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The present publication is intended to be a monograph on the family of Burmanniaceae. It is divided into three parts: General Part, Critical Part and Taxonomical Part. The first part, General Part, contains general remarks on the taxonomy, distribution and use of the family. The second part, Critical Part, contains general and geobotanical remarks on the genera of the family, whereas the third part, the Taxonomical Part, gives the determination keys to the tribes, subtribes, genera, sections, subsections and species, the description of these groups with literature, distribution and the indications of the types. New varieties, species and larger groups are described in the taxonomical part in foot-notes.
Shaped by some of the most dramatic tectonic events of the Cenozoic, the parts of southern and eastern Asia that have become known as the Oriental faunal region comprise vast areas of great geological complexity and ecological diversity. One of the four major groups of terrestrial elapid snakes in this region is the genus Bungarus. These nocturnal and predominantly ophiophagous snakes are widely known as kraits and are an important cause of snakebite mortality throughout their wide range that extends from Afghanistan to Vietnam and eastern China, and south to the Indonesian islands of Java and Bali. Although present on Borneo, kraits have not been found on any island of the Philippines, nor on Lesser Sunda Islands east of Bali. Despite their medical significance and the great importance of Bungarus toxins as tools in neuropharmacology, krait systematics and taxonomy have remained largely unstudied. Twelve species of Bungarus were recognized at the beginning of the present study. Many of these are rare in collections, and most aspects of their biology are unknown. While some species are highly distinct, most kraits are conservative morphologically, rendering molecular methods invaluable for the study of their diversity and biogeography. This study is the first to address the relationships within Bungarus and the historical biogeography of kraits based on molecular evidence. I inferred phylogeographic relationships based on analyses of new nucleotide sequences of the entire mitochondrial cytochrome b gene of 51 kraits and partial NADH dehydrogenase subunit 4 sequences of 40 kraits which I analyzed together with a representative sample of 32 published elapid and non-elapid outgroup taxa using Bayesian, maximum-likelihood, maximum-parsimony and neighbor-joining methods. I then used the recovered phylogeny to investigate the evolution of selected morphological characters and, together with collections-based geographical distribution information, in dispersal-vicariance analyses with models of variable taxonomic and biogeographic complexity. The phylogenetic analyses demonstrate that the current taxonomy of kraits does not adequately represent either the relationships or the genetic diversity in this genus. In contrast, I identified monophyletic groups that are congruent with recognized biogeographic units as well as extensive ecomorph evolution and morphologically cryptic speciation. The following additional conclusions are collectively supported by the mitochondrial phylogeny and morphological as well as biochemical synapomorphies: (1) Kraits are monophyletic with respect to the remaining taxa of the Elapidae; (2) Bungarus flaviceps and Bungarus bungaroides form the monophyletic sister clade of a clade formed by B. fasciatus, black-and-white-banded, and uniformly black taxa; (3) the remaining taxa are divisible into two sister clades, the South Asian species (Bungarus sindanus (Bungarus caeruleus, Bungarus ceylonicus)) vs. Himalayan, Burmese, Southeast and East Asian taxa; (4) within the latter, Burmese taxa form the sister clade to Southeast and East Asian taxa; (5) the widespread and medically significant species Bungarus candidus and Bungarus multicinctus are paraphyletic. The results of this study highlight the importance of vicariant geological events and sea level fluctuations for the cladogenesis of kraits. Events of particular importance in the evolution of kraits include the uplift of the Indo-Burman ranges (Arakan-Naga Hills) which separated black-and-white banded kraits in India and Southeast Asia, and the uplift of mountain ranges in Yunnan, China (e.g., the Gaoligong Shan), which coincided with lineage separation in two distantly related clades of kraits. Alternating dispersal and vicariance events due to Pleistocene climatic and sea level changes have caused complex phylogeographic patterns in kraits in Southeast Asia. Zones of contact between closely related evolutionary lineages of the B. candidus complex are identified in Thailand, Vietnam, and southern China (Hainan). Within this complex, two main clades are revealed. One includes populations from the Southeast Asian mainland and is in contact with B. multicinctus in southern China. The other consists of populations from Thailand, southern Vietnam, Java, and Bali. The phylogeny as well as genetic distances suggest a scenario in which a Pleistocene southward dispersal of B. candidus to Sumatra, Java, and Bali during times of low sea levels was temporarily interrupted by vicariant events (rising sea levels, especially flooding of the Malacca Strait between Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, and of the Bali Strait between Java and Bali). In this context, the close phylogenetic relationship between haplotypes from southern Vietnam and those from Java and Bali suggests that "southern" B. candidus dispersed directly via colonization of the widely receded South Chinese Sea, and not by taking a detour via the Malay Peninsula and Thailand, which were already inhabited by other populations of B. candidus. Using these phylogenetic estimates as the framework for a study on the diversity and evolution of krait venom components, I applied biochemical and molecular genetic approaches to identify and quantify polypeptide and protein toxins in krait venom, focusing on the distribution and molecular evolution of alpha-bungarotoxin, an irreversible competitive antagonist of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors with an exceptionally high applied significance as a receptor probe. I was specifically interested in the medically relevant question of intraspecific and interspecific variability in toxin diversity, and whether receptor-binding postsynaptic toxins evolve at rates different from those of presynaptic neurotoxins like beta-bungarotoxin, which act by destroying the nerve terminal and are believed to exhibit hypervariable functional diversification due to an accelerated mode of molecular evolution. In the context of this question, I isolated and purified the major lethal neurotoxins from B. candidus venoms by sequential steps of liquid chromatography for structural and functional characterization studies. Cloning and sequence analysis of toxin-coding genomic DNAs showed that the gene encoding the alpha-bungarotoxin alanine-31 variant, originally isolated from B. multicinctus venom, is widely present and highly conserved in multiple populations of B. candidus and is expressed as the principal postsynaptic neurotoxin at least in Javan B. candidus. In addition to the widespread presence of genomic DNAs encoding the alpha-bungarotoxin alanine-31 variant, the present study also revealed the partial genes of three novel alpha-bungarotoxin isoforms in addition to the previously known alanine-31 and valine-31 variants, all of which share an invariant exon 3 coding region. While alpha-bungarotoxin is the principal postsynaptic neurotoxin of Taiwanese B. multicinctus and Javan B. candidus, the main postsynaptic neurotoxin of Thai B. candidus both by quantity and lethality was a novel polypeptide of similar toxicity with a mass of 8030 Da and 73 amino acid residues, whose characterization at the genetic and protein levels revealed a novel subgroup of krait neurotoxins, here named alpha-delta-bungarotoxins and represented by four sequences from Bungarus caeruleus and B. candidus. alpha-delta-Bungarotoxins share high sequence homology with alpha-bungarotoxins but the purified, 8030 Da alpha-delta-bungarotoxin-1 exhibits only reversible, low affinity binding to nicotinic receptors and high site-selectivity for the acetylcholine binding site at the alpha-delta-subunit interface of the receptor. These properties render alpha-delta-bungarotoxin not only the first snake long-chain neurotoxin with reversible binding and binding-site selectivity, but also an exciting natural tool with which to address structure-function relationships at the subunit interfaces of the human receptor. The results of comparisons of the number of non-synonymous nucleotide substitutions per nonsynonymous site (dN) to the number of synonymous nucleotide substitutions per synonymous site (dS) strongly suggest that positive selection is acting on exon 2 of the alpha-bungarotoxin and probably also of the alpha-delta-bungarotoxin genes. In addition, the numbers of nucleotide substitutions per site of intron (dI) compared to the dS value of the toxin-coding exon regions provide strong evidence for accelerated molecular evolution in exon 2 of alpha-delta-bungarotoxins —whose value of dI is only one-eighth of the value of dS—whereas the hypothesis of accelerated evolution is rejected for 13 unique genomic DNAs encoding five alpha-bungarotoxin isoforms from B. candidus and B. multicinctus....
