late Norian to early Rhaetian); TR 8D: Haeckelicyrtium breviora sp. nov. Taxon-range Zone (early to late Rhaetian) ; JR OA: Haeckelicyrtium breviora sp. nov.-Bipedis horiae sp. nov. Partial-range Zone (Hettangian); and JR OB: Bipedis horiae sp. nov. Lowest-occurrence Zone (Hettangian/Sinemurian) . These zones are correlated to previousy established radiolarian assemblages and zones in Japan and other regions. Age assignment of the zones is also discussed on the basis of the correlation and other available chronological data. The original stratigraphic succession of the Triassic in the studied area, which ranges in age from Early Triassic to Early Jurassic, is more than 100 m in thickness and can be reconstructed in detail. The succession is subdivided into seven units based on lithologic features. Each unit was probably accumulated under a particular sedimentary condition, thus successive changes of paleoceanographic environments during Triassic time can be traced continuously. Nine new genera including Ayrtonius, Blonzella, Braginella, Bulbocampe, Enoplocampe, Lysenzelas, Parvibrachiale, Spongoxystris and Veles, and 47 new species are described herein. A comprehensive list of identified taxa is presented.
The present catalogue is an attempt to bring together the genera and species of Trematoda currently known to parasitize Chiroptera Blumenbach, 1774, throughout their world distribution, as published in various journals. Since many of these are difficult to obtain for consultation, it is hoped that this catalogue may be of some utility in facilitating the work of helminthologists working with trematodes from bats.
The Indian Hill Mynah (Gracula religiosa) was studied in the field in Assam in north-east India. The aims of the study were two-fold: (i) to understand better this bird's exceptional ability in captivity to imitate human speech; and (ii) to provide background understanding to studies of the importance of early auditory experience and of vocal imitation in the development of normal song patterns in birds. First is given a brief description of the distribution, general behaviour, and breeding biology of this arboreal, sexually isomorphic, semi-gregarious species. The remainder of the monograph deals with vocalizations; these were either tape-recorded in the field, or transcribed directly using a written notation developed for the purpose. Any wild adult Mynah of either sex possesses four categories of vocalizations: (i) 'Chip-call'; a loud piercing squeak made in contexts which include alarm. (ii) 'Um-sound'; a soft grunt, acting in close range social contexts, and (like chip-calls) common to all individuals. (iii) 'Whisper-whistles': several soft sounds of types unique to the individual. (iv) 'Calls': several loud noises, of extremely varied patterns. The bulk of the monograph deals with 'calls', as defined thus. Calls were compared quantitatively with one another by a method developed which measured the degree of overlap of one sonogram with a tracing of a second sonogram. Both by this method and by ear, calls were divided into discrete types, without intermediates. Birds of either sex have a repertoire of usually between five and twelve such call types, some of which are produced much more commonly than others. Repertoires tend to be larger in birds which call more frequently, or which have mates with large repertoires. The repertoire of a given bird stays largely constant from year to year in size. composition, and proportions. No bird shares any of its call types with its mate, but it shares several of them with near neighbours of the same sex. There is a progressive change of dialect with distance, such that birds nesting more than about 14 km apart have no call types in common. No general characteristics of call structure could be found which were indicative of the sex of the caller, but in a known locality the call type made immediately reveals the sex of the bird producing it. Call types are learnt by selective imitation of neighbouring individuals during a young bird's first several months. A call type common in the repertoire of one bird tends also to be common in the repertoire of a neighbour, except at the edge of the limited range of that call type. Which particular call type a calling bird selects from among those in its repertoire is discussed. Few call types could be related to non-auditory contexts. A bird is likely to repeat the call type last made, and also tends to standardize the order in which it produces its different call types; this standard order tends to be the same as that of its neighbours. A birdtends also to reply at once and to standardize the call type it makes in immediate reply to a particular call type of its mate; again, neighbouring pairs of birds tend to use the same standardized call and reply types. The length of the interval between a particular call and its reply tends to be constant in a given pair of birds, and approximately the same in neighbouring pairs. These are all further aspects of extensive but selective vocal imitation by Mynahs of adult birds; other species are not imitated. Information on calling when in contact with other pairs came mainly from playback experiments, when single calls were presented to nesting pairs of Mynahs. Response strength was measured by the incidence of flight, number of subsequent vocalizations, latency of response, and proportion of playbacks ignored. When presented with playbacks of calls of familiar types (of neighbours) and of unknown types (of strangers), birds responded more strongly to the familiar than to the unknown call types. They did, however, respond somewhat to the unknown call types, which were of patterns never previously heard by them, presumably recognizing these as being Mynah calls by their sound quality. Mynahs responded as strongly to playbacks of neighbours' calls which were not in their own repertoire as to playbacks of neighbours' calls which were. A bird tends to match at once the call last heard (either from a tape recorder or from a wild neighbour), itself producing the same call type at once, if it possesses it in its own repertoire. That call type, and others associated with it, also occurs more frequently thereafter. Thus calls heard affect calls made, and vice-versa since other individuals nearby behave similarly. A change of nearest neighbours in successive years was shown to affect one pair's repertoire proportions. Further playback experiments showed that Mynahs were able to distinguish between a single call made by their neighbours and a single call of the same call type made by their mates. Small but consistent differences were found in the sonograms of such calls of the same type made by different birds. The structure of a single call type may change gradually with distance. The development of vocalizations with age is briefly described. In the final discussion sections, the ways in which, and the extent to which, Mynahs are able to determine the species, home locality, sex and individual identity of other Mynahs are outlined. There follow consideration, and comparison with other species: (i) of various aspects of repertoires; (ii) of the distribution of call types among different individuals; (iii) of the dynamic aspects of calling, and a scheme is proposed which accounts for the selection for utterance of a particular call type from the repertoire; and (iv) of the organization and coordination of calling. The lack of imitation of other species in the wild is discussed, and contrasted with the several ways in which wild Mynahs imitate one another in various aspects of their calling.
Carnian (Upper Triassic) fishes from Polzberg bei Lunz have been known since 1886 but no comprehensive account has been published. Eleven species are described nine of which, Saurichthys calcaratus, Polzbergia brochatus, Peltoplellrus dinlmptus, Habroichthys gregarius, Nannolepis elegans, Phaidrosoma lunzensis, Elpistoichthys pectinatus, E. striolatus and Pholidophoretes salvus are new, and two others, Thoracopterus niederristi Bronn and Gigantopterus telleri Abel, previously little-known. New supraspecific taxa defined are: the order Polzbergiiformes, the family Thoracopteridae and the genera Polzbergia, Nannolepis, Phaidrosoma, Elpistoichthys and Pholidophoretes. Habroichthys. Thoracopterus, Gigantopterus and Nannolepis show an unusual skull-roof pattern and are included in the re-defined order Luganoiiformes. Two new ichthyokentemids considerably extend the known time-range of this family. The genus Pholidophoretes is intermediate between the Archaeomenidae Goodrich 1909, and the Pholidophoridae sensu stricto Nybelin 1966. The Polzberg assemblage was probably mainly marine with a small freshwater contribution; it shows less similarity to the Besano and Raibl assemblages than these do to each other. The Luganoiiformes are probably, but not certainly, monophyletic; relationships within the order are analyzed and a cladogram constructed. The Platysiagiformes, Peltopleuriformes, Luganoiiformes and Cephaloxeniformes could all have been derived from a common ancestor at the Perleidus level and are probably offshoots of the perleidid radiation.
