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The genus Squamidium, a group of mosses with a tropical to subtropical American-African distribution, consists of two sections and seven species (prior to this study 27 species were recognized): sect. Squamidium (S. leucotrichum, S. livens, S. isocladum, S. nigricans, S. brasiliense) and sect. Macrosquamidium (S. macrocarpum and S. diversicoma). Twenty-four names are treated as syn. nov., three are provisionally excluded pending an examination of their types, and one new combination is made: Orthostichopsis pilotrichelloides (Sehnem) Allen & Crosby. Section Squamidium ist characterized by immersed capsules, stolon leaves with entire margins, and a relatively high basal membrane. Section Macrosquamidium is characterized by exserted capsules, stolon leaves with sharply recurved marginal teeth, and a relatively low basal membrane. The genus is retained in the Meteoriaceae. Within the Meteoriaceae Squamidium, is most closely related to Zelotmeteorium from which it differs only by its lack of squarrose-recurved leaves and its more well-developed alar cells. Squamidium, which in the absence of sporophytes has been confused consistently with Orthostichopsis, is separated from that genus on the basis of its lack of pseudoparaphyllia, weaker costae, lack of a distinct region of reddish cells across the leaf base, and strongly decurrent alar cells.
A survey of the freshwater fishes of the Sepik River system of northern Papua New Guinea was undertaken by the authors between 1978 and 1985 with the use of gill nets and rotenone, and also by monitoring catches at local villages and markets. We also include records of past expeditions, namely that of the Dutch naturalist Gjellerup in 1910 and the yacht Illyria in 1929. The total known freshwater fauna as reported herein consists of 57 species in 35 genera and 23 families. The fauna is typical of other sections of New Guinea and northern Australia in that it is dominated by catfishes (Ariidae and Plotosidae), rainbow fishes (Melanotaeniidae), gudgeons (Eleotrididae) and gobies (Gobiidae) which collectively comprise 57 percent of the total species. With the exception of 22 widely distributed species that are frequently estuarine dwellers and are confined to the lower Sepik, the fishes are strongly endemic, either to the Sepik-Ramu drainages (which interconnect during Doods), or the "intermontane trough" composed of the combined Markham, Ramu, Sepik, and Mamberamo systems. Individual accounts, including brief descriptions and information pertaining to habitat, distribution and biology are included for each species. In addition illustrations are provided for many of the endemic species.
The North Arnerican species of the genus Cremastocheilus are reviewed. These belong to 5 subgenera, Macropodina, Trinodea, Anatinodia, Mymcotonus, and Cremastocheilus. Taxonomie changes are: She inclusion of Crernastocheilus nitens and C. chapini in the subgenus Cremastocheilus rather than Myrmecotonus. Also Anatinodia is elevated to subgeneric status. A key to the subgenera is provided, as is a key to the species of the 5 subgenera, recognizing that the 35 species in the subgenus Cremastocheilus are in need of revision. A critical review of the host records, geographic distribution, and ecology of the Tribe Crernastocheilini (Family Scarabaeidae. subfamily Cetoniinae) is provided. This contains enormous numbers of new records for both the genera Genuchinus and CremastocheiLus both from the literature and from the extensive field work that is reported here for the first time. A Summary of the host records is presented in tabular form. This table shows the association of all species of Cremastocheilus with ants as adults and the larvae either associated with the vegetable material of the ant nests or with vegetable material in rodent burrows. Genuchinus is shown to be a general predator on soft bodied insects while the other genera of the Cremastocheilini are associated with plants, particularly bromeliads. A detailed study of the external morphology and sexual dimorphism of the genera Genuchinus and Crernastocheilus is presented. All species of Cremastocheilus can be sexed with the naked eye by the difference in the shapes of the abdominal terminal Segments, wherein males have the posterior border of the last ventral abdominal segment either straight or slightly bowed, while females have this border broadly rounded. There are other microscopic sexual differences in the structure of the legs. The rest of the external morphology is also presented, particularly from the point of view of adaptations to either a predaceous or rnyrmecophilous existente. Particularly adapted for predation are the pointed maxillae which are used for piercing prey. Particularly adapted for myrmecophily are the mentum, the maxillae, the generally thick exoskeleton, trichomes on both the anterior and posterior angles of the pronotum, the elytra, and the legs (which are adapted to the nest substrate of the host ant nests. Exocrine glands are described for Genuchinus ineptus and at least 1 species of each of the 5 subgenera of Cremastocheilus. In general, there are no gland cells nor glandular areas in Genuchinuc that are comparable to those of Cremastocheilus. The gland cells and glandular areas are quite extensive andvariable arnong species of Cremastocheilus. The frontal gland of some Cremastocheilus (strongly developed in C. castaneus and the C. canaliculatus species group, but weakly developed in the C. wheeleri species group) is described for the first time. Because these glands are not found in Genuchinus ineptuc, a species with general predatory habits, it is thought that these play a role, as yet unknown, in interactions with ants. The life cycles of the subgenera of Cremastocheilus are described. The general life cycle entails adult beetles eclosing in ant nests during the summer and then undertaking dispersal flights. The adults then enter ant nests and ovenivinter there, eating ant larvae during the Winter. Another dispersal flight occurs in the spring during which the adults mate and enter ant nests again. The females then lay eggs and the adults die. The eggs hatch and the larvae spend 3 instars feeding upon vegetable material in the nests. The lmae then pupate in typical scarabaeine earthen cells made of fecal material and soil. These eclose in the summer and the cycle is repeated. Variation from species to species is largely in the timing. Leaving the nest in late Summer, mating seems to be triggered by rainfall in all the species studied. Mating of C. (Macropodina) beameri takes place in rodent burrows. Males seem attracted to females from a distance but the mechanism of this remains obscure. In the subgenus Trinodia, mating takes place on sandy washes or roadsides where females land. In the subgenus Myrmecotonus, maüng also takes place in sandy areas. In C. (Cremastocheilus) mating takes place on sand bars along rivers in the southeastern U.S. and in sand dunes in northeastern U.S. The femaies dig down into the sand. Males locate these places by some unknown mechanism and then dig down to copulate with the females. Field experiments showed unequivocaily that males dig only into areas occupied by females. No sex-specific Sex attractant glands have been located in females so far. Dispersal to ant nests occurs after mating except for C. (Macropodina) beameri which lays its eggs in the rodent burrows and then probably disperses to ant nests. Beetle activity going in and out of nests was studied using wire hardware cloth screens over entrances to Mynnecocystus nests. The mesh size was such that the ants could move freely in or out but the beetles got stuck by their thoraces. The direction then could be interpreted by the direction in which they got stuck. By this method, C. stathamae was shown to leave nests from 23 June to 1 September with a peak on 6 July, just after the beginning of the summer rains. Beetles entered nests from June 23 to August 3, however 39% entered on July 16, probably pulsed by the leaving time which was correlated with the rains. Life cycle timing: C. (Macropodina) develop in the nests of Wood rats (Neotoma sp.]