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- Gesellschaftswissenschaften (2)
- Medizin (2)
- Präsidium (2)
- SFB 268 (2)
Ziel dieses Artikels ist es, allgemeine Frage- und Problemstellungen bei der Untersuchung des Phänomens Fokus in ausgewählten Gur- und Kwasprachen vorzustellen, d.h. unsere Forschungsvorhaben kurz zu skizzieren, ohne dass wir bereits auf Ergebnisse eingehen können. Dieser Aufsatz gibt einen Überblick über das Forschungsfeld, damit verbundene Problemstellungen und die von uns anvisierten Aufgaben und Methoden: - Was verstehen wir unter Fokus? - Warum sind die Gur- und Kwasprachen für diese Untersuchung von Relevanz? - Welche Korrelationen lassen sich zwischen Struktur und semantisch/pragmatischen Merkmalen erkennen? - Welche Entwicklung haben Fokusstrukturen genommen? - Welche methodischen Grundlagen liegen unseren Untersuchungen zugrunde?
Fokus im Aja
(1998)
Im folgenden Beitrag sollen die verschiedenen Möglichkeiten der Markierung von Fokus im Aja dargestellt werden. Das Aja, oder Ajagbe, umfaßt eine Gruppe von Varietäten, die zum Gbe-Kontinuum, von Westermann als Ewe bezeichnet, gehören. Die im Beitrag herangezogenen Daten stammen aus dem Hwe- sowie dem Dogbo-Dialekt (Daten von Tchitchi 1984) des Aja, die im Süden Benins und Togos gesprochen werden.
Im folgenden Beitrag werden die Möglichkeiten der Bildung des Progressivs im Aja dargestellt sowie die zur Bildung des Progressivs verwendeten Formen in ihrer Grammatikalisierungskette vorgestellt. Das Aja gehört zu einer Gruppe von Sprachen/Dialekten, die lange Zeit unter dem Begriff "Ewe" zusammengefaßt wurden, in jüngster Zeit aber auch als Gbe(-Kontinuum) bezeichnet werden. Dabei ist "Gbe" ein in allen sprachlichen Einheiten des Kontinuums anzutreffendes Lexem mit der Bedeutung "Sprache".
Focus expressions in Yom
(2006)
This paper deals with the means for expressing the pragmatic category of focus in Yom, which is an Oti-Volta language of the Yom-Nawdem group spoken by about 74,000 people (Gordon 2005, online version) in the department of Donga in Northern Benin. The study is based on results of my field research carried out in March/April 2005 in Djougou (Benin), within the framework of the project “Focus in Gur and Kwa languages”. Main aim of this fieldwork was to study the expression of focus in Yom. Regarding the basic grammatical structure of the language, I mainly rely on various publications by Beacham (1969, 1991, and 1997).
Low tone spreading in Buli
(2003)
In Buli, tone indicates lexical information as well as grammatical information. The changing of tone patterns regularly observed on lexemes is covered best by an autosegmental approach with autonomous tonal and segmental tiers. It reveals considerable deviations between underlying and surfacing tones at several morpho- yntactic points. Realization of tone is sometimes oppressed or delayed. Cause for such disturbances is in all cases a low tone which spreads to the right and affects following high tones with different results. The aim of this paper is to show how L spreading acts and how it is integrated in the system of tonal contrast.
Welchen Bedingungen unterliegt menschliche Kommunikation? Welche sprachlichen Mittel verwendet ein Sprecher um sicherzustellen, dass sein Zuhörer tatsächlich das versteht, was er kommunizieren möchte? Wie also »verpacken« wir wichtige und weniger wichtige Informationen im alltäglichen Diskurs? Diesen und anderen Fragen geht der SFB 632 »Informationsstruktur«, ein gemeinsames Forschungsunternehmen von Linguisten verschiedener Teildisziplinen der Universität Potsdam und der Humboldt-Universität, nach.
This article discusses the divergent status of the two particles lé and lá in the grammar of Konkomba, a Gur language (Niger-Congo) of the Gurma subgroup. While previous studies claim that both particles are focus markers, this author argues that only the particle lá should be analyzed as a pure pragmatic device. Distributional studies suggest that the use of particle lé, on the other hand, is only required under specific focus conditions, and primarily represents a syntactic device.