Glyptostrobus Endlicher is well represented in early Early Cretaceous to Pleistocene deposits in the middle to high latitudes of North America and Eurasia. Although the taxonomy and nomenclature of the genus is complicated, the fossil record indicates Glyptostrobus was represented by a small number of species. The genus first appears in Aptian age deposits from western Canada and Greenland, and achieved a wide distribution early in its evolutionary history. Exchange of Glyptostrobus between Asia and North America occurred across the Spitsbergen and Beringian corridors, which were functional about 110 and 100 million years ago, respectively The Late Cretaceous fossil record of Glyptostrobus shows that the genus had spread into Russia, China and the shores of the Turgai Strait. By the early Tertiary, Glyptostrobus was a prominent constituent of the polar broad-leaved deciduous forests. Paleocene age deposits across western Canada and the United States indicate the genus was present in great abundance in the lowland warm temperate and subtropical forests east of the Rocky Mountains. The broad distribution in North America and Russia during the Paleocene and Eocene indicates that Glyptostrobus grew and reproduced under a diverse range of climatic and environmental conditions, including the cold and unique lighting conditions of the polar latitudes. The presence of Glyptostrobus in Europe indicates the North Atlantic land bridges that extended between North America and Eurasia (Fennoscandia) and Europe during the early Tertiary were used. In Europe, extensive Glyptostrobus dominated swan1ps occupied the Central European Depression during the late Tertiary. Increasing global aridity and cooling, as well as landscape stabilization together with increasing competition for resources and habitat by representatives of the Pinaceae, seem to have forced the genus out of North America, Europe and most of Asia during the Miocene and Pliocene. In Japan, Glyptostrobus persisted until the early Pleistocene. After the early Pleistocene extinction in Japan, Glyptostrobus reappeared in southeastern China. Details of the taxonomic and biogeographic history of Glyptostrobus are examined.
This paper is a general review of the problem of clutch-size in birds. It grew out of a search through the literature to see to what extent clutch-size trends found in the Robin, Erithaau8 rebecula, might apply generally. Part I. describes those types of clutch-size variation found within any species, Part II. provides a general discussion of the factors involved. In Part IlI, which follows separately later, some of the differences between different species of birds will be considered. Examples are taken mainly from European birds, hence this review is in some ways supplementary to that on African birds by Moreau (1944), to which the present study owes a considerable debt.
(1) a. The mating behavior (including copulation) is described for the first time in the following species: Pardosa modica, P. emertoni, P. saxatilis, P. lapidicina, Lycosa helluo, .L. gulosa, Dolomedes scriptus, Phidippus clarus, P. audax, Philodromus pernix, and Coriarachne versicolor. b. The courtship only is described for the first time in Phidippus purpuratus. c. In Lycosa rabida and Pardosa milvina new data concerning the copulation, and in Schizocosa crassipes new data concerning courtship, are added to what is already available from Montgomery's work. d. In Tibellns oblongus and Xysticus triguttatus new data are added to the accounts of Gerhardt, and of Emerton, respectively. (2) a. On the basis of a large number of observations and experiments with the males of 19 species from 4 families of vagabond spiders, it is pointed out that the senses involved in courtship may vary with the species. b. There is no evidence that a sense of smell is used in sex recognition by any spiders. At least this sense plays no part in initiating courtship activity in the male. c. There is no evidence that Attid males can "recognize" the females by any sense other than sight. At any rate, it appears that the visual stimulus is the only one that suffices to incite courtship in this family. d. In one Lycosid observed, Pardosa emertoni, the courtship behavior is elicited only when the male can both see and touch the female. e. In the Pisaurid, Dolomedes scriptus, the sole stimulus for courtship is the chemoperception by contact of an ether-soluble substance normally covering the cuticle of the female. f. In the Lycosid, Pardosa milvina, the chemoperception by contact of an ether-soluble substance normally covering the cuticle of the female, together with the simultaneous perception of tactile stimuli will elicit courtship. This probably holds for P. saxatilis, Lycosa rabida, Schizocosa crassipes, and perhaps for Pardosa modica. Moreover, the sight of a moving Lycosid of about their own size may, in some cases, be sufficient for these males to start courting. g. In the Lycosids, Pardosa banksi, and probably Lycosn gulosa and L. helluo, only the simultaneous perception of both tactile and tacto-chemical stimuli suffices. Visual stimuli play no part in eliciting courtship. h. The condition in the Thomisids is in all probability similar to that in the preceding group of Lycosids. (3) a. In the case of those species in which contact chemoperception occurs it is shown that perception is not limited to the tarsi. Such stimuli can be perceived on all the segments of the legs as well as on the abdomen. From the known distribution of the slit sense organs it is probable that they are the chemoreceptors involved in courtship.
The seed collection of the species of the Gesneriaceae on which this study is based was obtained, for the most part, during a number of visits to the herbaria of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., and the Royal Botanical Garden of Kew, London, and Edinburgh, Scotland. The seed collection comprises well over 800 samples of about 700 species of the Gesneriaceae, representing 113 genera of the 127 in the family, and provides a good taxonomic representation of the Gesneriaceae. Following an examination of all the samples in the seed collection, over 300 species of the 113 genera were selected to represent the wide range of seed morphology characters observed among the examined species of the Gesneriaceae. A system with which to analyze and diagnose seed surface morphology, designed by the author, is based on a format of six major categories and 60 tertiary terms of seed morphology characters and a companion diagnostic table. The categories are arranged in a sequence of increasingly smaller seed characters, ranging from seed shape to the ultrastructural characters of the individual cells. To ensure that the system would also apply to seed plants in general, the seeds, achenes and nutlets of a wide variety of species from families other than the Gesneriaceae were examined. Twenty species from 13 families other than the Gesneriaceae were then selected and are included in this study and, together with the Gesneriaceae, represent eight of the ten subclasses of the flowering plants (Cronquist 1968). The seeds, achenes and nutlets of all the species included in this study are illustrated with SEM photomicrographs on the 54 plates of the Seed Atlas, and the seed morphology data of each species are recorded on the diagnostic tables that face each of the Atlas Plates. To facilitate the comparison of the taxa of the Gesneriaceae, and to assist in the identification of the seeds of the examined species of the Gesneriaceae, the seed morphology data are also recorded on a summary table at the genus, tribe, subfamily and family levels. The seed morphology of the Gesneriaceae is compared and contrasted with the current classifications of the family at the species, genus, tribe, subfamily and family levels. The seed analysis system designed for this study has proven to be a rapid, efficient, uniform, objective method to deal with the analytical, diagnostic, and taxonomic aspects of an investigation of seed morphology. In addition, the system readily lends itself to the substitution or addition of terms and categories if needed, or to programming for a computerized analysis of seed morphology. It is hoped that the system will prove useful to other investigators, as well as prove helpful to standardize future investigations of seed
morphology.
The last decade of research in the field of animal nutrition has Ied to the discovery of a new class of substances in the food stuffs constituting the animal dietary. These compounds have been designated "Vitamines, Accessory Factors of the Diet, Exogenous Hormones of the Diet". They are present in infinitesimal quantities in certain articles of the diet, but their role in the metabolic cycle is one of the greatest importance. Subsequent investigation has shown that they are essential for the wellbeing and even the life of the organism itself. Without these indispensable elements the animal cell is unable to maintain its activities unimpaired, or the adolescent subject to attain normal growth. Continued deprivation leads to disease and ultimately to cessation of life. The discovery of these cornpounds was the result of a generation's work on the etiology of two diseases - Beri-beri and Scurvy. These are now known as "Deficiency Diseases". Each of these pathological conditions is due to the dietary deficiency of a specific substance, which in the case of beri-beri is known as the "Anti-neuritic Vitamin" (Funk); "Water Soluble B substance" (McCollum). In the case of scurvy this element is called the "Antiscorbutic Substance". A third factor associated with fats of animal origin has been subsequently discovered, but its deficiency results in a general malnutrition of a chronic type complicated with Xerophthalmia.