Safety concerns associated with the use of viral vectors in gene therapy applications have attracted considerable attention towards the development of nonviral vectors as alternatives for DNA delivery. While nonviral vectors are commonly not associated with safety problems, they are still very inefficient compared to viral vectors, and require significant improvements to approach the efficiency of their viral counterparts. Meanwhile ligands or single-chain antibody fragments that bind to cell surface receptors for increased and/or specific cellular uptake, endosome escape activities, and nuclear localization sequences (NLSs) to enhance transport of plasmid DNA into the nucleus, have become available that can be incorporated into nonviral vectors to improve their efficacy. However, as gene delivery is a multistep process, the challenge is to incorporate multiple of these functional elements into a single nonviral vector system, while retaining their specific activities. A promising method to attach such entities to plasmid DNA is the use of multifunctional fusion proteins that bind to DNA through a DNA-binding domain. In principle, two types of DNA-binding domains/proteins can be used to anchor additional functional domains or peptides to a plasmid, namely sequence-specific DNA-binding domains, described in the first part of this thesis, or those that bind DNA independent of its sequence, exemplified in the second part of this work by a derivative of the human HMGB2 protein. The first fusion protein constructed and analyzed contained the E. coli LexA repressor as a sequence-specific DNA-binding domain. In addition, this DNA-carrier protein, termed TEL, included a bacterial translocation domain as an integrated endosome escape activity, and human TGF-a for specific targeting to the EGF-receptor (EGFR). TEL was expressed in E. coli and purified under both native and denaturing conditions. Purified, denatured TEL was refolded and subsequently shown to bind specifically to EGFR-expressing cells. However, inclusion of TEL in complexes of plasmid DNA and poly-L-lysine (pL) did not lead to increased gene delivery into EGFR-expressing COS-1 cells. Most likely this was due to the absence of DNA-binding activity of the LexA moiety in TEL. In contrast, native TEL was able to interact specifically with DNA. Nevertheless, since this interaction was rather weak, and refolding of denatured TEL had not resulted in functional activity of all of its protein domains, it seemed unlikely that fusion proteins containing LexA would exhibit gene transfer capabilities superior to those of similar DNA-carrier proteins previously constructed in our group. Further work therefore focused on the use of the E2C-Sp1C protein as an alternative sequencespecific DNA-binding domain. This artificial zinc-finger protein was fused to the single-chain antibody fragment scFv(FRP5), directed against the human ErbB2 growth factor receptor. The resulting 5-E2C fusion protein was expressed in E. coli and purified under native and denaturing conditions. Refolded and native 5-E2C were found to bind specifically to ErbB2-expressing cells, indicating that scFv(FRP5) in 5-E2C was functional in both preparations. In contrast, whereas refolded 5-E2C bound DNA only weakly, significant DNA binding was observed for native 5-E2C. In addition, it could not only be shown that the interaction of native 5-E2C with DNA containing its recognition sequence was specific, but also that this protein was able to bind DNA and recombinant ErbB2 simultaneously, demonstrating the functionality of both domains in native 5-E2C. Despite these encouraging results, the inclusion of native 5-E2C in pL- or polyethyleneimine (PEI)-DNA complexes did not lead to an (5-E2C-specific) enhancement of gene transfer efficiency, irrespective of the presence of the endosome-disruptive reagent chloroquine during transfection. In the second part of this thesis an alternative approach for the development of DNA-carrier proteins for nonviral gene delivery is described, based on human HMGB2, a DNA-binding protein without sequence specificity. HMGB2 contains an acidic C-terminus that has been found to decrease the affinity of the protein for DNA. Therefore, this C-terminal tail was deleted, resulting in an HMGB2-variant consisting of amino acids 1-186. HMGB2186, purified under native conditions from E. coli lysates, was able to interact with DNA and bound to the surface of different cell lines. Importantly, after binding to plasmid DNA HMGB2186 mediated gene delivery into COS-7 cells with higher efficiency than pL. In addition, HMGB2186-mediated gene transfer was strongly enhanced in the presence of chloroquine, indicating that the endocytic pathway was involved in cellular uptake. To improve internalization and intracellular routing of HMGB2186 as a DNA-carrier, a derivative containing the TAT47-57 cell-penetrating peptide (CPP), reported to facilitate cell entry independent of endocytosis, was constructed. Since this peptide also contains an NLS, in addition an HGMB2186-variant containing the SV40-NLS was constructed to investigate the effect of a peptide that has only nuclear localizing properties. Interestingly, the resulting TAT-HMGB2186 and SV40-HMGB2186 fusion proteins displayed DNA-binding activities similar to HMGB2186, but mediated gene delivery into different cell lines clearly more efficiently than the parental molecule. Furthermore, the efficacy of both fusion proteins was enhanced markedly in the presence of chloroquine, an indication that endocytosis was involved in the transfection process mediated by these proteins. This suggests that the increased transfection efficiency observed for TAT-HMGB2186 was more likely due to the NLS function present in the TAT47-57 peptide, rather than to its ‘cell penetrating properties’. Finally, the incorporation of functional peptides derived from human proteins into HMGB2186 was investigated. An uncharged CPP originating from Kaposi-FGF, reported to facilitate efficient cellular uptake of fused protein domains in an endocytosis-independent manner, was fused to HMGB2186 together with the SV40-NLS. Interestingly, the resulting KSV40-HMGB2186 fusion protein bound DNA similarly as previously tested DNA-carrier proteins, but did not mediate enhanced transfection compared to HMGB2186. In addition, the importin-b-binding (IBB) domain derived from human importin-a2 was investigated as a component of a DNA-carrier protein. Since the IBB domain can function as an NLS, it was fused to HMGB2186 resulting in the DNA-carrier protein IBBHMGB2186. Although IBB-HMGB2186 bound DNA in a similar manner as the other HMGB2186-derivatives, gene delivery mediated by IBB-HMGB2186 was only as effective as HMGB2186 mediated transfection, suggesting no significant role of the IBB domain. However, addition of chloroquine resulted in a remarkable enhancement of IBB-HMGB2186-mediated gene transfer, which was now more efficient than with any other HMGB2186-variant tested, and not much lower than gene transfer mediated by PEI, one of the most efficient transfection reagents available to date. To enhance nonviral gene delivery even further, the HMGB2186-based DNA-carrier proteins described in this thesis might now serve as building blocks for novel fusion proteins that include additional complementing activities. In this respect it seems particularly promising that, under conditions of effective end some escape, IBB-HMGB2186, which consists entirely of protein domains of human origin, was the most efficient of all proteins tested in this work.