. Females lay about 40 eggs each. The 3 larval instars to pupation take about 1 month. Pupae are found from late August to weil into September. In other subgenera as well, larvae are found in parts of the nest devoid of ants, The timing is similar in all the subgenera found with ants. Mortality factors: While ants attack Cremastocheilus adults, there is no evidence that they are ever killed by ants nor is there evidence that ants kill larvae nor hard earthen pupae cases which protect the pupae. During dispersal fiights and mating, the adults are exposed to predation and evidence is presented that shows predation by horned toads, spiders, magpies, and tiger beetles. Probably most mortality occurs in the larval and pupd stages where the beetles are attacked by internal parasites and fungus. Further rnortality is caused by limitation of the food supply during the larval stage. Reentering nests: Females of C. (Macropodina) beameri select specific rodent and other burrows, attract males for rnating. and then enter the burrow for oviposition. C. stathamae are carried into the ants nests from as far away as 25ft. The beetles appear to land spontaneously after flying randomly over M. depilis nesting areas. Then the wander about waiting for the ants to carry them into the nests. Cremastocheilus hirsutus fly low over the ground searching for Pogonomyrrnex barbatus nests, land. and move straight for the nest entrances which they enter unhindered. Among all species, the ants frequently eject beetles but the net rnovement is in. Ants frequently attacked Cremastocheilus in laboratory observation nests when they were introduced. These attacks seldom resulted in the death of the beetles and the beetles were eventually ignored. When the beetles entered brood chambers, where they fed upon larvae, they were mostly ignored and even licked assiduously by the ants. A principle defensive behavior by the beetles is feigning death (letisimulation). The beetles give off an unpleasant "dead fish odor when collected in the I field. Experiments show that this substance functions to fend off some predators but further experiments indicated that these substances were ineffective against both ants and kangaroo rats. Experiments with various species of Cremastocheilus adults indicate that the adults eat only ant larvae. The beetles will eat larvae of non-host ants but show preferences for the larvae of their normal hosts. Under the same experimental conditions. Genuchinus ineptus adults will feed on a variety of insect adults and larvae. Field experiments on the function of trichome secretions did not indicate that they function to attract ants at a distance nor are they involved in worker acceptance. Laboratory experiments in which areas with a high concentration of gland cells were presented to ants showed that no ants were attracted. Laboratory introduction of Cremastocheilus hamisii adults into Fomica schau.si nests yielded many interactions including ants licking the anterior pronotal angles, the mentum area where the frontal glands empty and a carina over the eye with a dense pad of short setae. These are areas of concentration of gland cells and these are the first observations of licking by ants in specific sites containing exocrine glands. Radioisotope experiments showed food exchange among ants but never from ants to beetles. Other experiments showed that ants can pick up radioactivity from the beetles without feeding on trichome secretions. Evolutionary pathways: Adult Cremastocheilini probably followed the evolutionary route from adult predation on soft bodied insects to specialized feeding upon ant brood and the subsequent development of the beetle larvae in vegetable material in the ant colonies. Thus Genuchininseptus makes a logical outgroup in that they are general predators probably feeding mostly on Diptera larvae associated with Sotol plants in the field. The rnajor evolutionary step taken by Cremastocheiluswas to specialize on ant brood. Then the species radiated into ant colonies inhabiting southwestem North Arnenca. Most of the ant hosts invaded have quantities of vegetable material in their nests sufficient to support several developing scarab larvae. Host colonies are large, contain accessible brood, and are usually dominant foragers Evidence supports the idea that the species of Cremastocheilus have differentes in behavior and morphology that reflect adaptation to the behavioral ecology of different species of ants rather than different evolutionary levels of integration into ant colonies.
Interaction between species in a marine ecosy stem is described by expressions for food consumption and grazing mortality which are consistent with each other and with the Beverlon and Holt model of the population dynamics ofindividual species. A model of primary production is introduced in order to make possible an account of nutricnt circlliation (as examplified by phosphorus) within and nutrient flow through the system. It is demonstrated in an application to North Sea fishencs that recent changes in total yield can be described in some detail under the terms of the model as a function of fishing mortality alone. The composition of the North Sea fauna in the virgin state is discussed and also the conditions under which total yield could be increased above the 1970 level.
Aeration in higher plants
(1979)
Until recently, up to thirteen specics of the scincid genus, Scincus, were recognized, but examination of some 590 individuals frorn a wide range of localities suggests that only three or four are valid. Of these, S. mitranus is confined to eastern and southern Arabia and S. hemprichii probably to southwest Arabia. The remaining forms constitute the S. scincus complex, which may consist in North Africa of two largely allopatric species, S. scincus and S. albifasciatus, although evidence for this is not conclusive. The S. scincus complex is represented in southwest Asia by two forms : S. scincus meccensis in southern Jordan, northwest and west Arabia and S. s. conirostris in southern and eastern Arabia, Iraq and southwest Iran. Scincus appears to have evolved Erom a primitive scincine, very similar to members of the Eumeces schneideri group, especially E. (schneideri) algariensis; it does not seem to be directly related to the sympatric genus Scincopus. Within Scincus, the S. scincus complex is the least specialized component of the genus and both S. rnitranus and S. hemprechii may have been independently derived from it, or from a closely related form. Possibly the whole range of the genus was once occupied by a S. scincus-like species and its distribution was subsequently restricted by the onset of less desertic conditions leaving reduced populations in North Africa, southwest Arabia and southeast Arabia that gave rise to the S. scincus complex, S. hemprichii and S. mitranus respectively. A renewed expansion of arid areas could then have enabled the S. scincus complex to invade southwest Asia. Some of the characters of its most eastern subspecies, S. s. conirostris, may have arisen, or been maintained, by character displacement through contact with S. mitranus.