A cladistic analysis is presented of the hawkmoths of the tribe Acherontiini, Morgan´s Sphinx (Xanthopan morganii (Walker», and related genera. The study aims to test the monophyly of tribe Acherontiini; the hypothesis that all taxa with extremely long probosces (some Acherontiini, Meganoton rubescens, Neococytius, Xanthopan) form a monophyletic group, or at least fall within a single reasonably compact clade; and, within this group, to determine whether Xanthopan is more closely related to Acherontiini or to COCytillS and Neococytius. The data set comprises 109 characters derived from adult and immature stage morphology, biology and behaviour. These data were analysed using equal weighting, successive approximations character weighting (SACW) and implied weighting. All weighting schemes agreed on the monophyly of Acherontiini and of a group of genera comprising Amphimoea, Cocytius and Neococytius (the Cocytius group). Several other generic and suprageneric clades were also consistently recovered. However, those hawkmoths with extremely long probosces were never recovered as a monophyletic group. The relationships of Xanthopan were also ambiguous. Equal weighting and SACW placedXanthopan + Meganoton rztbescens (Butler) as sister to the COCytills group, while implied weighting placed Xanthopan as sister to Acherontiini. This latter relationship is based primarily on shared possession of a pilifer/palp hearing organ. Further analyses suggested the two components of this organ were not biologically independent. Downweighting this feature accordingly resulted in all weighting schemes converging on the topology found by equal weighting. Exclusion of the incomplete subset of immature stage data had no effect under implied weighting but equal weighting and SACW now recovered a Neotropical clade comprising Manduca. and the Cocytius group, while Xanthopan was placed with M. rubescens and Panogena. Downweighting the pilifer/palp hearing organ under implied weighting again caused convergence with the equal weighting/SACW results. Thus, the relationships of Xanthopan remain equivocal and further data, particularly from the immature stages, will be required to elucidate its phylogenetic position further.
A multi-part theorem is presented concerning the morphogenesis of high-symmetry structures made of three-dimensional morphological units (MU's) free to move on the surface of a sphere. All parts of each MU interact non-specifically with the remainder of the structure, via an isotropic function of distance. Summing all interactions gives a net figure of merit, X, that depends upon MU positions and orientations. The structure evolves via gradient dynamics, each MU moving down the local gradient of I. The analysis is reresented with generality in Fourier space, which eases the expression of symmetry. Structures near symmetry, but far from a local minimum of I, are analyzed. For each, a symmetrical configuration can be found, for which X is an extremum with respect to symmetry-breaking perturbations. Under gradient dynamics, a quadratic measure of such deviations from symmetry decreases monotonically, anywhere in the large basin of attraction of a local minimum. Thus: high symmetry is an attractor. Application is made to icosahedral virus capsids. The Symmetrization Theorem shows that a stable capsid, maintained by non-specific interactions among its capsomeres, could arise generically in a "bottom-up" process. For animated evolutions that selfassemble into high symmetry, visit http://www.albany.edu/~cmarzec/
The larvae of Orthocladiinae (Diptera: Chironomidae) of the Holarctic region : keys and diagnoses
(1983)
Material of the domestic fowl of appropriate ages, ranging from twelve hours' incubation to the adult bird, was prepared for the purpose of studying the production and development of the germ cells. The primordial germ cells arise in the extra-embryonic region anterior to the head fold in the region of the zone of junction during the primitive-streak stage. These germ cells migrate, through the blood stream, to the region of the future gonad, where they develop into the definitive germ plasm. There is no widespread degeneration of the primordial germ cells after their arrival in the gonadal region, nor is there any widespread transformation of somatic cells into definitive germ cells.
The theoretical concept of the biological species and the multidimensional species category, as currently applied by a majority of ornithologists and by many other biologists, replaced the typological-morphological species concept during the first half of this century and became a central tenet of the synthetic theory of evolution. The concept of biospecies is a 'horizontal' concept referring to contemporary reproductive communities at any particular period, e.g. the Recent period or any other time level of the geological past. Historical 'species' concepts as applied by cladists and palaeontologists refer to artificially delimited portions of 'vertical' phyletic lineages for which the application of the term 'species' causes severe problems. Discussions would be simplified if the concept and term 'species' was to be restricted to cross sections of phyletic lineages at any time level and a separate taxonomy outside the Linnaean system of genera and species was to be conceived to deal with phyletic lineages. Under each of the theoretical species concepts, species taxa are assigned broadly to intermediate or narrowly defined taxonomic species categories. Ornithologists of the 19th century applied morphological species concepts, emphasizing morphological character differences between species (rather than distinctness) and the fertility of con specific individuals (rather than the isolation from non-conspecific populations). Nearly all leading museum ornithologists in 19th-century Europe delineated monotypic Linnaean species, whereas the explorer-naturalists of the Gloger-Middendorff school (including Panas, Faber, Gloger, Nordmann, Middendorff, Schrenck, Radde, as well as Schlegel and Blasius) delimited widely circumscribed species taxa. Their researches in the vast territories of eastern Europe, Siberia and the Far East from the late 18th century to the 1880s and, in particular, their rich specimen material, demonstrated direct intergradation of many taxa (geographical varieties) of birds, thus revealing the conspecific nature of numerous narrowly conceived morphospecies previously described by museum workers. The ornithologists of the Gloger-Middendorff school also studied several conspicuous phenomena of geographical character variation in birds (and mammals) across Eurasia, especially plumage colouration (and pelage) and body size, but none of them was an evolutionist. They an adhered to a typological-creationist theoretical species concept. During the late 19th century, the museum specialists' taxonomic notion of narrow morphospecies dominated systematic ornithology in Europe, overtaking the work of the naturalists of the Gloger-Middendorff school, which fell into oblivion. The ornithologists of the Bairdian school in North America (Baird, Coues, Allen, Ridgway) further developed the concept of subspecies after the 1850s and especially from the 1870s onward. Their views were fully in accord with Darwin's theories of evolution' thus they defined the subspecies in a somewhat simplified manner as 'nascent species': These ornithologists were able to base their studies on collections of extensive specimen material which they had obtained during a series of exploring expeditions across the North American continent. Their studies led to the discovery of many aspects of both individual and geographic variation in birds. There are interesting historical similarities between the coinciding taxonomic interpretations and the comparable application of fairly broad limits of morphospecies by the North American ornithologists and the earlier exploring ornithologists in Europe, arrived at Independently by these, research groups, The study of specimens in 'series' (,suites'), beginninng with the naturalists of the Gloger-Middendorff school and, in particular, with the naturalists of the Bairdian school in North America, eventually led to the overcoming of the prevating typological view of variation and the development of 'population thinking'. Influenced by the work of Henry Seebohm in Britain and that of the North American ornithologists, Hartert in England and Kleinschmidt in Germany jointly succeeded in overcoming the strong opposition of the leadi.ng ornithologists in Europe during the 1890s and early 19008 and introduced a concept which soon developed into the biological species concept through the work of Stresemann, Rensch, and in particular, Ernst Mayr. Hopefully, ornithologists will continue the study of taxa at low, intermediate and high levels of microtaxonomic differentiation and will identify the subspecies groups, biological species and the biogeographical species in the world's avifaunas. Cladistic analyses will provide historical {'vertical'} overviews of phyletic lineages at different taxonomic levels.