The heat stress (hs) response is universal to all organisms. As the cell senses increase in temperature, heat stress transcription factors (Hsfs) are activated to upregulate the expression of a number of genes encoding heat stress proteins (Hsp) which act as molecular chaperones to protect cells against heat damages. In higher plants, the phenomenon seems to be unusually complex both at the level of Hsfs and Hsps (e.g., 21 Hsf encoding genes in Arabidopsis and at least 17 in tomato). Upon prolonged hs, another characteristic property of plant cells is the assembly of large cytosolic aggregates called heat stress granules (HSG), which are composed of Hsps, HsfA2, RNA and RNA-binding proteins. The present work was aimed to understand plant hs response using tomato as a model system. To study the function of tomato Hsfs in their native system, we generated transgenic tomato lines altered in expression of HsfA1, HsfA2, and HsfB1. Tomato plants with 10-fold overexpression of HsfA1 (OE plants) were characterised by integration of a single HsfA1 expression cassette, whereas the plants harbouring a tandem inverted repeat (IR) of the cassette showed cosuppression of HsfA1 (CS plants). The lack of HsfA1 expression in CS plants results from posttranscriptional gene silencing connected with the formation of small interfering RNA (siRNA). Under normal growth conditions, major developmental features were similar for wild-type (WT), OE and CS plants. However, in contrast to the former two, CS plants and fruits were extremely sensitive to elevated temperature because hs-induced synthesis of major chaperones and Hsfs was strongly reduced or lacking. Despite the complexity of the plant Hsf family, the function of tomato HsfA1 is unique as master regulator of induced thermotolerance. On the other hand, maintenance of essential chaperones in CS plants during seed development suggests involvement of other Hsfs and/or transcription factor(s). HsfB1 and HsfA2 transgenic tomato plants, unaffected in thermotolerance, further supported the function of HsfA1 as the major factor regulating hs-inducible genes. Hs87 independent phenotypes of plants with altered expression of HsfB1 indicates developmental role of this Hsf. Using transient reporter assays with mesophyll protoplasts from WT tomato, we demonstrated that plasmids encoding Hsfs A1, A2 and A3 were well expressed which could function as activators for reporter gene expression. However, in protoplasts derived from CS plants, plasmids encoding HsfA2 and HsfA3 were normally expressed but even higher amounts of HsfA1 expression plasmids were completely silenced. Therefore, silencing of HsfA1 in CS plants was also reproduced in its mesophyll protoplasts. Lacking thermotolerance in CS protoplasts could be restored after transformation with expression plasmids encoding functionally equivalent HsfA2 or HsfA3 resulting in (i) expression of chaperones, (ii) survival of the cells at otherwise lethal temperature, (iii) thermoprotection of firefly luciferase, and (iv) assembly of heat stress granules (HSGs). The strong silencing caused by an IR in CS plants opened the possibility of a broad use of RNAi for gene knock-down also in the transient system of mesophyll protoplasts. Using this technology, we attempted to dissect essential components of thermotolerance and HSG assembly. We demonstrated the previously reported function of chaperones such as Hsp70 and Hsp101, and could discriminate the in vivo chaperone functions of different isoforms of Hsp20 and Hsp70 proteins. Hsp17-CI, Hsp70 (hs-inducible isoforms), and Hsp101 are absolutely essential chaperones for thermotolerance in plants. Furthermore, the results also show that despite Hsp17-CI and -CII being major components of HSG complexes, they are dispensable for assembly of these complexes. Based on these results, it is proposed that in the transient protoplast system an approach with gene-specific IRs can be used to discriminate functions of closely related isoforms among protein-families and to dissect complex protein networks.
Vascular occlusive diseases are one of the leading mortality causes in westernised countries. Occlusions of one of the major arteries can be overcome without devastating consequences provided a timely induction of compensating collateral arteries occurs. Perhaps the most outstanding feature of collateral vessel growth is the proliferation of smooth muscle cells (SMCs). Understanding the molecular mechanisms and identifying key molecular players of SMC proliferation would contribute significantly to the development of efficient therapies to intervene with all processes involving neointima formation, including collateral growth. mRNA and protein coding for co-transcription factor Egr1 were found to be up-regulated in growing collateral vessels 6, 12 or 24 hours following femoral artery ligation in mice. Since Egr1 is required for SMC proliferation in vitro and in vivo and likely to be implicated in the initiation of collateral artery growth, the key signalling mediators regulating Egr1 expression specifically in proliferating vascular SMCs were investigated. Northern blot and Western blot analysis revealed a strong up-regulation of Egr1 within 2 hours of stimulation with PDGF-AB and FGF-2. These two potent SMC mitogens involved in neointima formation were used to stimulate vascular SMCs not only to delineate the regulators of Egr1 expression but also to identify additional key mediators of SMC proliferation. FGF-2 but not PDGF-AB led to a drastic reduction of desmin amount in proliferating SMCs, correlating closely with the phenotypic modulation of SMCs in vivo. Both growth factors triggered a dramatic increase in DNA-synthesis rate with a concomitant loss of p27 exp Kip1. Stimulation with PDGF-AB and FGF-2 triggered a rapid and transient activation of PDGFRβ and FGFR1 respectively, thus providing the basis for activation of down-stream targets. Analysis of an array of signalling pathways demonstrated a strong activation of the Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK cascade in response to both factors as measured by the level of phosphorylation of prominent members MEK, ERK1/2 and c-Myc. SAPK/JNK and p38, which also belong to the superfamily of MAP kinases, did not become activated following stimulation with either PDGF-AB or FGF-2. The analysis of various PKC isoforms identified PKCδ and PKCθ to be the key mediators of PDGF-AB- and FGF-2-induced mitogenesis in proliferating SMCs. Whereas PDGF-AB potently stimulated PKB/Akt with concomitant GSK3β phosphorylation, FGF-2-induced inactivation of GSK3β was independent of PKB/Akt. Specific inhibition in order to evaluate the contribution of individual pathways to Egr1 expression and vascular SMC proliferation revealed that inhibition of the Raf-MEK-ERK module by UO126 completely abolished DNA-synthesis and Egr1 expression without a compensation by alternative pathways. Surprisingly, inhibition of PI3K led to a switch to the mitogenic RafMEK-ERK signalling cascade which resulted in an augmented Egr1 expression. In conclusion, in porcine vascular SMCs, activation of the Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK signalling module appears to be the main prerequisite for Egr1 expression and DNA synthesis induction in response to PDGF-AB and FGF-2 whereas related kinases SAPK/JNK and p38 play no significant role. Inhibition of the PI3K-Akt cascade represents an alternative way to activate ERK1/2 and induce Egr1 expression. Whereas MEK is the central regulator of mitogenic effects in proliferating vascular SMCs, the PI3K-Akt pathway most likely exerts survival function. Inactivation of MEK by its specific inhibitors identified hyperphosphorylation as ayet unknown mechanism of kinase inhibition.
Membranes are essential for life, because a cell must separate itself from the environment to keep its molecules from dissipating away and also must keep out foreign molecules that disturb them or their cell components. However, the cell must communicate with the environment and adapt to the external conditions, needs to pump in nutrients and release toxic products of its metabolism. Membrane proteins present in the membranes of the cell and cell organelles, help the cell to gather information about the environment and perform various biological processes. Membrane proteins perform a wide range of biological functions including respiration, signal transduction and transport. Despite their high importance in biological function, only few structures have been determined because of the difficulties in producing high amounts of membrane proteins and obtaining good quality crystals. This Ph. D. thesis involves the study of different kinds of cytochrome oxidases and a membrane anchored cytochrome oxidase electron donor. Though structures of many cytochrome oxidases are known to date, there exist many different types of oxidases in different organisms, which help the organism to survive under unfavorable environmental conditions. The structural differences between these terminal oxidases which make the organism to survive in extreme environments are unclear. To investigate these, structures of different types of oxidases are necessary. Therefore, we are interested in revealing the structural details of different types of oxidases. The different types of oxidase I worked with were the caa3 HiPIP:oxygen oxidoreductase from Rhodothermus marinus, the aa3-type quinol oxidase from Acidianus ambivalens and bd-type quinol oxidase from three different organisms (Escherichia coli, Bacillus thermodenitrificans and Aquifex aeolicus). Besides the protein from E. coli all other proteins are from thermophilic organisms from which the proteins obtained are generally believed to be highly stable. The presence of a high content of charged amino acids that enhances the occurrence of salt bridges contributes to the stability of thermophilic proteins. ....