El yacimiento de Lezetxiki (Gipuzkoa, País Vasco, España) encierra en sus 10m. de sedimentos una serie interesante de niveles musterienses culminados por otros del Paleolítico Superior. Son los niveles musterienses el objeto de este estudio. La excavación, dirigida por J.M. DE BARANDIARAN entre 1956 y 1968 permitió establecer ocho niveles (I-VIII). Estudios multidisciplinares -sedimentológicos, paleontológicos, palinológicos, antropológicos e industriales-, nos permiten acercarnos a la historia de una de las más antiguas presencias humanas constatadas en el País Vasco. Este estudio pretende situar Lezetxiki en los códigos metodológicos al uso integrándose en las referencias de las provincias culturales cántabra y aquitana. La secuencia muste dense de Lezetxiki se inicia en una fase templada del Riss con la aparición de un húmero humano neanderthalense. El nivel VII acoge las primeras industrias humanas; presencias esporádicas en una época fría en la que dominan los restos de oso y otros carnívoros sobre los ungulados, caza habitual del hombre. El nivel VI refleja un momento templado y húmedo, con desarrollo de amplios bosques de frondosas. Un bagage de utensilios lítico y óseo muy variado relaciona este nivel con el Musteriense Tlpico, que debió desarrollarse en el interglaciar de Eém (Riss-Würm). Durante las oscilaciones del Würm antiguo se dan en Lezetxiki las ocupaciones del nivel V, Iría en la base que contiene el material arqueológico, con industrias parecidas al nivel anterior aunque ahora se cazan especies menores, y el nivel IV que por primera vez refleja una frecuentación repetida de la cueva. La industria lítica es' ahora distinta, mostrando piezas de bordes muy reaprovechados y dominio de raederas que adscriben este nivel al Charentiense. A destacar la presencia de reno, la permanencia de Pliomys lenki y el predominio de ciervo. Todavía son frecuentes los osos y los carnívoros lobo, zorro y pantera. El nivel III conoce oscilaciones climáticas que reflejan la sedimentología y los pólenes, presencia de fauna fría -rinoceronte lanudo, reno, marmota- y más templada -castor, ciervo, bisonte-o Hay restos de hogares y restos humanos atribuidos al hombre de Neanderthal. La industria no presenta ningún paralelismo con las facies clásicas y todos los datos apuntan a que bien los procesos tafonómicos o la complejidad en la identilicación del depósito debido a los buzamientos cruzados del relleno (N-S y W-E) impiden más precisiones. En este nivel se da un claro predominio del equipamiento musteriense -a nivel técnico y tipológico- con importante presencia de materiales netamente auriñacienses. Cierran la secuencia un nivel Gravetiense (el 11) y otro Magdaleniense Final (el 1).
La distribuzione geografica delle 21 specie di Zygaena e 8 specie di Adscitinae viventi nelle Alpi Liguri è stata analizzata sia nei suoi rapporti col resto della fauna paleartica, sia a livello italiano e ligure. Tale indagine ha consentito di evidenziare l'esistenza di numerosi centri di rifugio e speciazione e di mettere in luce diverse aree di transizione primaria e secondaria intese secondo il senso di Thorpe (1983). Il significato adattativo del cosiddetto melanismo littorale (Burgeff 1950) è discusso in termini di conquista di una nuova nicchia ecologica e di caduta nel valore aposematico.
Paleogeographical, morphological, ecological, physiological, linguistic, archaeological and historical evidence is used to explain the origin and history of the domestication of the wild common carp. The closest wild ancestor of the common carp originated in the drainages of the Black, Caspian andAral seas and dispersed west as far as the Danube River and east into Siberia. The common carp today is represented by the uncertain east Asian subspecies Cyprinus carpio haematopterus and by the European Cyprinus carpio carpio. There is some reason to think that Romans were the first to culture carp collected from the Danube, and that the tradition of the "piscinae dulces" was continued in monasteries throughout the Middle Ages. We have much better documentation of carp culture in ponds of lay and clerical landowners in western Europe after the 11 th century. Distribution of the common carp west of the Danube's piedmont zone was clearly brought about by humans, as was its introduction throughout the continents. Some domestication in China may have occurred independently of similar activities in Europe, but most of the modern-day activities with the common carp in far east Asia are restricted to the domesticated common carp imported from Europe, or at best to hybrids of local and imported strains. The xanthic (red) common carp seem to have first appeared in early cultures of Europe, China and Japan but reached their fame through recent artificial selection of multicolored aberrants in Niigata Prefecture of Japan. In monetary value, production of the colored carp - the Japanese "nishikigoi" - now exceeds the production of carp as human food. As "swimming flowers" nishikigoi delight modem people as much as the taste of carp may have delighted the Romans and medieval folks at the beginning of carp domestication. The common carp is not only the most important domesticated fish but contributes over I million metric tons to world aquaculture. The surviving wild forms of the common carp are threatened or close to the fate of the aurochs, the ancestor of cattle, which became extinct in 1627.