The genus Maculinea van Eecke, 1915 (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) from the East Palaearctic Region
(1994)
We revise the classification of taxa belonging to the genus Maculinea from the East Palaearctic Region. In this region, in addition to the well-known three species: M. arion (Linnaeus, 1758), M. ationides (Staudinger, 1887) and M. teleius (Bergstriisser, [1779] 1778-1780), two additional species occur: M. alcon ([Denis & Schiffermiiller], 1775) (upper and middle Amur River, Primor'e, China Northeast/Manchuria and North Korea) and M. kurentzovi sp. nov. (upper and middle Amur River, Primor'e, China Northeast and North Korea). Lycaena kondakovi (Kurentzov, 1970) described from Primor'e is a composite species: the lectotype if' designated here represents an East-Asian subspecies of M. alcon, but its single paralectotype is a female to be assigned to M. kurentzovi sp. nov. Only limited numbers of specimens have been known with M. alcon kondakovi from lowlands of "Far-Eastern" Russia and China Northeast, but in North Korea we found a conspicuous allied taxon arirang nov. (female unknown), which we treat here as a highland subspecies of M. alcon but which may actually represent a good species. Of kurentzovi, we have found a series of specimens which have so far been mostly confused with M. teleius in various collections. We treat Glaucopsyche xiaheana Murayama, 1991 from western Gansu as a subspecies of M. arion along with other subspecies from the central and western parts of China: M. adon philidor (Fruhstorfer, 1915) from the east end of the Qilian Range as well as Mongolia, the type locality, and M. arion inferna nom. nov., a replacement name for Lycaena talsienluica (OberthUr, 1910) (praeoccupied) from Tibet, Sichuan and Qinghai. Because of the similarity of male genitalia and existence of intermediate forms, we regard M. sinalcon Murayama, 1992 described from Qinghai as a subspecies of M. teleius despite a few significant characteristics of the holotype. East continental Asia may be regarded as the headquarter of the genus Maculinea.
Introductory chapters on the geography, vegetation and history of botanical ex loration are followed by a catalogue of 331 species of wild vascular plants, 90% of which represent first records for the island. Synonymy, references, localities and ecological data are given for each species in a condensed form. The taxonomy, nomenclature and distribution of some taxa are discussed; in one case (Silene cythnia) a drawing and a distribution map are supplied. Nomenclatural novelties are validated in the genera Centaurea, Matricana, Melica (by W. Hempel) and Trifolium. A phytogeographical and ecological analysis of the flora demonstrates its striking banality and the unexpectedly high proportion of anthropophytes. No pliytogeographical link with tlie other E. Aegean Isiands and Anatolia exists, but there are some affinities with the Cyclades. The observations are consistent with the hypotliesis of a long insular isolation leading to a strong depletion or even destruction of the original flora, which has been replaced by long-distance dispersed and anthropophytic elements.
The primary subdivisions of the brain (telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon, metencephalon, and myelencephalon) have similar relations and comparable functions in all vertebrates. Accordingly, the landmarksthat define their boundaries can be regarded as reliable for following their development. On the basis of a more complete series of well preserved embryos than has been available hitherto, we present evidence that the subdivisions of the adult brain can be traced back to neural-fold stages in which a series of growth centers can be recognized, differing from one another in form, size, and relations. The possibility of following the constrictions between the various subdivisions throughout development has been doubted by some, notably Hochstetter (1919). At present we are convinced that they can be distinguished if certain criteria are followed. These are: (a) constrictions involve the neural tube as a whole; (b) constrictions do not give rise primarily to any neural centers; (c) constrictions change in relative length and width, and in certain stages they become inconspicuous in models. The anatomical descriptions of progressive stages of development have important practical implications. It is known, for example, that congenital malformations of the central nervous system in man are common and that they are responsible for a substantial portion of fetal wastage as well as infant mortality and morbidity. In certain patients comprehensive clinical studies may indicate the underlying abnormality, such as dysraphism, arhinencephaly, hypoplasia of the cerebellum. or absence of the corpus callosum. In addition, anatomical examination of the affected brains may reveal in detail such abnormalities as lyssencephaly, polymicrogyria, or other cortical dysgeneses. These very complex cerebral malformations can only be understood and unraveled in the light of normal development. An investigation of early development of the brain must necessarily begin with a stage in which the major landmarks of the adult brain can be readily identified.As progressively younger stages are analyzed certain landmarks can no longer be recognized, although others persist at least to the third week of gestation. We believe that the evidence on which this study is based can be followed more satisfactorily in this inverted sequence, and the detailed description is so presented. It is followed by a summary of the sequence of events written in the conventional manner, as far as the eighth week of gestation.
Over 6260 fungi have been isolated from samples of feathers, nests, pellets, droppings, cloaca contents and visceral organs of 92 species of free-living birds in Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. Several species have been obtained of fungi pathogenic to homeotherms, poikilotherms and plants, and many fungi recorded belong to the toxinogenic species.Cellulolytic fungi have participated with 44.3 % in the total number of fungi, and keratinolytic fungi with 18.3 %. The thesis has been confirmed that habits (specific bionomics) of the birds influence,. to a certain degree, the distribution of the fungi among them. According to the results of this study, the fungi may conveniently be divided into three categories with respect to the character of their distribution and dispersal by free-living birds: (1) euryornithochous fungi , the occurrence of which in birds is undetermined by the birds' habits (ubiqitous species: Aspergillus flavus, Gliocladium roseum, Rhizopus. nigricans, Trichothecium roseum); (2) mesoornitohochorous fungi, the occurrence of which in birds is determined to a certain degree by the birds' habits (e. g., Aphanoascus fulvescens, Arthrodermcr curreyi, Chrysosporium keratinophilum, C. tropicum, Mucor hiemalis); (3) stenoornithochoruss fungi, which are associated with certain habit groups of the birds only (e. g., Aphanoascus terreus, Arthroderma ciferrii, A. tuberculatum,.Aspergillus fumigatus, Chrysosporium pannorum, Ctenomyces serratus). The importance of free-living birds in the spreading of pathogenic organisms has also been discussed from a more general point of view, particularly with regard to several epidemiologically important aspects of bird ecology such as synanthropism, migration (making possible a long-range carriage of pathogens or infected vectors), colonial breeding or mass roosting.
Birds are characterized by pneumatization of their skeletons by epithelial diverticula from larger, air-filled cavities. The diverticula-or 'air sacs'-that invade the postcranium result from outgrowths of the lungs; poslcranial pneumaticity has been very well studied. Much more poorly understood are the air sacs that pneumatize the skull. Study or craniofacial pneumaticity in modern birds (Neornithes) indicates the presence of two separate systems: nasal pneumaticity and tympanic pneumaticity, The lacrimal and maxillary bones arc pneumatized by diverticula of the main paranasal cavity, the antorbital sinus. There are five tympanic diverticula in neornithines that pneumatize the quadrate, articulare and the bones of the braincase. The pneumatic features of the following six genera of Mesozoic birds are examined: Archaeopteryx, Ellaliornis, Baplomis, Parahesperornis, Hesperornis and lchthyornis. Despite the 'archaic' aspect of most of these birds, many of the pneumatic features of neornithines are found in .Mesozoic birds and are considered primitive for Aves. The phylogenetic levels at which most of the avian pneumatic features arose within Archosauria are uncertain. Until the phylogenetic levels at which homologous pneumatic features arose are determined, it is unwise to use most pneumatic characters in the discussion of avian origins. Within avian phylogeny, Ornithurae and Neornithes are well-supported by pneumatic synapomorphies. There is a trend towards reduction of craniofacial pneumaticity within Hesperornithiformes. Witthin Neornithes, four derived pneumatic characters suggest that the Palaeognathae (ratites and tinamous) is monophyletic.
Dr. Nonfin (1931) in his book on the "Biology of the Amphibia", while discussing the inter-relationships of Pelobatidae, divides the family into Megophrynae, Pelobatinae and Sooglossinao und points out that among these three "the most primitive genus in the sub-family is the wide spread Megopluys or Megalophrys (including Leptobrachium)". ...