Membrane proteins play vital role in a variety of cellular processes, such as signal transduction, transport and recognition. In turn they are involved in numerous human diseases and currently represent one of the most prevalent drug targets. A comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms mediated by membrane proteins requires information about their structures at near-atomic resolution, although structural studies of membrane proteins remain behind those of soluble proteins. A bottleneck in the study of membrane proteins resides in the difficulties that are encountered during their high-level production in cell based systems. However, many toxic effects attributed to the over production of membrane proteins are eliminated by cell-free expression, as viable host cells are no longer required. Therefore, the objective of this study was to obtain adequate amounts of selected membrane transport proteins for their structural studies using a cell-free expression system. For the establishment of the cell-free system for membrane proteins, the transporters YbgR and YiiP from Salmonella typhimurium LT2, PF0558 and PF1373 from Pyrococcus furiosus, from the cation diffusion family (CDF), BetP from Corynebacterium glutamicum from the betaine/carnitine/choline transporter (BCCT) family and Aq-2030 from Aquifex aeolicus VF5 from the monovalent cation/proton antiporter-2 (CPA2) family were selected. An Escherichia coli S-30 extract based cellfree system was established by generating the best expression constructs of the target proteins, preparing T7 RNA polymerase and an S-30 extract with high translation efficiency. The functionality of the S-30 extract was shown by the cell-free expression of correctly folded Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP). Essential factors of the cell-free system such as the Mg2+ concentration, the bacterial S-30 extract proportion in the reaction mixture and the time-course of cell-free reactions have been optimized. For the cell-free production of membrane proteins in soluble form, the possibility to supplement cell-free reactions with detergents was explored. A wide range of non-ionic or zwitterionic detergents, were found to be compatible with cell-free synthesis, while ionic detergents and non-ionic detergents at high concentrations had an inhibitory effect. Moreover, high concentrations of polyoxyethylene-alkyl-ethers (Brij) detergents were found to have enhancing effect on the production levels as well as on the solubility of cell-free produced proteins. As membrane proteins tend to misfold and aggregate in a membrane-free translation system, the possibility to supplement the cell-free reactions with inner membrane vesicles (IMVs) to obtain correctly folded target transport proteins was explored. All the target proteins were successfully produced in the batch cell-free reactions and were found to be incorporated in the IMVs. A continuous exchange cell-free (CECF) system was established, where consumable substrates (amino acids, nucleotides and energy regenerating compounds) were supplied to the cell-free reaction mixture through a dialysis membrane, which in consequence resulted in high-level production of target proteins compared to the batch system. The osmosensing and osmoregulated sodium-coupled symporter BetP from C. glutamicum was chosen for the large scale production in CECF set-up. The protein is easily produced in E. coli and is functional as assayed by its transport activity, after purification and reconstitution in liposomes. It is therefore possible to compare in-vivo and cell-free production. High-level cell-free production of BetP was achieved in CECF mode in different forms: (i) as precipitate, (ii) as soluble form in detergent, and (iii) incorporated in IMVs. Cell-free production of BetP resulted in the yield of about 0.5 mg of purified BetP from 1 ml of CECF reaction. The yield of purified BetP was increased to 1.6 fold by addition of 1% polyoxyethylene-(20)-cetyl-ether (Brij58) detergent in the reaction mixture. Moreover, the high level cell-free production of BetP (0.5 mg purified BetP/ml reaction mixture) incorporated in IMVs was shown for the first time in this work.However, it was observed that oligomerization of BetP was not efficient in the cell-free system. Factors that can promote the folding of membrane proteins such as lipids and chaperones were investigated. Addition of lipids and molecular chaperone GroE facilitated correct folding of BetP resulting in increased yield and stability of cell-free produced BetP. The results obtained indicate that most of the cell-free produced BetP exists in functional oligomeric form. The possibility of obtaining milligram amounts of BetP, a 12 trans-membrane protein from the cell-free reactions holds promise for structural and functional studies of other membrane proteins. In any case, the strategies adapted in this study should prove extremely valuable for the production of membrane proteins in the E. coli cell-free expression system.
Die Verarbeitung von Informationen im zentralen Nervensystem beruht auf dem Zusammenspiel von erregender und hemmender Neurotransmission. Die Übertragung von Signalen zwischen Neuronen erfolgt chemisch über die Ausschüttung von Neurotransmittern an spezialisierten Kontaktstellen, den Synapsen. Glyzin und gamma-Aminobuttersäure (GABA) sind die bedeutendsten inhibitorischen Neurotransmitter im zentralen Nervensystem von Säugern, welche Rezeptoren vom Glyzin- (GlyR) und GABAA-Typ (GABAAR) aktivieren. Diese ligandengesteuerten Ionenkanäle sind in postsynaptischen Membranen angereichert und mit intrazellulären Proteinen assoziiert. Die Rekrutierung der Rezeptoren in postsynaptischen Domänen ist ein an das zytoplasmatisch lokalisierte Protein Gephyrin gekoppelter Prozess. So bindet Gephyrin spezifisch an die intrazelluläre Domäne der beta-Untereinheit des GlyR (GlyR beta) und bildet für die Verankerung des Rezeptors ein gerüstartiges Netzwerk unterhalb der synaptischen Membran. Die gezielte Inaktivierung des Gephyrin-Gens führt in Mäusen zu einem postnatal letalen Phänotyp und zu dem Verlust der synaptischen Anreicherung des GlyR und bestimmter GABAA-Rezeptoren auf zellulärer Ebene. Gephyrin ist ein 93 kDa großes Protein, das nicht nur im zentralen Nervensystem (ZNS), sondern auch in anderen Organen wie Leber und Niere exprimiert wird, in denen es an der Synthese des Molybdän-Kofaktors von Oxido-Reduktasen beteiligt ist. Das Gephyrin-Protein wird durch 30 Exons codiert, von denen zehn als sogenannte Kassetten alternativ gespleißt werden können. Die bestuntersuchte Spleißvariante besitzt 736 Aminosäuren und ist in eine N- und eine C-terminale Domäne (Aminosäuren 1-181 bzw. 318-736) sowie eine zentrale Linker-Domäne unterteilt. Die N- und die C-terminalen Bereiche von Gephyrin sind den Proteinen MogA und MoeA aus E. coli homolog