Un heureux hasard nous a fait acheter, en janvier dernier, pour une experience, une chevre adulte, qui mourut peu de temps apres de dysenterie coccidienne. Le parasite appartenait à l'espece decrite en 1930 par W. L. Yakimoff et Rastegaieva sous le nom de Eimeria Nina-Kohl-Yakimovi. La description originale des auteurs ne comprenait que celle de l'ookyste. Nous avons pu la completer par celle de son cycle evolutif et des Iesions que cette espece determine. Au cours des investigations bibliographiques que nous avons du entreprendre, nous avons ete gene par une certaine confusion dans les travaux concernant les coccidioses du mouton et de la chevre, confusion qui avait ete remarquee par d'autres. Nous avons cru utile, a l'occasion de l'etude particuliere qui se presentait à nous, d'entreprendre un travail plus general et d'essayer de retrouver et de fixer les bases preeises de la zoologie des parasites qui nous occupent. C'est a dessein, pour eliminer des I'abord une cause de confusion, que nous reunissons les coccidies du mouton et de la chevre.
In the field of mycology at the present time, many of the fungi which are most frustrating to attempt to classify are the Ascomycetes of pyrenomycetous nature. While it is possible to identify many species from descriptions in the literature, the position of these species in respect to one another is difficult to assign. A major step toward a modern classification was provided by Luttrell (1951b, 1955), where he expanded Miller's (1928) and Nannfeldt's (1932) recognition of differences between the subclasses Loculoascomycetes and Euascomycetes and utilized the basic characteristics of the ascus and of centrum development to delimit major groups. Currently, studies of generic types by a number of investigators are providing a firm base for the assignment of taxa to the correct genus. Several systems of classification are available, but none of these is entirely satisfactory. The following synopsis is offered as an alternative arrangement of one order in the Loculoascomycetes. For the present, the system applies to fungi known from temperate North America. The classification probably will have to be expanded and emended as tropical and temperate fungi from other continents are studied. My intention is to continue with similar studies of taxa in the other orders of both Loculoascomycetes and Euascomycetes.
The Siwalik formations of northern Pakistan consist of deposits of ancient rivers that existed throughout the early Miocene through the late Pliocene. The formations are highly fossiliferous with a diverse array of terrestrial and freshwater vertebrates, which in combination with exceptional lateral exposure and good chronostratigraphic control allows a more detailed and temporally resolved study of the sediments and faunas than is typical in terrestrial deposits. Consequently the Siwaliks provide an opportunity to document temporal differences in species richness, turnover, and ecological structure in a terrestrial setting, and to investigate how such differences are related to changes in the fluvial system, vegetation, and climate. Here we focus on the interval between 10.7 and 5.7 Ma, a time of significant local tectonic and global climatic change. It is also the interval with the best temporal calibration of Siwalik faunas and most comprehensive data on species occurrences. A methodological focus of this paper is on controlling sampling biases that confound biological and ecological signals. Such biases include uneven sampling through time, differential preservation of larger animals and more durable skeletal elements, errors in age-dating imposed by uncertainties in correlation and paleomagnetic timescale calibrations, and uneven taxonomic treatment across groups. We attempt to control for them primarily by using a relative-abundance model to estimate limits for the first and last appearances from the occurrence data. This model also incorporates uncertainties in age estimates. Because of sampling limitations inherent in the terrestrial fossil record, our 100-Kyr temporal resolution may approach the finest possible level of resolution for studies of vertebrate faunal changes over periods of millions of years. Approximately 40,000 specimens from surface and screenwash collections made at 555 localities form the basis of our study. Sixty percent of the localities have maximum and minimum age estimates differing by 100 Kyr or less, 82% by 200 Kyr or less. The fossils represent 115 mammalian species or lineages of ten orders: Insectivora, Scandentia, Primates, Tubulidentata, Proboscidea, Pholidota, Lagomorpha, Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla, and Rodentia. Important taxa omitted from this study include Carnivora, Elephantoidea, and Rhinocerotidae. Because different collecting methods were used for large and small species, they are treated separately in analyses. Small species include insectivores, tree shrews, rodents, lagomorphs, and small primates. They generally weigh less than 5 kg. The sediments of the study interval were deposited by coexisting fluvial systems, with the larger emergent Nagri system being displaced between 10.1 and 9.0 Ma by an interfan Dhok Pathan system. In comparison to Nagri floodplains, Dhok Pathan floodplains were less well drained, with smaller rivers having more seasonally variable flow and more frequent avulsions. Paleosol sequences indicate reorganization of topography and drainage accompanying a transition to a more seasonal climate. A few paleosols may have formed under waterlogged, grassy woodlands, but most formed under drier conditions and more closed vegetation. The oxygen isotopic record also indicates significant change in the patterns of precipitation beginning at 9.2 Ma, in what may have been a shift to a drier and more seasonal climate. The carbon isotope record demonstrates that after 8.1 Ma significant amounts of C4 grasses began to appear and that by 6.8 Ma floodplain habitats included extensive C4 grasslands. Plant communities with predominantly C3 plants were greatly diminished after 7.0 Ma, and those with predominantly C4 plants, which would have been open woodlands or grassy woodlands, appeared as early as 7.4 Ma. Inferred first and last appearances show a constant, low level of faunal turnover throughout the interval 10.7–5.7-Ma, with three short periods of elevated turnover at 10.3, 7.8, and 7.3–7.0 Ma. The three pulses account for nearly 44% of all turnover. Throughout the late Miocene, species richness declined steadily, and diversity and richness indices together with data on body size imply that community ecological structure changed abruptly just after 10 Ma, and then again at 7.8 Ma. Between 10 and 7.8 Ma the large-mammal assemblages were strongly dominated by equids, with more balanced faunas before and after. The pattern of appearance and disappearance is selective with respect to inferred habits of the animals. Species appearing after 9.0 Ma are grazers or typical of more open habitats, whereas many species that disappear can be linked to more closed vegetation. We presume exceptions to this pattern were animals of the mixed C3/C4 communities or the wetter parts of the floodplain that did not persist into the latest Miocene. The pace of extinction accelerates once there is C4 vegetation on the floodplain. The 10.3 Ma event primarily comprises disappearance of taxa that were both common and of long duration. The event does not correlate to any obvious local environmental or climatic event, and the pattern of species disappearance and appearance suggests that biotic interactions may have been more important than environmental change. The 7.8 Ma event is characterized solely by appearances, and that at 7.3 Ma by a combination of appearances and disappearances. These two latest Miocene events include more taxa that were shorter ranging and less common, a difference of mode that developed between approximately 9.0 and 8.5 Ma when many short-ranging and rare species began to make appearances. Both events also show a close temporal correlation to changes in floodplain deposition and vegetation. The 7.8 Ma event follows the widespread appearance of C4 vegetation and is coincident with the shift from equid-dominated to more evenly balanced large-mammal assemblages. The 7.3 to 7.0 Ma event starts with the first occurrence of C4-dominated floras and ends with the last occurrence of C3-dominated vegetation. Absence of a consistent relationship between depositional facies and the composition of faunal assemblages leads us to reject fluvial system dynamics as a major cause of faunal change. The close correlation of latest Miocene species turnover and ecological change to expansion of C4 plants on the floodplain, in association with oxygen isotopic and sedimentological evidence for increasingly drier and more seasonal climates, causes us to favor explanations based on climatic change for both latest Miocene pulses. The Siwalik record supports neither “coordinated stasis” nor “turnover pulse” evolutionary models. The brief, irregularly spaced pulses of high turnover are characteristic of both the stasis and pulse models, but the high level of background turnover that eliminates 65–70% of the initial species shows there is no stasis in the Siwalik record. In addition, the steadily declining species richness and abrupt, uncoordinated changes in diversity do not fit either model.