Paleogeographical, morphological, ecological, physiological, linguistic, archaeological and historical evidence is used to explain the origin and history of the domestication of the wild common carp. The closest wild ancestor of the common carp originated in the drainages of the Black, Caspian andAral seas and dispersed west as far as the Danube River and east into Siberia. The common carp today is represented by the uncertain east Asian subspecies Cyprinus carpio haematopterus and by the European Cyprinus carpio carpio. There is some reason to think that Romans were the first to culture carp collected from the Danube, and that the tradition of the "piscinae dulces" was continued in monasteries throughout the Middle Ages. We have much better documentation of carp culture in ponds of lay and clerical landowners in western Europe after the 11 th century. Distribution of the common carp west of the Danube's piedmont zone was clearly brought about by humans, as was its introduction throughout the continents. Some domestication in China may have occurred independently of similar activities in Europe, but most of the modern-day activities with the common carp in far east Asia are restricted to the domesticated common carp imported from Europe, or at best to hybrids of local and imported strains. The xanthic (red) common carp seem to have first appeared in early cultures of Europe, China and Japan but reached their fame through recent artificial selection of multicolored aberrants in Niigata Prefecture of Japan. In monetary value, production of the colored carp - the Japanese "nishikigoi" - now exceeds the production of carp as human food. As "swimming flowers" nishikigoi delight modem people as much as the taste of carp may have delighted the Romans and medieval folks at the beginning of carp domestication. The common carp is not only the most important domesticated fish but contributes over I million metric tons to world aquaculture. The surviving wild forms of the common carp are threatened or close to the fate of the aurochs, the ancestor of cattle, which became extinct in 1627.
The family Cimicidae consists of 6 subfamilies, 23 genera, and 91 species. Nineteen new species names, one new species, and one new genus have been proposed since the monograph by Usinger was published in 1966. A checklist includes the world cimicid fauna with sinonymy. A selected bibliography is concerned with cimicids as potential disease vectors; the bibliography is a comprehensive treatment of the cimicid literature of the Americas and islands of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
The avifauna of the island of Flores and its satellite islands from Komodo to Alor is reviewed, combining historical data with recent observations. Recent surveys have added substantially to the data base, especially of the resident forest species, and endangered and endemic taxa, as well as adding a number of migrant and maritime species to the island list. Of particular interest are the rare forest endemics Wallace's Hanging-parrot Loriculus flosculus, the almost unknown Flores Scopsowl Otus alfredi, Flores Monarch Monarcha sacerdotum and Flores Crow Corvus florensis. An appeal is made for further surveys over the eastern part of the island and the eastern island chain.
The birds of Billiton Island
(1937)
Epilabidocera amphitrites is one of the most common copepods in the deep waters adjacent to Friday Harbor and shows characteristic swarming behavior in the surface film of the water from later spring through early summer. That the swarms are composed mainly, up to 99 %, of adult males appears to be due to difference in phototaxis to a weak light. This species, at least in copepodid stages, is omnivorous, but seems to prefer an animal diet rather than diatoms. Reproduction takes place continuously from early spring through autumn. The external anatomy of both the female and male has been described in detail. The cuticle forming the arthrodial membrane and the lining of the esophagus, hindgut, and hypostomal and labral troughs appears to be of the same nature throughout, consisting of a single stratum. The cuticle on the general body surface, however, consists of two main strata. The endoskeletal structures consist of two categories, the endoskeleton proper and the endoskeletal tendons. The former involves apodemes and apophyses. Of these the major ones are described in detail. The latter consist of two median tendinous endosternites in the « head », four pairs of ventral intersegmental thoracic tendons, and a pair of dorsal longitudinal tendons in the metasome. The endosternites are well developed, serving as origins for dilators to the atrium oris and esophagus and also for a number of extrinsic muscles to the head appendages. The skeletomusculature may be divided into longitudinal trunk and limb muscles. The paired dorsal and ventral longitudinal trunk muscles in the metasome extend, respectively, from the levels of the cervical groove and the post-maxillulary apodeme to the end of the metasome. The longitudinal trunk muscles in the urosome origate at the anterior end and run most of its length. They are arranged as paired dorsal and ventral groups and a pair of lateral muscles. The extrinsic limb muscles are described in detail. They originate either from the lateral to dorsal exoskeleton or from the endosternites. The digestive tract starts with the atrium oris in the oral cone, followed by the mouth proper, esophagus, midgut, and finally by the hindgut which opens as the anus at the end of the urosome. The oral cone consisting of the three lobed labrum and the paired paragnaths has a longitudinal groove, the oral groove, which is covered ventrally by the spinulose setae of the maxillae and laterally by the gnathobasal endites of the maxillules, these together forming an effective feeding apparatus. The midgut is produced anteriorly into a diverticulum which is higly secretory. In the middle portion of the midgut the epithelial cells are highly vacuolated. As they pass through this vacuolated region the gut contents are cemented into fecal pellets by a mucous secretion and they acquire a peritrophic membrane. There is a strong valve between the midgut and the hindgut. Peristalsis in the midgut is irregular but powerful and primarily in the reverse direction. The circulatory system involves a single heart, enclosed in a large pericardial space, and an anteriorly directed aorta terminating in an anterodorsal aortic sines. The latter communicates through three paires of openings with the sinuses in the head, which are in turn continuous with the perivisceral cavity, from which blood is returned to the pericardium. The heart has the form of a flask with an aortic valve at the tapered anterior end and a posterior ostium. The aortic wall is continued posteriorly over the heart and wraps around the anterior three-fifths as an outer membrane. This outer membrane is extended dorsally at three places to attach the heart to the dorsal exoskeleton; and it is also drawn out ventrally to form the anterior and lateral walls of the pericardium. These walls are continuous with the pericardial floor which seals the pericardia! cavity from the perivisceral cavity. The heart-beat and the blood flow through the system have been discussed. The excretory system consists of a pair of maxillary glands, each comprising a coelomic end-sac, a coelomic secretory tubule and an ectodermal excretory duct. The end-sac communicates with the tubule through a valvular opening. Antennary glands are not gound either in the nauplius stage or in the adult. The male reproductive system consists of a single testis and a single genital duct which is divided into four differentiated sections, the vas deferens, the seminal vesicle, the spermatophore sac, and the ductus ejaculatorius. The vas deferens is a thick-walled glandular tube secreting the various constituents of the spermatophore. The seminal vesicle serves mainly as a reservoir for the various components of a definitive spermatophore, and it is here that these take up their final positions. The spermatophore sac is highly glandular and is mainly responsible for formation of the coupling apparatus of the spermatophore. The spermatophore is not open directly to the outside but is connected with a canal system in the coupling apparatus. When transferred to the female genital segment at copulation, the central secretion of the spermatophore is discharged through the canal system of the coupling apparatus to glue down the spermatophore. A duct through which the spermatozoa can pass from the spermatophore to the spermathecae of the female appears to be formed later by an action of the female, possibly secretion of an enzyme or lysin. The discharge of the contents of the spermatophore is effected by swelling of Q-spermatozoa in the distal region of the spermatophore. The functional spermatozoa are spherical or polygonal and nonmotile. The female reproductive system consists of a single ovary, two oviducts, each with several diverticula, leading to the paired opnenings into the vaginal vacity, a pair of spermathecae and a pair of glands which open into the oviducts. In the mature female the oviducts are wide and sac-like, expanded by growing oocytes. However, the last portion of the oviduct is usually empty of eggs and is highly secretory. The oldest oocytes in the oviducts are usually at the metaphase of the first maturation division. The evidence points to the conclusion that the eggs are laid in this stage, and they are fertilized when they pass through the vaginal cavity. Oogenesis has been studied in detail. There are two periods of yolk formation: the first immediately after the dispersion of the mitochondrial bodies and the second in the last phase of the oocyte growth when the vacuoles in the cytoplasm are gradually replaced by yolk. Two dorsal ocelli, in the copepodid stages, are placed dorsolaterally against the exoskeleton and highly developed, each with a perfectly spherical, cuticular lens, while a single ventral ocellus remains unspecialized through the copepodid stages. Each dorsal ocellus proper is suspended in the head sinus by several connective tissue stands in addition to an aye muscle and consists of a large, syncytial pigmented cup occupied by a cellular sphere which is composed of 9 retinular and 4 crystalline cells. Each of the 9 retinular cells gives off an axon which leaves the ocellar cup at one of three places to proceed to the nauplius eye center in the protocerebrum. The ventral ocellus consists of two multinucleated pigmented cells, a cup-shaped tapetum, 6 retinular cells and about 8 conjunctival cells. Each of the 6 retinular cells sends an axon which loops over the posterior rim of the ocellar cup in common with the others to course to the nauplius eye center in the protocerebrum. The ventral ocellus is innervated by two afferent nerve fibers. There is also found a pair of conspicuous nerve fibers, possibly afferent, associated with the dorsal and ventral ocelli. A pair of accessory retinular groups, each consisting of three retinular cells, is found posterior to the dorsal ocelli. Three efferent aXOl1S from each group form a nerve running to the nauplius eye center in the protocerebrum. A pair of frontal organs, each innervated by a frontal nerve, lies in the anterior end of the head. The frontal nerves can be traced up to a pair of neuropiles immerdiately ventral to the nauplius eye center in the proto cerebrum. A pair of suprafrontal nerves branched off from the frontal nerves is found to innervate a pair of sensory filaments, the suprafrontal sensiIla, at the lower anterior end of the head. The central nervous system, consisting of a well developed brain connected by massive circumesophageaI connectives to the ventral nerve cord, has been described in detail. The ganglion cells are found throughout the nerve cord, and they are arranged into ganglia in the thoracic segments bearing the swimming legs. The stomatogastric nervous system has two pairs of labral and a single gastric ganglia. The medial pair of the labral ganglia forms anteriorly a single ganglion which is connected to the brain by three small nerves. The giant fiber system, consisting of giant motor fibers and giant interneurons, has been studied in detail, and it appears to constitute the effector portion of an escape reflex. The cutaneous glands opening through small pores in the cuticle of the metasome, urosome, and the appendages have been described. Chromatophores, unicellular or syncytial with several nuclei, are scattered deep in the body and are responsible for the metachrosis.