und werden daher auch als G-Domäne (N-terminal) bzw. E-Domäne (C-terminal) bezeichnet. In kristallographischen Untersuchungen wurde gezeigt, dass die G- und E-Domänen zur Tri- bzw. Dimerisierung befähigt sind. Diese speziellen Oligomerisierungseigenschaften der beiden Gephyrindomänen bilden wahrscheinlich die Grundlage für die Entstehung von Gephyrin-Clustern sowie eines hexagonalen Gephyrin-Gerüstes. Dieses Gerüst stellt den Verknüpfungspunkt zwischen Rezeptoren und dem Zytoskelett dar und ermöglicht somit die effiziente Clusterbildung und die zielgerichtete Anordnung einer großen Anzahl inhibitorischer Rezeptoren. In der vorliegenden Arbeit sollten die Rolle dieser beiden Domänen bei der Bildung membranassoziierter Gephyrinaggregate und die molekularen Mechanismen der Clusterbildung des Gephyrinmoleküls untersucht werden. Zu diesem Zweck wurden durch zielgerichtete Mutagenese unterschiedliche Gephyrin-Mutanten hergestellt, um die Fähigkeit der Oligomerisierung der G- und E-Domäne gezielt zu modifizieren. Dadurch sollte die Bedeutung der Oligomerisierung hinsichtlich der Aggregat- bzw. Clusterbildung untersucht werden. Außerdem sollten die Wechselwirkungen zwischen Gephyrin und anderen Proteinen und deren Einfluss auf die synaptische Lokalisation analysiert werden. Für diese Untersuchungen wurden auf der Basis von Röntgenstruktur-Daten spezifische Aminosäurereste an den bei der Oligomerisierung beteiligten Kontaktstellen ausgetauscht. In der G-Domäne wurden zu diesem Zweck vier separate Aminosäuren des Trimer-Interface durch Arginin ersetzt (GephRRRR). Analog hierzu wurden in der EDomäne einzelne Aminosäuren durch Arginin bzw. Glutamat substituiert (GephRER), um dadurch eine Dimersierung zu verhindern. Für die Kassette C5’ wird angenommen, dass deren Vorhandensein die Interaktion zwischen Gephyrin und GlyR beeinträchtigt, wodurch GlyR aus GABAergenen Synapsen ausgeschlossen wird. Daher wurde der Einfluss dieser Gephyrin-Spleißvariante (GephC5’), die zu einer Peptidinsertion innerhalb der G-Domäne führt, und einer Gephyrin-Mutante (Gephmut), die den Verlust der Wechselwirkung mit dem GlyR bedingt, auf die Aggregatbildung von Gephyrinoligomeren untersucht. Bei dem Konstrukt Gephmut wurden, basierend auf Daten von Röntgenstrukturuntersuchungen, neun Aminosäuren (713-721) am Cterminalen Ende der E-Domäne durch den homologen Bereich des bakteriellen MoeA Proteins aus E. coli ersetzt. Zunächst wurden die einzelnen isolierten Domänen mittels Gelfiltration hinsichtlich ihres Oligomerisierungsverhaltens untersucht. Die Mutationen wurden hierzu in verkürzte Proteine eingeführt, bei denen nur die G- bzw. die E-Domäne exprimiert wurden. Diese Konstrukte wurden daher als GRRRR, GC5’ bzw. ERER und Emut bezeichnet. Bei diesen zeigte sich, dass die G-Domäne des Gephyrin-Wildtyps zu trimeren Proteinkomplexen oligomerisiert. Im Gegensatz hierzu war die Mutante GRRRR nicht in der Lage, Trimere zu bilden. Das Einfügen der C5’-Kassette führte ebenfalls zu einer Störung der Trimerisierung. Gelfiltrationsexperimente mit der E-Domäne ergaben, dass die mutierte Domäne ERER, im Gegensatz zum Wildtyp-Konstrukt, keine Dimere ausbildet. Bisherige Studien haben jedoch gezeigt, dass das Emut Polypeptid zur Dimerisierung befähigt ist. Das Oligomerisierungsverhalten des kompletten Gephyrin-Proteins wurde mittels blauer nativer Gelelektrophorese (BN-PAGE) analysiert. Für die hier beschriebenen Untersuchungen mit BN-PAGE wurde rekombinantes Gephyrin in Xenopus laevis Oozyten heterolog exprimiert. Die Analyse ergab, dass Wildtyp Gephyrin nativ als Hexamer vorliegt, welches durch ansteigende Konzentrationen des Detergenzes Natriumdodecylsulfat (SDS) in Trimere, Dimere und Monomere zerfällt. Sowohl GephRRRR und GephC5’ liegen nativ fast ausschließlich als Dimere vor, während GephRER nur trimere Aggregate formt. Die entsprechende Doppelmutante mit Mutationen in Gund E-Domäne war wie erwartet nur noch als Monomer existent. Die als Kontrolle eingesetzte Glyzinrezeptor-Bindungsmutante Gephmut bildete, ebenso wie der Wildtyp, Hexamere aus. Daraus folgt, dass die Oligomere der G- bzw E-Domäne Zwischenprodukte der Hexamerbildung darstellen. Die Analyse der Oligomerisierungseigenschaften der Mutanten wurde nachfolgend in humanen embryonalen Nierenzellen (HEK 293T) untersucht. Nach heterologer Expression von Wildtyp Gephyrin in HEK 293T-Zellen formen sich große, charakteristische Gephyrinaggregate. Die Oligomerisierungs-Mutanten GephRRRR, GephRER und GephC5’ aggregierten jedoch nicht, sondern waren diffus im Zytoplasma verteilt. Die wiederum als Kontrolle eingesetzte Bindungsmutante Gephmut hingegen wies eine normale Aggregation auf. Diese Ergebnisse bestätigen die grundlegende Rolle der Oligomerisierung von G- und E- Domänen für die Aggregatbildung von Gephyrin. Mittels GST-Pulldown und Kolokalisationsanalysen in HEK Zellen wurde die Wechselwirkung der Gephyrinmutanten mit der GlyR beta, dem Motorkomplexprotein Dynein light chain-1 (Dlc-1) und dem Guanin-Nukleotid-Austauschfaktor Collybistin (Cb) untersucht. Beide Ansätze weisen darauf hin, dass die Trimerisierung der G-Domäne an der Interaktion von Gephyrin mit Dlc-1 und die Dimerisierung der E-Domäne bei der Bindung an GlyR beta und Cb beteiligt ist. Die Mutante Gephmut zeigte in beiden Fällen einen totalen Verlust der Bindungsfähigkeit sowohl an das GlyR beta Bindungsmotiv als auch an Cb. Der Einbau der C5’ Kassette in Gephyrin scheint jedoch nicht dessen Bindung an den GlyR zu beeinflussen. Für die Analyse der Clusterbildung und des zielgerichteten Transports in Neuronen wurden Wildtyp und mutiertes Gephyrin in hippocampalen und spinalen Primärkulturen der Ratte exprimiert. Zur Überprüfung einer synaptischen Lokalisation wurde Gephyrin gemeinsam mit dem vesikulären inhibitorischen Aminosäure-Transporter (VIAAT), einem präsynaptischen Marker-Protein, detektiert. In beiden Kulturen wies Gephyrin eine punktartige Verteilung in den Neuriten auf und wurde gezielt an Synapsen angereichert. Im Kontrast dazu zeigten alle Oligomerisierungsmutanten, GephRRRR, GephC5’ und GephRER keine Ausbildung von Clustern sondern eine diffuse Verteilung im Zellkörper und in Dendriten. Das Konstrukt Gephmut wies jedoch Clusterbildung und eine punktförmige Verteilung auf. Diese Daten belegen, dass die Oligomerisierung der G- wie auch der E-Domänen für die Clusterbildung und synaptische Lokalisation von Gephyrin unerlässlich ist. Die Wechselwirkung mit dem GlyR und/oder Collybistin ist ebenfalls für die Anreicherung in der Synapse erforderlich, nicht jedoch für die Bildung der Gephyrin-Cluster. Die dargestellten Ergebnisse belegen die Rolle der spezifischen Oligomerisierungseigenschaften der G- und E-Domäne für die Ausbildung des hexagonalen Gephyringerüstes und dessen grundlegende Bedeutung für die spezifische Anreicherung von Gephyrin an inhibitorischen Synapsen in Neuronen.