The primary subdivisions of the brain (telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon, metencephalon, and myelencephalon) have similar relations and comparable functions in all vertebrates. Accordingly, the landmarksthat define their boundaries can be regarded as reliable for following their development. On the basis of a more complete series of well preserved embryos than has been available hitherto, we present evidence that the subdivisions of the adult brain can be traced back to neural-fold stages in which a series of growth centers can be recognized, differing from one another in form, size, and relations. The possibility of following the constrictions between the various subdivisions throughout development has been doubted by some, notably Hochstetter (1919). At present we are convinced that they can be distinguished if certain criteria are followed. These are: (a) constrictions involve the neural tube as a whole; (b) constrictions do not give rise primarily to any neural centers; (c) constrictions change in relative length and width, and in certain stages they become inconspicuous in models. The anatomical descriptions of progressive stages of development have important practical implications. It is known, for example, that congenital malformations of the central nervous system in man are common and that they are responsible for a substantial portion of fetal wastage as well as infant mortality and morbidity. In certain patients comprehensive clinical studies may indicate the underlying abnormality, such as dysraphism, arhinencephaly, hypoplasia of the cerebellum. or absence of the corpus callosum. In addition, anatomical examination of the affected brains may reveal in detail such abnormalities as lyssencephaly, polymicrogyria, or other cortical dysgeneses. These very complex cerebral malformations can only be understood and unraveled in the light of normal development. An investigation of early development of the brain must necessarily begin with a stage in which the major landmarks of the adult brain can be readily identified.As progressively younger stages are analyzed certain landmarks can no longer be recognized, although others persist at least to the third week of gestation. We believe that the evidence on which this study is based can be followed more satisfactorily in this inverted sequence, and the detailed description is so presented. It is followed by a summary of the sequence of events written in the conventional manner, as far as the eighth week of gestation.
Gli Autori presentano i risultati preliminari dello studio interdisciplinare (geostratigrafia e paleopedologia; palinologia; malaccfaune; faune mammologiche; industrie; datazioni raiometriche) dei depositi würmiani, fortemente antropizzati, del Riparo Tagliente in Valpantena (Monti Lessini). I depositi più antichi, riferibili al I Pleniglaciale wiirmiano e alla parte iniziale del Würm medio, contengono industrie del Paleolitico Medio e della fase arcaica del Paleolitico Superiore (Aurignaziano a dufours). Una fase erosiva, la deposizione di ghiale fluviali all'esterno del riparo e fenomeni di geliflusso sono riconducibili al II Pleniglaciale würmiano. I depositi più recenti, riferibili al Tardiglaciale (dal Dryas antico all'oscillazione di Alleriöd), hanno dato industrie dell'Epigravettiano italico finale e altri resti di occupazione antropica del riparo (strutture di abitato, oggetti ornamentali, una sepoltura, opere d'arte). Le sequenze di industrie musteriane cd epigravcttianc del Riparo Tngliente costituiscono attualmente il punto di riferimento fondamentale per lo studio dei complessi del Paleolitico Medio e della fine del Paleolitico Superiore nell'Italia nordorientale.
The A. A. present in this paper their studies about the Aspergillus spp. found by them as contaminants of Lab. cultures, chiefly. The species studied are the following: A. allocotus n. sp., A. amstelodami, A. awamori varo hominis n. var., A. candidus, A. fischeri, A. flavus, A. heteromorphus n. sp., A. japonicus, A. niger (two strains), A. ochraceus, A. ochraceo-petaliformis n. sp., A. quadrilineatus, A. repens var. ramos a n. var. A. sclerotiorutn, A. sydowii, A. terreus, A. unguis and A. variecolor var. major n. var.