A taxonomic review of the species belonging to Bembidion Latreille, 1802 of Australia includes a key and descriptions of the species. Noinenclatorial acts proposed in this paper include: 1, taxa of new Status - Bembidion subgenus Sloanephila Netolitzky, 1931, valid subgenus, not consubgeneric with subgenus Philochtus Stephens, 1828; B. (Notaphocampa) riverinae Sloane, 1894 valid species, not subspecies of B. opulentum Nietner, 1858; 2, new synonyms B. (Notaphominis Netolitzky, 1931) = B. (Notaphocampa Netolitzky, 1914): 3, New subgenera - Australoemphanes, and Gondwanabembidion, 4, New species - B. (Ananotaphus) daccordii (South Australia, Mound Springs); 5, new subspecies - B. (Zeactedium) orbiferum giachinoi (New ZeaIand, North Island); 6, species transferred to Australoemphanes - B . (Ananotaphus) blackburni Csiki, 1928; 7, Species transferred to Gondwanabembidion - B . (Ananotaphus) proprium Blackburn, 1888. Conclusions of an informal phylogeographic study are: 1, the Auslralian continent was probably populated by the Bembidiina with relatively recent (Late Tertiary-Quaternary) invasions from the north by tropical lineages, while other lineages showing systematic relationships with African and South American taxa probably have an older, Gondwanian origin; and 2, some lineagas of predominantly Nearctic and Palaearctic taxa were also Gondwanian in origin.
Oribatei (Acari, Cryptostigmata) are found in a variety of terrestrial habitats, and many are associatcd with lichens; the relationship ranges from casual to highly dependent. Eighty-three species associatcd with lichens have been surveyed, and a tentative classification, based on their ecological requirements, is presented: Group A consists of species restricted to lichens as a biotope, though occasionally occurring as accidenials in other habitats, Group B consists of species which while preferring lichens as a habitat and feeding source are also adapted to existence on other piants (though in some cases their immatures may be lichen-rescricted); Group C consists of species which, though frequently found on lichens, are equally common in other biotopes, particularly mosses, and must be regartled as much more generalized in their feeding habits. Certain aspects of oribatid-lichen specificity are discussed. The importance of orihatid-lichen associations from tihe polnt of view of soil fertility and energetics is empliasized.
During the last decade, three new acidophilous forests associations were detected in the Mecsek Mts (SW Hungary), and described as acidophilous beech wood (Sorbo torminalis-Fagetum (A. O. Horvat 1963a) Borhidi et Kevey in Kevey 2001), acido-mesophilous oak wood (Luzulo forsteri-Quercetum petraeae (A. O. Horvat 1963a) Borhidi et Kevey 1996) and acido-xerophilous oak shrubland (Genisto pilosae-Quercetum polycarpae (A. O. Horvat 1967) Borhidi et Kevey 1996). In this article two further new associations are described: the acidophilous oakwood of the Mecsek (Viscario-Quercetum polycarpae Kevey, ass. nova) and the acido-mesophilous oakwood of western Hungary (Campanulo rotundifoliae-Quercetum petraeae (Csapody 1964) Kevey, ass. nova). These associations are related to the acidophilous forests of the Balkan Peninsula based on the infrequent presence of sub-Mediterranean species. A detailed comparative study of these new associations with the earlier known ones permitted to develop a reshaped classification of the syntaxonomy of these units, creating four new suballiances: within the frame of Quercion farnetto I. Horvat 1938 the suballiances Luzulo forsteri-Quercenion polycarpae Kevey, suball. nova and the typical Quercenion farnetto Kevey, suball. nova, in the frame of Quercion petraeae Zolyomi et Jakucs 1957 the suballiances Luzulo multiflorae-Quercenion petraeae Kevey, suball. nova and the Quercenion petraeae Kevey, suball. nova.
Techniques for collecting, handling, preparing, storing and examining small molluscan specimens
(2007)
Micromolluscs are small-sized molluscs (< 5 mm), and include the great majority of undescribed molluscan taxa. Such species require special collecting, sorting and handling techniques and different storage requirements to those routinely used for larger specimens. Similarly, the preparation of shells, opercula, radulae and animals poses some challenges for scanning electron microscopy (SEM). An overview of experiences with various techniques is presented, both positive and negative. Issues discussed include those relating to storage of dry specimens and interaction of specimens with glass, gelatine and paper products, handling techniques and storage in various fluids. Techniques for cleaning shells for SEM are described and compared, as well as those for radular extraction. The interactions of chemicals used for the dissolution of tissue with calcareous micromolluscs are described. Methods for handling and mounting small radulae for SEM are detailed and brief guides to SEM and light photography are given. An appendix listing details of frequently-used chemicals is provided.
This study treats 76 species, in which 58 species and 14 genera are described as new. The species are arranged in 28 families and 56 genera. The oribatid or cryptostigmatid mites are cosmopolitan group of more than 6500 species relegated to approximate 700 genera and 134 families. The body length of most oribatid species ranges 300-1200 µ. The oribatid mites are darkly coloured and covered with a rigid exoskelecton. The life cycle consists of egg, larva, protonymph, tritonymph, deutonymph and adult. These mites are best known as inhabitants of litter and upper soil strata, their small size and shunning of light caused them to receive little attention for many years. In recently studies of soil fauna, it has been shown that is an economic importance for human, i.e. many species feed on surface plant detritus, and may therefore play a major role in maintaining the fertility of soils; they could become an indicator of soil physical and chemical characters. Some species have also been shown to act as vectors of various tapewonns; they feed almost exclusively on tyroglyphid mites and attack the parasitic hymenopteran, Polynotus zosini; and several species are associated with plant, they have been reported to damage the leaf, the foot and the stem of potato, strawberry, turlip, citrus and mushroom. Systematic studies of these mites are scarcely found in Taiwan. The present paper deals with 76 species, 56 genera in 28 families, among them, 58 species and 14 genera are described as new. The author hopes that this study constitutes an example to show that the wealth of fascinating information could be gained and also hopes that this finding might be useful for elucidating the taxonomy of oribatid mites in Taiwan.