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) comprise the largest membrane protein family and play an essential role in signal transduction through the cell membrane. They are currently the targets of approximately 50 % of the pharmaceuticals on the market (Klabunde and Hessler, 2002). However, only one high-resolution GPCR structure has been determined up to now, that of bovine rhodopsin (Palczewski et al., 2000). The GPCR activation and regulation mechanisms are still unknown and other GPCR structures are thus required. MePNet (Membrane Protein Network) was a European consortium dedicated to structural studies of GPCRs. The approach was to produce 100 GPCRs in three expression systems (Escherichia coli, Pichia pastoris and Semliki Forest Virus infected mammalian cells) in order to select at each step of the process (production, solubilization, purification) the constructs that fulfilled quantity and quality (functionality) requirements for crystallization trials. In our team, we screened 38 of the 100 targets in P. pastoris. For each receptor, the clone with the highest production level was identified by dot-blot. The size and homogeneity of each receptor were then analyzed by Western-blot. The human adenosine A2A receptor showed a well-defined and pronounced single band and was thus selected for further characterization. The adenosine A2A receptor is a GPCR mainly localized in the central nervous system and, as it antagonizes dopaminergic activity, it has great potential as a drug target for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Functional characterization by binding assays with the specific antagonist [3H]-ZM241385 demonstrated a Bmax of 56 +/- 3 pmol/mg i.e. pmol of binder per milligram of total membrane protein, and a KD of 0.40 +/- 0.02 nM. Receptor production was then improved by lowering the induction temperature, decreasing the induction time and adding DMSO to the medium. For large-scale production, fermention reached around 300 g cells (wet weight)/L culture, which provided 43 mg of functional receptor in membranes per liter of culture. Functional solubilization was achieved with dodecyl-β-D-maltoside and the soluble yield was increased to 70-80 % of the membrane content by addition of cholesteryl hemisuccinate and increasing the ionic strength. The receptor was successfully purified via Ni-NTA and monomeric avidin chromatography in the presence of the antagonist ZM241385. This strategy produced a pure, homogeneous and stable receptor preparation with functionality demonstrated by radioligand binding assays. The total receptor yield after purification was routinely around 20 % of the membrane functional receptor content and 2 g of membranes provided 4 mg of pure receptor for crystallization trials. GPCRs are very difficult targets for crystallization, and co-crystallization with antibody fragments has been shown to be a successful method for crystallization of membrane proteins. In order to develop such a tool for the adenosine A2A receptor, a single-chain Fv (scFv) fragment specific to the purified receptor was selected by phage display. The receptor was functionally immobilized on the surface of streptavidin beads and after two rounds of selection, 6 different phages were identified several times. After production in E. coli and purification via Ni-NTA affinity chromatography, 4 out of the 6 scFv fragments were sufficiently enriched to be tested by ELISA. For the ELISA, the receptor was functionally immobilized via the biotinylation domain of the construct in a 96-well streptavidin-coated plate. The antibody fragments binding to the receptor were identified based on interaction with HRP-conjugated protein L. One scFv fragment gave a positive ELISA signal 10 fold above background and titration of the scFv fragment binding to the receptor was specific and saturable. However no complex of scFv fragment and receptor was observed on gel filtration. In order to have a more sensitive detection method, the scFv fragment was labeled with fluorescein: a complex was then observed up on gel filtration but the binding appeared to be non-specific. A pull-down assay with immobilized non-labeled scFv fragment finally confirmed the specificity of the binding, but also the low affinity of the interaction. Affinity maturation of this specific scFv fragment by a random mutagenesis and selection process should improve this parameter in order to obtain an adapted tool for co-crystallization.
The North Arnerican species of the genus Cremastocheilus are reviewed. These belong to 5 subgenera, Macropodina, Trinodea, Anatinodia, Mymcotonus, and Cremastocheilus. Taxonomie changes are: She inclusion of Crernastocheilus nitens and C. chapini in the subgenus Cremastocheilus rather than Myrmecotonus. Also Anatinodia is elevated to subgeneric status. A key to the subgenera is provided, as is a key to the species of the 5 subgenera, recognizing that the 35 species in the subgenus Cremastocheilus are in need of revision. A critical review of the host records, geographic distribution, and ecology of the Tribe Crernastocheilini (Family Scarabaeidae. subfamily Cetoniinae) is provided. This contains enormous numbers of new records for both the genera Genuchinus and CremastocheiLus both from the literature and from the extensive field work that is reported here for the first time. A Summary of the host records is presented in tabular form. This table shows the association of all species of Cremastocheilus with ants as adults and the larvae either associated with the vegetable material of the ant nests or with vegetable material in rodent burrows. Genuchinus is shown to be a general predator on soft bodied insects while the other genera of the Cremastocheilini are associated with plants, particularly bromeliads. A detailed study of the external morphology and sexual dimorphism of the genera Genuchinus and Crernastocheilus is presented. All species of Cremastocheilus can be sexed with the naked eye by the difference in the shapes of the abdominal terminal Segments, wherein males have the posterior border of the last ventral abdominal segment either straight or slightly bowed, while females have this border broadly rounded. There are other microscopic sexual differences in the structure of the legs. The rest of the external morphology is also presented, particularly from the point of view of adaptations to either a predaceous or rnyrmecophilous existente. Particularly adapted for predation are the pointed maxillae which are used for piercing prey. Particularly adapted for myrmecophily are the mentum, the maxillae, the generally thick exoskeleton, trichomes on both the anterior and posterior angles of the pronotum, the elytra, and the legs (which are adapted to the nest substrate of the host ant nests. Exocrine glands are described for Genuchinus ineptus and at least 1 species of each of the 5 subgenera of Cremastocheilus. In general, there are no gland cells nor glandular areas in Genuchinuc that are comparable to those of Cremastocheilus. The gland cells and glandular areas are quite extensive andvariable arnong species of Cremastocheilus. The frontal gland of some Cremastocheilus (strongly developed in C. castaneus and the C. canaliculatus species group, but weakly developed in the C. wheeleri species group) is described for the first time. Because these glands are not found in Genuchinus ineptuc, a species with general predatory habits, it is thought that these play a role, as yet unknown, in interactions with ants. The life cycles of the subgenera of Cremastocheilus are described. The general life cycle entails adult beetles eclosing in ant nests during the summer and then undertaking dispersal flights. The adults then enter ant nests and ovenivinter there, eating ant larvae during the Winter. Another dispersal flight occurs in the spring during which the adults mate and enter ant nests again. The females then lay eggs and the adults die. The eggs hatch and the larvae spend 3 instars feeding upon vegetable material in the nests. The lmae then pupate in typical scarabaeine earthen cells made of fecal material and soil. These eclose in the summer and the cycle is repeated. Variation from species to species is largely in the timing. Leaving the nest in late Summer, mating seems to be triggered by rainfall in all the species studied. Mating of C. (Macropodina) beameri takes place in rodent burrows. Males seem attracted to females from a distance but the mechanism of this remains obscure. In the subgenus Trinodia, mating takes place on sandy washes or roadsides where females land. In the subgenus Myrmecotonus, maüng also takes place in sandy areas. In C. (Cremastocheilus) mating takes place on sand bars along rivers in the southeastern U.S. and in sand dunes in northeastern U.S. The femaies dig down into the sand. Males locate these places by some unknown mechanism and then dig down to copulate with the females. Field experiments showed unequivocaily that males dig only into areas occupied by females. No sex-specific Sex attractant glands have been located in females so far. Dispersal to ant nests occurs after mating except for C. (Macropodina) beameri which lays its eggs in the rodent burrows and then probably disperses to ant nests. Beetle activity going in and out of nests was studied using wire hardware cloth screens over entrances to Mynnecocystus nests. The mesh size was such that the ants could move freely in or out but the beetles got stuck by their thoraces. The direction then could be interpreted by the direction in which they got stuck. By this method, C. stathamae was shown to leave nests from 23 June to 1 September with a peak on 6 July, just after the beginning of the summer rains. Beetles entered nests from June 23 to August 3, however 39% entered on July 16, probably pulsed by the leaving time which was correlated with the rains. Life cycle timing: C. (Macropodina) develop in the nests of Wood rats (Neotoma sp.]. Females lay about 40 eggs each. The 3 larval instars to pupation take about 1 month. Pupae are found from late August to weil into September. In other subgenera as well, larvae are found in parts of the nest devoid of ants, The timing is similar in all the subgenera found with ants. Mortality factors: While ants attack Cremastocheilus adults, there is no evidence that they are ever killed by ants nor is there evidence that ants kill larvae nor hard earthen pupae cases which protect the pupae. During dispersal fiights and mating, the adults are exposed to predation and evidence is presented that shows predation by horned toads, spiders, magpies, and tiger beetles. Probably most mortality occurs in the larval and pupd stages where the beetles are attacked by internal parasites and fungus. Further rnortality is caused by limitation of the food supply during the larval stage. Reentering nests: Females of C. (Macropodina) beameri select specific rodent and other burrows, attract males for rnating. and then enter the burrow for oviposition. C. stathamae are carried into the ants nests from as far away as 25ft. The beetles appear to land spontaneously after flying randomly over M. depilis nesting areas. Then the wander about waiting for the ants to carry them into the nests. Cremastocheilus hirsutus fly low over the ground searching for Pogonomyrrnex barbatus nests, land. and move straight for the nest entrances which they enter unhindered. Among all species, the ants frequently eject beetles but the net rnovement is in. Ants frequently attacked Cremastocheilus in laboratory observation nests when they were introduced. These attacks seldom resulted in the death of the beetles and the beetles were eventually ignored. When the beetles entered brood chambers, where they fed upon larvae, they were mostly ignored and even licked assiduously by the ants. A principle defensive behavior by the beetles is feigning death (letisimulation). The beetles give off an unpleasant "dead fish odor when collected in the I field. Experiments show that this substance functions to fend off some predators but further experiments indicated that these substances were ineffective against both ants and kangaroo rats. Experiments with various species of Cremastocheilus adults indicate that the adults eat only ant larvae. The beetles will eat larvae of non-host ants but show preferences for the larvae of their normal hosts. Under the same experimental conditions. Genuchinus ineptus adults will feed on a variety of insect adults and larvae. Field experiments on the function of trichome secretions did not indicate that they function to attract ants at a distance nor are they involved in worker acceptance. Laboratory experiments in which areas with a high concentration of gland cells were presented to ants showed that no ants were attracted. Laboratory introduction of Cremastocheilus hamisii adults into Fomica schau.si nests yielded many interactions including ants licking the anterior pronotal angles, the mentum area where the frontal glands empty and a carina over the eye with a dense pad of short setae. These are areas of concentration of gland cells and these are the first observations of licking by ants in specific sites containing exocrine glands. Radioisotope experiments showed food exchange among ants but never from ants to beetles. Other experiments showed that ants can pick up radioactivity from the beetles without feeding on trichome secretions. Evolutionary pathways: Adult Cremastocheilini probably followed the evolutionary route from adult predation on soft bodied insects to specialized feeding upon ant brood and the subsequent development of the beetle larvae in vegetable material in the ant colonies. Thus Genuchininseptus makes a logical outgroup in that they are general predators probably feeding mostly on Diptera larvae associated with Sotol plants in the field. The rnajor evolutionary step taken by Cremastocheiluswas to specialize on ant brood. Then the species radiated into ant colonies inhabiting southwestem North Arnenca. Most of the ant hosts invaded have quantities of vegetable material in their nests sufficient to support several developing scarab larvae. Host colonies are large, contain accessible brood, and are usually dominant foragers Evidence supports the idea that the species of Cremastocheilus have differentes in behavior and morphology that reflect adaptation to the behavioral ecology of different species of ants rather than different evolutionary levels of integration into ant colonies.