The seed collection of the species of the Gesneriaceae on which this study is based was obtained, for the most part, during a number of visits to the herbaria of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., and the Royal Botanical Garden of Kew, London, and Edinburgh, Scotland. The seed collection comprises well over 800 samples of about 700 species of the Gesneriaceae, representing 113 genera of the 127 in the family, and provides a good taxonomic representation of the Gesneriaceae. Following an examination of all the samples in the seed collection, over 300 species of the 113 genera were selected to represent the wide range of seed morphology characters observed among the examined species of the Gesneriaceae. A system with which to analyze and diagnose seed surface morphology, designed by the author, is based on a format of six major categories and 60 tertiary terms of seed morphology characters and a companion diagnostic table. The categories are arranged in a sequence of increasingly smaller seed characters, ranging from seed shape to the ultrastructural characters of the individual cells. To ensure that the system would also apply to seed plants in general, the seeds, achenes and nutlets of a wide variety of species from families other than the Gesneriaceae were examined. Twenty species from 13 families other than the Gesneriaceae were then selected and are included in this study and, together with the Gesneriaceae, represent eight of the ten subclasses of the flowering plants (Cronquist 1968). The seeds, achenes and nutlets of all the species included in this study are illustrated with SEM photomicrographs on the 54 plates of the Seed Atlas, and the seed morphology data of each species are recorded on the diagnostic tables that face each of the Atlas Plates. To facilitate the comparison of the taxa of the Gesneriaceae, and to assist in the identification of the seeds of the examined species of the Gesneriaceae, the seed morphology data are also recorded on a summary table at the genus, tribe, subfamily and family levels. The seed morphology of the Gesneriaceae is compared and contrasted with the current classifications of the family at the species, genus, tribe, subfamily and family levels. The seed analysis system designed for this study has proven to be a rapid, efficient, uniform, objective method to deal with the analytical, diagnostic, and taxonomic aspects of an investigation of seed morphology. In addition, the system readily lends itself to the substitution or addition of terms and categories if needed, or to programming for a computerized analysis of seed morphology. It is hoped that the system will prove useful to other investigators, as well as prove helpful to standardize future investigations of seed
morphology.
El autor hace observaciones sobre diferentes formas de Enmolpidos sudamericanos. Agrega una lista provisoria de especies y variedades argentinas. Llama la atención sobre el hecho que los Eumolpidos son mal conocidos y sobre la necesidad de revisar el sistema de clasificacion de este grupo, en lo que se refiere a los géneros y tribus. Se enumeran 87 especies de Eumolpidos para la República Argentina, varias de ellas señaladas por primera vez en el país.
Die vorliegende Arbeit soll einen Beitrag zur Biologie der Honigbiene darstellen. Sie ist zunächst eine biologisch-deskriptive Arbeit. Ich habe die Biene bei ihrer mannigfachen Tätigkeit in freier Natur wie auch in ihrem Stocke beobachtet und habe festzustellen versucht, wie sie sich verhält, wenn ihr Körper mit irgendeinem Schmutzstoff in Berührung kommt. ...
Die Pilzgattung Hygrocybe wird taxonomisch besprochen, wobei die bisherige Sektion Oreocybe Boertmann (subgenus Cuphophyllus) den Status einer eigenen Untergattung erhält. Ein Bestimmungsschlüssel zur Gattung wird vorgelegt, wobei Gruppen sehr ähnlicher Arten, die früher teilweise nicht getrennt wurden, im Hauptschlüssel zu Aggregaten zusammen gefaßt wurden. Diese Aggregate werden getrennt aufgeschlüsselt. 50 europäische Arten der Gattung Hygrocybe werden schließlich hinsichtlich ihrer Morphologie, Taxonomie, Ökologie und Verbreitung vorgestellt.
Durch Torfabbau und Entwässerung war der Libellenbestand des Roten Moores in der hessischen Hochrhön akut bedroht. Im Rahmen von Pflegemaßnahmen wurden 1984 die Gräben im Hochmoorbereich angestaut sowie weitere Gewässer auf abgetorften Flächen geschaffen. Diese neu geschaffenen Lebensräume sowie ältere bereits bestehende Weiher am Moorrand wurden 1987/88 auf ihre Libellenfauna hin untersucht. Für das Rote Moor konnten 18 aktuell bodenstendiqe Libellenarten nachgewiesen werden. Die meisten dieser Arten besiedeln die Randbereiche. Doch konnten mit Leucorrhinia dubia, Aeshna juncea, Somatochlora arctica sowie Leucorrhinia pectoralis und Coenagrion hastulatum seltene und gefährdete Arten im Hochmoorbereich nachgewiesen werden. Ausgehend von kleinen Restpopulationen konnten sich besonders Leucorrhinia dubia und Aeshna juncea wieder im Hochmoorbereich in den neugeschaffenen Lebensräumen ausbreiten. Die aktuelle Libellenfauna wird mit dem benachbarten, relativ ungestörten Schwarzen Moor verglichen. Populationsentwicklunug und Arteninventar an aufgestauten Gräben im Hochmoorbereich werden als Sukzession interpretiert und als ein Ergebnis von interspezifischer Konkurrenz diskutiert.