This paper deals with the anthomyiid-flies from Korea. A total of 81 species belonging to 22 genera are represented in Korean fauna as the result, among them the following 9 species are proposed here new to science as: Anthomyia koreana sp. nov., Botanophila seungrnoi sp. nov., Acklandia koreacola sp. nov., Lasiomma monticola sp nov., Egle podulparia sp. nov., Delia expansa sp. nov., Phorbia soyosana sp. nov., P. dissimiiis sp. nov., P. taeguensis sp. nov., and 2 genera, Acklandia Hennig, 1976, Egle Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830, with the below 12 species are newly recorded from Korea as: Parapegomyia schineri, Nupedia debilis, Botanophila striolata, Egle muscaria, E. longipalpis, E. parvaeformis, E. panta, E. korpokkur, Paregle vetula, Delia tenuiventris, D. coronariae, Phorbia longipilis. Keys are given for all the taxa respectively, some illustrations of various characters for identification are provided. Arranged are host plants and domestic localities for each species.
Taxonomic diversity of European Cottus : with description of eight new species (Teleostei: Cottidae)
(2005)
The taxonomy of European species of Coitus (Cottidae) is revised. Results of molecular studies are summarised and the variability of morphological characters is reviewed. Molecular and morphological data support the recognition of 15 diagnosable species in Europe. A neotype is designated for C. gobio; the type locality is in the lower Elbe drainage. Coitus gobio, C. hispaniolensis, C. koshewnikowi, C. microstomus, C. petiti, and C. poecilopus are re-diagnosed. Eight new species are described. Three of them are restricted to France: C. aturi to the Adam drainage, C. duranii to the upper Dordogne, upper Lot and upper Loire drainages, and C. rondeleti to the Herault drainage. Two new species are described from the Atlantic and North Sea basins: C. perifretum from Great Britain, and the ScheIdt, Rhine, Seine, lower Loire and lower Garonne drainages, and C. rhenanus from the Meuse and lower and middle Rhine drainages. Coitus scatul'igo is described from a single spring in northeastern Italy. In the Danube drainage, C. mctae front the upper Save and C. transsilvaniae from the upper Arges are distinguished from the widespread C. gobio. Lectotypes are designated for C. ferrugineus and C. pellegrini. Coitus kosllewnikowi Gratzianow, 1907 is declared nomel1 protectum and C. gobio microcephalus Kessler, 1868 is declared nomen oblitum. The original spelling of C. milvensis is discussed.
The first key is completed for the Palaearctic Pristiphora Latereille, 1810 species. Pristiphora araratensis sp. n. is descdbed. Pristiphora kamtchatica Malaise, 1931, Pristiphora mesatlantica Lacourt, 1976 and Pristiphora amelanchieris (Takeuchi, 1922) are new synonyms of Pristiphora insularis Rohwer, 1910.
1. The migration of the spotted mackerel, Pneumatophorus tapeinacephalus distributing in the coastal sea of Japan was investigated in relation to the geographical distribution of the fishing grounds, seasonal change of fishing condition. sea conditions and fork length. Secondarily, some anatomical and histological observations were carried out on spotted mackerels caught in the coastal sea area around Kagoshima and its vicinity to clarify the sex differentiation and the seasonal cycle of the gonads. 2. Spotted mackerels are distributed throughout a wide sea area stretching from north of Formosa to the south of Japan Sea. including the Pacific coastal sea from Kyushu to Chiba Prefecture. The northern limit of the distribution area is assumed to be the sea areas off San-in and Chosi. 3. The schools of adult fish make a feeding migration to the circumference of Saishu Island and to the sea area off Ashizuri cape in summer. and these schools make a spawning migration toward the sea area around the Osumi Islands and the southern area of the East China Sea in winter. 4. In winter some schools of adult fish remain living in the sea area south of the Izu Islands. These schools belong to a group isolated incompletely from that of the East China Sea. as some of them are those which came from the East China Sea. 5. The larvae grow while they are being brought by the sea current or tide current. When they have reached 50~60mm. in total length. they aggregate in schools and approach the coast. In spring they swim in the coastal nursery grounds. 6. From summer to autumn, the schools of the young fish make a feeding migration to the sea off San-in and to the eastern coastal sea of Chiba Prefecture. In winter. they make a seasonal migration to the coastal sea of South Kyushu, the East China Sea and the southern sea area of the Izu Islands. 7. The range of vertical distribution of the larvae is supposed to be the layer from the surface to 40m. in depth. The vertical distribution of the adult fish is chiefly in the layer, 40-70m. in depth, during the period from late autumn to early spring. It becomes shallower in late spring and summer, the depth being about 20-40m. 8. The ranges of water temperature and salinity in the sea where the adult fish schools are distributed are 17.0-26.0°C and 34.0~34.8%0. respectively. 9. The spawning takes place during the period from the end of January to June in the southern part of the East China Sea and the sea areas around the Osumi Islands, off Ashizuri Cape and around the Izu Islands. These spawning grounds are sea areas where a comparatively rapid current is running towards a land shelf. 10. The ranges of the optimum water temperatures and salinities for the spawning are assumed to be 17-23°C and 34.0-34.8 0/00, respectively. 11. The primordial germ cells seem to migrate to the gonad by amoeboid movement from other places than the gonad. 12. The early indifferent gonad is very slender and suspended with a mesogonium, in the coelom. It is composed of peritoneal epithelium, stroma cells and primordial germ cells. 13. The formation of the gonocoel begins as a longitudinal depression on the surface of the gonad, facing the mesentery. This depression takes place in the gonad of the fish, about 60mm. in fork length, prior to the sex differentiation. 14. The sex differentiation occurs directly without a phase of a juvenile hermaphrodite. 15. The gonad in which the gonocoel is greatly enlarged becomes an ovary, while that in which the gonocoel is left narrow becomes a testis. 16. In the early ovary the layer containing oogonia is surrounded with stroma cells. The surface of the ovary is covered with cuboidal epithelium. 17. In the ovary of the fish, 100-130mm. in fork length, the wall of the ovocoel forms small protuberances, which become the lobes of the ovary. The oocytes are situated in these lobes. The yolk formation begins in the oocytes, 15.....,20.a in diameter, 18. The maturing process of eggs is clasified into the following 7 stages; the chromatin nucleolus, the peripheral nucleolus, the yolk vesicle, the early yolk globule, the late yolk globule, the migrating nucleus and the matured stage. Ovarian eggs at the migrating nucleus stage and the matured stage are observed in the fish, more than 300mm. in fork length. 19. The surface of the early testis is covered with peritoneal epithelium. The interior is filled up with the multiplied stroma cells and the spermatogonia scattered among them. In the testis of a somewhat later stage, a lot of branches are stretched out of the testocoel. Some of the spermatogonia are arranged directly beneath the peritoneal epithelium and the others are buried deep in the testis. The testis lacks a layer of stroma cells under the peritoneal epithelium. 20. In the testis of young male fish the spermatogonia increase in number and surround the small branches of testocoel; they form seminiferous tubules. The testocoel and its large branches become the rete apparatus constructed of collecting ducts. The maturation division appears in the testes of the fish more than 280mm. in fork length. 21. The sex ratio of the young fish is approximately 1 : 1. The ratio between the gonad length and the fork length shows an exponential increase. The gonads of adult fish are enlarged about 9-13 % of the original length during the spawning season. 22. During the months from July to November the oocytes in the ovaries of adult female :fish are at the chromatin nucleolus stage and the peripheral nucleolus stage. During the same season there are only spermatogonia in the testes of adult male fish. The gonads of adult fish begin to increase in size in December and become the largest in March and April. The increase in size of the ovary is chiefly due to the enlargement of ova on account of yolk deposition. The increase in size of the testis is due to accumulation of spermatozoa. 23. A few oogonia can be seen m the ovanes of adult female fish during and immediately after spawning. Numerous spermatogonia appear along the inner walls of the seminiferous tubules late in the spawning season.