The objective of this study is the avifauna of the North American Green River Formation. Five new Green River bird species as well as several new specimens of already known species are described. * Galliformes: Gallinuloides wyomingensis EASTMAN 1900 A second specimen of the galliform Gallinuloides wyomingensis could be identified. Gallinuloides wyomingensis resembles closely Paraortygoides MAYR 1999, which is known from Messel and the London Clay. The new specimen exhibits characters such as a cup-like cotyla scapularis of the coracoid that clearly indicate that Gallinuloides is a stem-group representative of galliforms. * Eurypygidae: Eoeurypyga olsoni gen. et sp. nov. Eoeurypyga is the only fossil representative of the Eurypygidae. Eoeurypyga and the modern sunbittern Eurypyga helias share the typical long bill, the caudally situated neck and the elongated vertebrae cervicales. Additional synapomorph characters were found. The new species indicates a North American origin for the Eurypygidae. * Messelornithidae: Messelornis nearctica HESSE 1992 The original description of Messelornis nearctica was based on a single specimen. Ten new specimens, described in this study, reveal additional information. Messelornis nearctica shows the same large intraspecific size range as Messelornis cristata HESSE 1988 from Messel, the type species of the genus. * Apodidae: Wyomingcypselus pohli gen. nov. sp. nov. Wyomingcypselus pohli is the first described fossil apodiform bird for North American. Due to characters of the wing, especially the position of the processus musculi extensor metacarpi radialis, Wyomingcypselus is referrred to the Apodidae. * Trogoniformes: unnamed species The Green River birds include a poorly preserved, but apparently heterodactyl specimen, which also resembles trogons in overall appearance. * Primobucconidae: Primobucco mcgrewi BRODKORB 1970 Originally, Primobucco mcgrewi was only known from a partial skeleton consisting of the right wing. Three new specimens could be referred to the species. Primobucco mcgrewi clearly exhibits an anisodactyl foot, which makes the assignment to the zygodactyl Bucconidae highly doubtful. Instead, Primobucco mcgrewi is referrred to the Coraciiformes s.s. Thus, Primobucconidae are the first New World representatives of stem-group Coraciiformes. * ?Leptosomidae: Plesiocathartes wyomingensis sp. nov. and Plesiocathartes major sp. nov. Plesiocathartes wyomingensis and Plesiocathartes major represent the first North American record for the genus. Both species exhibit the diagnostic characters for the Leptosomidae as listed by MAYR (2002a, b). * Primoscenidae: Eozygodactylus americanus gen. et sp. nov. and unnamed species Eozygodactylus americanus is the first North American member of this taxon. Both Eozygodactylus americanus and the unnamed species show the zygodactyl foot and the large processus intermetacarpalis of the carpometacarpus, which are typical for Primoscendiae. Due to differences mainly of the humerus, it was placed in a new genus. Besides the descriptionof new species, the avifauna of the Green River Formatin was studied and compared with the avifauna of Messel. The formations show a high concordance, more than 60 % of the Green River taxa also occur in Messel. Such a high concordance is also found for mammals. This is due to the existence of two landbridges, the Thule landbridge and the de Geer landbridge, between Europe and North America during the early Eocene.
Shrew-1 wurde bei der Suche invasivitätsassoziierter Gene mittels eines DDRT-PCR-Ansatzes aus invasiven Zellen isoliert. Wie computergestützte Analysen der Sequenz ergaben, wies das bis dahin unbekannte Protein keinerlei Ähnlichkeiten mit bereits bekannten Proteinen auf und homologe Proteine wurden bisher nur in Vertebraten gefunden. Expressionsanalysen mit einem GFP-markierten shrew-1 zeigten, dass es an der basolateralen Plasmamembran lokalisiert, wo es mit dem E-Cadherin vermittelten Adhäsions-Komplex kolokalisiert. Eine Integration in diesen Komplex geschieht höchstwahrscheinlich durch direkte Interaktion mit β-Catenin. Ein weiteres Molekül das als potenzieller Interaktionspartner von shrew-1 identifiziert wurde und das in der Literatur oft als Tumorsuppressor diskutiert wird, ist Caveolin-1. Ferner konnten Überexpressionexperimente bereits zeigen, dass shrew-1 die Invasivität von HT1080-Zellen erhöhen kann. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, zum einen mit Hilfe des Hefe-Split-Ubiquitin-Systems eine Interaktion von shrew-1 und Caveolin-1 zu bestätigen und zum anderen neue Interaktionspartner zu identifizieren, die helfen könnten, die Rolle von shrew-1 in invasiven Vorgängen zu erklären. Um eine mögliche Verbindung von shrew-1 und einem neuen Interaktionspartner in Bezug auf die Zellinvasivität zu untersuchen, sollten sowohl shrew-1 als auch der potenzielle Interaktionspartner mittels RNAi ausgeschaltet werden. Mit Hilfe des Split-Ubiquitin-Systems war es möglich, die Interaktion zwischen shrew-1 und caveolin-1 zu bestätigen und zu zeigen, dass diese durch die zytoplasmatische Domäne von shrew-1 vermittelt wird. Weiterhin konnte CD147 als neuer Interaktionpartner identifiziert werden. Eine Interaktion beider Proteine konnte ferner mit Hilfe des Bimolekularen-Fluoreszens-Komplementations-Systems (BIFC), des Fluoreszens-Resonanz-Energie-Transfers (FRET) und Coimmunoprezipitationen bestätigt werden. Die Interaktion von shrew-1 und CD147 scheint allerdings abhängig vom zellulären Kontext zu sein, wie die FRET-Analysen vermuten lassen. So konnte nämlich mit diesen Analysen eine starke Interaktion in MCF7-Zellen gezeigt werden, wohingegen die Interaktion in MDCK-Zellen schwächer war. Einer der auffälligsten Unterschiede dieser beiden Zelllinien im Bezug auf diese Interaktion könnte sein, dass MCF7-Zellen im Gegensatz zu MDCK-Zellen kein Caveolin-1 exprimieren. Caveolin-1 konnte seinerseits als Interaktionspartner von shrew-1 mit Hilfe des Hefe-Split-Ubiquitin-Systems bestätigt werden und andererseits wurde von einer anderen Arbeitsgruppe eine Interaktion von CD147 mit Caveolin-1 publiziert. Um dies näher zu untersuchen, wurde Caveolin-1 in MCF7-Zellen exprimiert und die FRET-Analysen in diesen wiederholt. Wie vermutet kam es zu einer Reduktion der Interaktion in Caveolin-1 exprimierenden MCF7-Zellen. CD147 ist neben vielen anderen Funktionen auch maßgeblich an der Regulation von Matrix-Metalloproteinasen beteiligt und kann somit die Invasivität von Zellen beeinflussen. Um einen Einfluß von shrew-1 und CD147 auf die Invasivität zu untersuchen, wurden beide Proteine mittels RNAi in HeLa-Zellen ausgeschaltet. Nachdem ein negativer Einfluss dieses Ansatzes auf das Proliferationsverhalten der Zellen ausgeschlossen werden konnte, wurde ein möglicher Effekt auf die Invasivität der Zellen untersucht. Durch die Analyse in Matrigel-Invasionsassays konnte gezeigt werden, dass das unabhängige Ausschalten beider Proteine die Invasivität der Zellen auf 35-55% im Vergleich zu Kontrollzellen reduziert. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit untermauern die Annahme, dass shrew-1 eine Rolle bei invasiven Vorgängen spielt und weisen darauf hin, dass dies möglicherweise durch eine Interaktion mit CD147 geschieht. Die Interaktion mit CD147 und damit eine mögliche Funktion von shrew-1 bei invasiven Vorgängen scheinen dabei abhängig vom zellulären Kontext zu sein.