The Indian Hill Mynah (Gracula religiosa) was studied in the field in Assam in north-east India. The aims of the study were two-fold: (i) to understand better this bird's exceptional ability in captivity to imitate human speech; and (ii) to provide background understanding to studies of the importance of early auditory experience and of vocal imitation in the development of normal song patterns in birds. First is given a brief description of the distribution, general behaviour, and breeding biology of this arboreal, sexually isomorphic, semi-gregarious species. The remainder of the monograph deals with vocalizations; these were either tape-recorded in the field, or transcribed directly using a written notation developed for the purpose. Any wild adult Mynah of either sex possesses four categories of vocalizations: (i) 'Chip-call'; a loud piercing squeak made in contexts which include alarm. (ii) 'Um-sound'; a soft grunt, acting in close range social contexts, and (like chip-calls) common to all individuals. (iii) 'Whisper-whistles': several soft sounds of types unique to the individual. (iv) 'Calls': several loud noises, of extremely varied patterns. The bulk of the monograph deals with 'calls', as defined thus. Calls were compared quantitatively with one another by a method developed which measured the degree of overlap of one sonogram with a tracing of a second sonogram. Both by this method and by ear, calls were divided into discrete types, without intermediates. Birds of either sex have a repertoire of usually between five and twelve such call types, some of which are produced much more commonly than others. Repertoires tend to be larger in birds which call more frequently, or which have mates with large repertoires. The repertoire of a given bird stays largely constant from year to year in size. composition, and proportions. No bird shares any of its call types with its mate, but it shares several of them with near neighbours of the same sex. There is a progressive change of dialect with distance, such that birds nesting more than about 14 km apart have no call types in common. No general characteristics of call structure could be found which were indicative of the sex of the caller, but in a known locality the call type made immediately reveals the sex of the bird producing it. Call types are learnt by selective imitation of neighbouring individuals during a young bird's first several months. A call type common in the repertoire of one bird tends also to be common in the repertoire of a neighbour, except at the edge of the limited range of that call type. Which particular call type a calling bird selects from among those in its repertoire is discussed. Few call types could be related to non-auditory contexts. A bird is likely to repeat the call type last made, and also tends to standardize the order in which it produces its different call types; this standard order tends to be the same as that of its neighbours. A birdtends also to reply at once and to standardize the call type it makes in immediate reply to a particular call type of its mate; again, neighbouring pairs of birds tend to use the same standardized call and reply types. The length of the interval between a particular call and its reply tends to be constant in a given pair of birds, and approximately the same in neighbouring pairs. These are all further aspects of extensive but selective vocal imitation by Mynahs of adult birds; other species are not imitated. Information on calling when in contact with other pairs came mainly from playback experiments, when single calls were presented to nesting pairs of Mynahs. Response strength was measured by the incidence of flight, number of subsequent vocalizations, latency of response, and proportion of playbacks ignored. When presented with playbacks of calls of familiar types (of neighbours) and of unknown types (of strangers), birds responded more strongly to the familiar than to the unknown call types. They did, however, respond somewhat to the unknown call types, which were of patterns never previously heard by them, presumably recognizing these as being Mynah calls by their sound quality. Mynahs responded as strongly to playbacks of neighbours' calls which were not in their own repertoire as to playbacks of neighbours' calls which were. A bird tends to match at once the call last heard (either from a tape recorder or from a wild neighbour), itself producing the same call type at once, if it possesses it in its own repertoire. That call type, and others associated with it, also occurs more frequently thereafter. Thus calls heard affect calls made, and vice-versa since other individuals nearby behave similarly. A change of nearest neighbours in successive years was shown to affect one pair's repertoire proportions. Further playback experiments showed that Mynahs were able to distinguish between a single call made by their neighbours and a single call of the same call type made by their mates. Small but consistent differences were found in the sonograms of such calls of the same type made by different birds. The structure of a single call type may change gradually with distance. The development of vocalizations with age is briefly described. In the final discussion sections, the ways in which, and the extent to which, Mynahs are able to determine the species, home locality, sex and individual identity of other Mynahs are outlined. There follow consideration, and comparison with other species: (i) of various aspects of repertoires; (ii) of the distribution of call types among different individuals; (iii) of the dynamic aspects of calling, and a scheme is proposed which accounts for the selection for utterance of a particular call type from the repertoire; and (iv) of the organization and coordination of calling. The lack of imitation of other species in the wild is discussed, and contrasted with the several ways in which wild Mynahs imitate one another in various aspects of their calling.
The paper deals with the biology, morphology and anatomy of seven species of syrphid larvae viz. Syrphus luniger Meig., S. balteatus De Greer, S. ribesii Linne, Catabomba pyrastri Linne, Sphaerophoriae flavicauda Zett., Sph. scripta Linne, and Platychirus scutatus Meig. The habitat, mode of progression, aphidophagous habits and characteristic coloration are described for each species. It is shown that the larvae of aIl the above species, like larvae of other cyclorrhaphous Diptera, definitely pass through three stages separated by two moults. The mode of dehiscence of the puparium is described briefly. Each of the species, except Catabomba pyrustri, has three generations in the breeding season which lasts from May to October. Platychirus scutatus hibernates only in the larval stage, but the other species may be found in both the larval and pupal stages during the winter. The larvae of all the above species, except syrplzus balteatus, are commonly parasitized by ichneumonid larvae. The morphology of the egg, the three larval stages and the puparium of S. luniger is described in detail. The characters common to the third stage larvae of all the species deaIt with are summarized and short descriptions of the third stagelarvae andpuparia of the individual species are given. The general appearance of the living larvae and details of the buccopharyngeal armature, spiracles and puparia of each of the species is represented in figures. In connexion with the pupae a number of new structures are described arid it is suggested that some of them are concerned with the formation of the characteristic shape of the puparium and with the dehiscence of the puparium. Internal pupal spiracles are present in all the species dealt; with, but external pupal spiracles are present only in Platychirus scutatus. The anatomy of P. scutatus is described and figured, an account being given of all the structures except the musculature of the body wall. Study of the anatomy affords evidence as to the carnivorons mode of Iife of the larvae and also indicates that tho larvae have evolved from aquatic forms. The comparative morphology of the Syrphinae is discussed with respect to the relationship of the Syrphinae to other Aschiza aiid to the cyclorrhaphous Diptera.
Gli Autori segnalano per il territorio delle Alpi Liguri 144 specie di Molluschi terrestri e 25 specie di Molluschi acquidulcicoli. L'elenco sistematico riporta, per ciascuna specie, eventuali sinonimie, segnalazioni di letteratura e di collezione e i risultati di ricerche di campagna effettuate dagli Autori negli anni 1977-84; inoltre, vengono fornite la geonemia e brevi considerazioni sulla distribuzionc geografica, le caratteristiche ecologichc ed eventuali problemi tassonomici. Segue un esame critico dei taxa di pteseilza dubbia o di incerta collocazione sistematica, ed un breve elenco delle specie presenti nelle aree circostanti l'area in esame, ma assenti in Alpi Liguri. La malacofauna terrestre delle Alpi Liguri (considerate in toto o nei tre Settori del Cuneese, Imperiese e Savonese) viene confrontata con quella di tre settori piu interni delle Alpi Occidentali (Alpi Marittime settentrionali, Alpi Cozie, Alpi Graie), di un settorc alpino meridionale (Alpi Marittime francesi) e di due settori appenninici (Appennino Ligure ed Aipi Apuane), mediante indici di similarit i di tipo binario (presenza-assenza di specie). Vengono inoltre confrontati tra loro gli spettri corologici delle aree sopracitate. L'area studiata non appare uniforme da1 punto di vista faunistico, ma diversamente caratterizzata nei diversi settori. Per la particolare posizione geografica e le peculiari caratteristiche paleoclimatiche, geomorfologiche ed ambientali, il popolamento malacologico delle Alpi Liguri si presenta qualitativamente vario ed ariicchito da correnti rnigratorie di diversa provenienza (alpina, W-mediterranes, appenninicii). Nella caratterizzazione della fauna e degli endemismi, sembra importante il ruolo di area di rifugio assunto dalle Alpi Liguri in epoca glaciale.