Resume 1) The egg of Squilla oratoria DE HAAN is centrolecithal and undergoes partial cleavages resulting in rudimentary primary yolk pyramids. 2) The germinal disk is first represented by a pair of optic lobes and a ventral plate, which are afterward connected by paired, lateral ectoderm thickenings to form a V-shape. The V is then transformed into an O by the appearance of a transverse band between the optic lobes of both sides. 3) A small blastopore is formed. Of the mesendoderm cells derived from the blastopore by cell immigrations, those attached to the lower surface of the lateral ectoderm thickenings are differentiated into a U-shaped, naupliar mesoderm band. This inesoderm band joins the preante:mulary mesoderm derived from the optic lobe, and grows into a complete ring conforming to the shape of the germinal disk. 4) The extra-blastoporic immigrants consist of a preantennulary mesoderm, mesodermal yolk cells and a part of the naupliar mesoderm. The greater part of the preantennulary mesoderm cells disintegrate sooner or later, without forming any distinct structure. The mesodermal yolk cells also degenerate after taking part in the dissolution of the deutoplasm. A discussion as regards the mutual relationship between these elements, with the conclusion that the formation of the preantennulary mesoderm represents the initial step of the extra-blastoporic cell sinking from the whole egg surface, is included. 5) The endodermal elements consist of a compact cell mass differentiated from the posterior part of the mesendoderm layer and the endodermal yolk cells immigrated from the blastopore. The yolk cells, after migrating through the most peripheral part of the yolk, scatter all over its surface. The endoderm plate is nothing but a mass of yolk cells. which remain without scattering. 6) Eight mesoteloblasts derived from the blastoporic lip are attached to the inner surface of the thoracico-abdominal process, making four groups. The ectoteloblasts are differentiated from the ordinary blastoderm cells in a later stage than the mesoteloblasts. In the final condition they consist of 21 cells forming a complete ring around the thoracico-abdominal process. 7) Both the ectoderm and the mesoderm are derived from the teloblasts in all of the post-naupliar segments.· The dorsal ectoderm, however, is non-teloblastic in only a few anterior segments. Differentiation of segments proceeds from the front toward the back. 8) The telson mesoderm is formed by the cells sunk from the telson ectoderm which is derived from the peri-blastoporic ectoderm . 9) The anus is the remnant of the blastopore. In accordance with the change of the caudal furca, the anus is displaced from the dorsal side of the telson to the ventral border between this and the last abdominal segment. 10) There is a distinct nauplius stage. Of the meta-naupliar segments, those from the m:txillula to the second maxilliped are laid on the germinal disk, the following segments together forming a thoracico-abdominal process. Two maxiliiped segments, however, are later separated from the cephalon with the development of the carapace fold, and join the trunk segments. Externally, six abdominal segments are formed. 11) The ganglionic cells are proliferated from the neuroblasts occupying the most superficial part of the centra1 nervous system. The giant ganglionic cells arise from the ordinary ganglionic cells and not directly from neuroblasts. The development of the cerebrum is described. The tritocerebra of both sides are conne~ted by a transverse nerve-fibre bundle behind the stomodaeum. The ganglia of the segments from the mandible to the second maxilliped first exhibit a typical ladder-like shape. Of these ganglia, the anterior three constitute a sub-resophageal ganglion by more or less complete fusion, while the posterior two are transferred from the cephalon to the thoracico-abdomimil process with the constriction of the segments. The inter-ganglionic cell groups take part in the constriction of the consecutive segments. The seventh abdominal ganglion is clearly indicated by the presence of such a cell group as well as of a pair of nerve fibre masses. 12) The development of the compound eye is traced. The ganglion opticum is derived from the ectoderm of the optic lobe lateral to the protocerebrum; it is not an outgrowth of the cerebrum. 13) The ganglion visceralum is differentiated from the anterior wall of the stomodaeum. 14) A median dorsal organ is formed. In close connection with the activity of this organ, the embryo undergoes one ecdysis. 15) The mid-gut epithelium is formed by the gradual expansion of the anterior and posterior endoderm plates over the yolk sac. These plates, however, extend only on the ventral side of the yolk sac before hatching. The posterior plate is produced by the concentration of the scattered yolk cells toward the periphery of the. plate differentiated from the mesendoderm, while the anterior plate is formed by yolk cells alone. 16) The greater part of the intestine develops from the outgrowth of the posterior endoderm epithelium, the proctodaeum occupying only the rectum. 17) The posterior liver lobes are produced from the posterior endoderm plate as a pair of blind tubes and extend as far backward as the telson. The anterior liver lobes and the lateral mid-gut cceca are rather incompletely developed, being ~eparated by shallow superficial grooves of the yolk sac. These two pairs of diverticula are only partially covered by the endoderm epithelium, and develop into more or less distinct coeca during larval life. They later seem to be completely absorbed again by the mid-gut. 18) The product of each division of the mesoteloblast is equivalent to one mesodermal-segment. The mesoderm of the seventh abdominal segment is derived from the posteriorly situated daughter cell produced by the last division of the teloblast. In' accordance with the grouping of teloblasts, the trunk mesoderm is separated into two ventral and two dorsal bands. Each band is further separated into segmentally arranged blocks, the somites. The ccelom develops in no stage and in no segment. 19) The dorsal mesoderm gives rise to the extensor and the oblique muscles of the trunk, the anterior and posterior limb muscles, as well as to the mesodermal inclusion of the limb. The -ventral mesoderm grows into the flexor. The connective tissue investing the intestine -and the liver lobes are principally constructed from the dorsal mesoderm. The germ cell does not appear until hatching. A brief account is also given of the fate of the naupliar mesoderm. 20) The heart wall and the pericardial floor are morphologically one unit. They arise from the dorsal mesoderm as a pair of membranes stretching between it and the intestine. The dilated and elongated parts of the heart are formed by the subsequent union of these paired rudiments. 21) The anterior dorsal vessel has a two-fold origin; it is formed by the fusion of an anterior rudiment extending backward from the rostrum and a posterior one developing as a tubular outgrowth of the heart. The former is derived from the rearrangement of mesenchymatous cells which migrated from the anterior end of the naupliar mesoderm. 22) By the time of hatching, two pairs of lateral vessels are formed as hollow linear thickenings of the pericardial floor in front and behind the dilated part of the heart. 23) The antennal gland remains rudimentary without acquiring any intercellular lumen. The maxillar gland is not laid until hatching. The labral and anal glands are derived from the peristomodaeal and the telson mesoderm respectively. 23) Comparisons are made bewteen Squilla and other orders of Malacostraca as regards the salient points of the embryonic development. These have led to the conclusion that the Stomatopoda are most closely related in their embryonic development to Nebaliacea, and further that Stomatopoda represent a rather primitive group separated from the main stem of Malacostraca very early, only next in order to Nebaliacea.
The purpose of the present paper is to describe the thoracic cirripeds found in the waters around the Seto Marine Biological Laboratory. The material dealt with in this paper was collected almost entirely by myself during the period extending from the summer of 1930 up to the present time, except a few species obtained from the Soyo-maru Expedition undertaken by the Imperial Fisheries Experimental Station during the years 1926-1930. Descriptions of the latter have already been given (HIRO, 1933a). The present material consists, with few exceptions, of specimens from the littoral zone and shallow water; none of the specimens are from deep water. However, I have paid special attention to the commensal forms from the ecological and faunistic standpoint, and have thus been able to enumerate a comparatively large number of species in such a restricted area as this district.