On the molecular basis of novel anti-inflammatory compounds and functional leukocyte responses
(2006)
Inflammation is a complex pathophysiological event that can be triggered by activation of a number of distinct activation pathways eventually leading to the release of pro-inflammatory molecules and enzymes. Among all cells involved in inflammatory processes, neutrophils, monocytes and platelets are of major relevance. Activation of leukocytes occurs via binding of agonists to distinct GPCRs leading to activation of G proteins and proximate signaling cascades. In short, GPCR activation by pro-inflammatory agonists such as fMLP, PAF or LTB4 leads to activation of G proteins that are associated with the receptor at the cytosolic side of the plasma membrane. G proteins consist of a Gα- and a Gβγ-subunit which are associated in the inactive state. In this state, G proteins bind GDP. Upon activation, GDP is replaced by GTP that results in the dissociation of the Gα- from the Gβγ-subunit. Both subunits are capable of activating distinct PLC-β isoenzymes that catalyze the turnover of PtdIns(4,5)P2 into the second messengers Ins(1,4,5)P3 and DAG. Every GPCR holds a distinct pattern of associated G proteins which preferentially activate distinct PLC-β isoenzymes. Ca2+ channels within the SR/ER-membrane function as specific receptors for Ins(1,4,5)P3. Ligation of Ins(1,4,5)P3 to this receptor causes a release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores into the cytosol that is subsequently followed by the influx of Ca2+ e through channels in the plasma membrane. Ca2+ represents an important signaling molecule, involved in the regulation of cellular processes and enzymes that mediate inflammatory events such as ROS formation and the release of degradative enzymes. 5-LO and COXs are involved in the biosynthesis of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids and catalyze the turnover of AA into LTs and PGs, respectively. Both enzymes play pivotal roles in the initiation and maintenance of allergic diseases and inflammatory processes. LTB4 is regarded as a potent chemotactic and chemokinetic substance, whereas the cysteinyl-LTs cause smooth muscle contraction and increased vascular permeability. Therefore, 5-LO inhibitors are assumed to possess therapeutic potential for the treatment of diseases related to inflammation. Besides the intervention with 5-LO activity, inhibition of COX-activity is an effective way to suppress inflammatory reactions. The two COX isoenzymes, namely COX-1 and COX-2 show different patterns in terms of tissue expression and sensitivity towards inhibitors. COX-1 is supposed to be constantly expressed whereas COX-2 expression is upregulated at sites of inflammation. The extract of H. perforatum is commonly used for the treatment of mild to moderate depressive disorders, accompanied by a moderate profile of side effects. The extract´s efficacy as an antidepressant can be traced back to the content of the phloroglucinol hyperforin which represents the most abundant lipophilic constituent. However, in folk medicine hypericum extracts are additionally used for the treatment of inflammatory disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis or inflammatory skin diseases. In fact, it was shown that hypericum extracts and hyperforin possess anti-inflammatory potential. Hyperforin was described as a dual inhibitor of 5-LO and COX-1. The phloroglucinols MC and S-MC from M. communis significantly differ from the molecular structure of hyperforin. Hyperforin represents a monomeric prenylated derivative whereas MS and S-MC are non-prenylated oligomeric compounds. To date, the anti-inflammatory potential of SM and S-MC has not been investigated in detail. So far, solely antioxidant activity was attributed to MC and S-MC that indeed might qualify them as anti-inflammatory drugs. The phloroglucinols MC, S-MC and hyperforin are potent inhibitors of ROS formation and HLE release. However, any inhibitory potential of these compounds was only observed when cells were activated by GPCR agonists such as fMLP or PAF. In contrast, when cells were stimulated under circumvention of G protein-associated signaling cascades, the abovementioned inhibitors were not effective at all. In leukocytes, [Ca2+]i plays a pivotal role in signal transduction and regulation of the indicated pro-inflammatory cellular functions. We were able to show that MC, S-MC and hyperforin inhibited GPCR-mediated Ca2+ mobilization with approximately the same potency as the above-mentioned leukocyte responses. However, all of the indicated phloroglucinols were ineffective when cells were stimulated with ionomycin. Since ionomycin as well as GPCR agonists exert their effects by mobilizing Ca2+ i, it seems conceivable that MC, S-MC and hyperforin somehow interfere with G protein-associated signaling pathways. In order to investigate PLC as a potential target of hyperforin, the effects of hyperforin were compared to those of the broad spectrum PLC inhibitor U-73122. We found that both inhibitors acted in a comparable manner in terms of agonist-induced Ca2+ mobilization and in regard of the manipulation of basal Ca2+ levels in unstimulated cells. In this respect, significant differences between hyperforin and U-73122 were obvious for inhibition of total PLC activity in vitro. Thus, U-73122 blocked PLC activity whereas hyperforin was ineffective in this respect. This might indicate that only certain PLC isoenzymes are affected by hyperforin. Alternatively, other components within G protein-associated signaling pathways such as G proteins itself or the Ins(1,4,5)P3 receptor must be taken into account as putative targets of hyperforin. We were able to introduce MC and S-MC as novel dual inhibitors of 5-LO and COX-1. Interestingly, such a pattern was also described for hyperforin. MC and S-MC turned out to be direct inhibitors of 5-LO, based on the fact that they inhibit 5-LO not only in intact cells but also as purified enzyme in vitro. For MC and S-MC, great discrepancies were observed between the IC50 values concerning 5-LO inhibition and the concentrations that exert the antioxidative effects. It seems probable that 5-LO inhibition is not related to reduction of the active site iron as a result of the antioxidant activity of MC and S-MC but rather to direct interference with the 5-LO enzyme. The capability of MC and S-MC to suppress COX-1 activity seems not to be a unique effect of these phloroglucinols because for COX-1, the IBPC, present in both MC and S-MC, turned out to be the most active compound. ....