The ant genera Ankylomyrrna Bolton, Atopomyrmex Andre, Cyphoidris Weber, Ocymyrmex Emery, Pristomyrmex Mayr (= Odontomyrmex Andre, = Hylidris Weber, = Dodous Donisthorpe) and Terataner Emery (= Tranetera Arnold) are revised for the Ethiopian zoogeographical region. Keys and descriptions of species are presented for each genus and the genera are defined on a world-wide basis. In Atopomyrmex two species are recognized and four new infraspecific synonyms are established. Three new species are described in the previously monotypic genus Cyphoidris. Twenty-three species of Ocymyrmex are recognized of which seven are described as new; seven new synonyms are established and new Status as valid species is granted to seven previously infraspecific forms. Five Pristomyrmex species are recognized of which one is new; five new Synonyms are proposed in this genus. In Terataner the former subgenus Tranetera is newly synonymized and six species recognized, of which one is new. The six Terataner species of Madagascar are summarized, one new species is described and a key presented. The genus Baracidris is described as new, containing two new species from West and central Africa. A key to Ethiopian region myrmicine genera in which the antennal club has two Segments is given under Baracidris.
The following new species are described from the Maghreb: Tapinocyba algirica n. sp. and Walckenaeria heimbergi n. sp. The unknown male of Minicia elegans and the unknown females of Alioranus pauper, Cherserigone graciipes and Entelecara truncatifrons are described. Tmeticus hipponense is transfered to the genus Gongylidiellum and HybocoptliS ericicola is removed from synonymy with H. corrugis and revalidated. The Maghrebian species of the genera Alioranus, Brachycerasphora, Cherserigone, Didectoprocnemis, Entelecara, Eperigone, Erigone, Gnathonarium, Gonatium, Gongylidiellum, Hybocoptus, Lessertia, Maso, Mierargus, Microetenonyx, Minicia, Monocephalus, Nematogmus, Ostearius, Prinerigone, Styloetetor, Tapinocyba, Triehoncoides and Trichoncus are all revised. As a final paper in a series on the Linyphiidae of the Maghreb, all the remaining genera are reviewed. A total of 169 species of Linyphiidae has currently been recorded in the Maghreb.
Geschlechts- und Gattungsunterschiede an Metapodien und Phalangen mitteleuropäischer Wildwiederkäuer
(1968)
Zur Beurteilung der Geschechtsunterschiede und zur Bestimmung der Gattungsunterschiede wurden die Metapodien und Phalangen von im ganzen 258 Exemplaren von Cervus elaphus hippelaphus Erxleben, 1771, Dama dama dama (Linne, 1758), Capreolus capreolus capreolus (Linne, 1758), Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra (Linne, 1758) und Capra ibex ibex Linne, 1758, ausgewertet. 93 Tiere entfielen auf Capreolus capreolus, von denen aber zur Geschlechtsunterscheidung nur 78 Tiere verwendbar waren; die restlichen 15 Tiere waren ohne Geschlechtsangabe und konnten auch nachträglich nicht bestimmt werden. Weiterhin kamen zur Untersuchung 56 Tiere von Cervus elaphus, 22 von Dama dama, 49 von Rupicapra rupicapra und 38 von Capra ibex (5. Tab. 1).
Was die Geschlechtsunterscheidung betrifft, so gilt mit Ausnahme von Capreolus capreolus die Regel, daß die Metapodien und Phalangen der Weibchen alles in allem länger und stärker sind als die der Männchen. Zur Bestimmung erwies sich die Länge des jeweiligen Knochens - an der Phalanx 3 die diagonale Sohlenlänge - als am besten geeignet. Dabei ließen sich Gesmlechtsunterschiede nicht nur in den Mittelwerten aufzeigen, sondern auch zum Teil in absolut größeren Maßen, wie das bei Dama in der Länge und bei Caprn ibex in der Breite der Fall war (s. Tab. 2-7).
Für die Unterscheidung zwischen den Gattungen waren in erster Linie Gestaltunterschiede von Bedeutung, in zweiter Linie die absoluten Maße und Indices, wovon letztere für sich allein oft schon Gattungsbestimmungen zulassen. Die Unterscheidung der hier behandelten Arten ist nahezu immer möglich, wenn man davon absieht, daß unter Siedlungsabfällen kleine, uncharakteristische Fragmente sein können. Schwierigkeiten können entstehen bei der Unterscheidung von Steinbock- sowie manchen Gemsenknochen von solchen der Gattungen Capra hircus und Ovis ades; auf sie wurde in dieser Arbeit nicht näher eingegangen.
Sesame, Sesamum indicum L. (syn.S. orientale L.) belongs to family Pedaliaceae and is perhaps the oldest oilseed crop known to man. It is an annual, maturing in 70 to 140 days, but usually in 105 days or less, and contains 45-60% oil in its small, flat, oblong seeds which, may be white, brown or black.
Gastropod molluscs were collected by the author between May and September 1962 from a variety of freshwater habitats in Ethiopia. Twenty-eight forms are represented in the collection of which a total of eleven have not been previously recorded from Ethiopia or have been recorded with doubt by previous authors. Two forms in each of the genera Bulinus and Ancylus appear to be new. It is considered that seven of the forms recorded from Ethiopia for the first time belong to the African component in the fauna, whereas only three are possibly of palaearctic origin. It is concluded that the wide distribution and diversity of some of the palaearctic forms justify the importance attached by Bacci (1951) to the palaearctic element in the molluscan fauna of the Ethiopian Plateau.