Buli is an Oti-Volta tone language spoken in Northern Ghana. This paper outlines the basic features of its tonal system and explores whether and in which way pitch respectively phonemic tone is approached as a means to indicate the pragmatic category of focus. Pursued are cases with focus-related surface tone changes as well as cases where pitch could help to disambiguate between broad and narrow foci. It is argued that focus is not consistently encoded by pitch or tone. Parallel findings for the closely related languages Kopen o (phonetic symbol)nni and Dagbani suggest that the apparent lack of significant prosodic focus signals in Buli might pertain to a larger group of tonal languages of the Gur family.
0. Introduction 1. Observations concerning the structure of morphosyntactically marked focus constructions 1.1 First observation: SF vs. NSF asymmetry 1.2 Second observation: NSF-NAR parallelism 1.3 Affirmative ex-situ focus constructions (SF, NSF), and narrative clauses (NAR) 2. Grammaticalization 2.1 Cleft hypothesis 2.2 Movement hypothesis 2.3 Narrative hypothesis 2.3.1 Back- or Foregrounding? 2.3.2 Converse directionality of FM and conjunction 3. Language specific analysis 4. Conclusionary remarks References
Focus expressions in Yom
(2005)
In our presentation we will outline the verb system of Lelemi and concentrate on certain “focal” aspects which are of primary interest to us. Lelemi has two TAMP paradigms: one constituting the so-called “simple tenses”, the other the so-called “relative tenses” (Allan 1973), although not every “simple tense” has a counterpart in the “relative tenses”. The simple paradigm is formed by subject prefixes (prefixed pronouns for 1st or 2nd person and noun class pronouns for 3rd persons) and the verb form whereas the relative paradigm is build up by the obligatory use of an external subject noun, an invariable verb prefix, and the verb form. While the simple paradigm is used in quite a lot of syntactic environments the relative paradigm only shows up in relative clauses with the subject being the head as well as in subject and sentence focus constructions including questions concerning the subject. We will show some interesting interactions between the grammatical expression of focus and the verb system and sketch the grammaticalisation path of the morpheme nà.
Research on adverbials in sentence-medial position in the North- Ghanaian Gur language Buli suggests that the language offers two divergent slots for adverbials between subject and verb. Special attention is paid to the group of sentence-medial deictic temporal adverbials. While they have the potential to develop into tense markers, this process seems to depend on special information structural conditions.
Focus in Gur and Kwa
(2006)
The project investigates focus phenomena in the two genetically relatedWest African Gur and Kwa language groups of the Niger-Congo phylum. Most of its members are tone languages, they are similar with respect to word order typology (all are SVO languages), but of divergent morphological type (agglutinating Gur versus isolating Kwa).
Focus expressions in Foodo
(2006)
This talk concerns the copula system in Buli, a Ghanaian language which has also been attested in Bahia (Rodrigues 1935, Zwernemann 1968). Special focus will be put on the categorization of two copula-reminiscent elements for which I will propose a discoursepragmatic analysis.
Die drei Bereiche, die hier verglichen werden sollen, entsprechen in etwa der überkommenen Trias von Literatur, Musik und bildender Kunst, einer Gliederung, die im Medienzeitalters mit Videos, CDs, Installationen oder Happenings eigentlich obsolet ist. Allerdings geht es hier nur um die Eigenart der Zeichensysteme, auf denen die verschiedenen Bereiche beruhen, nicht um die Werke, die dadurch möglich werden, obgleich natürlich auch die Kunstwerke im emphatischen Sinn, die bedeutenden und die banalen, die großen und die misslungenen Gestaltungen nur möglich und verstehbar sind aufgrund der Zeichen, auf denen sie beruhen.
The structure of natural languages as studied by linguists is connected in several ways with phenomena outside this domain. Problems of this kind are, to mention only three: (a) the acoustical and physiological interpretation of the primitive elements in which the sound structure is represented; (b) the conceptual or referential interpretation of the primitive elements that build up the meanings of the utterances; (c) the structural relationships that go beyond the single sentences, usually taken as the largest units to be analyzed linguistically, i.e., the question as to the conditions that two or more sentences must meet in order to form a connected text. ...
The semantics of gradation
(1989)
The term 'gradation' is meant to cover a range of phenomena which for the time being I shall call quantitative evaluations regarding dimensions or features. I shall actually be looking into the principles governing the way gradation is expressed in language. The quantitative aspect of the adjectives of dimension occupies a key position which can be systematically explained and this aspect will be the crucial point of the discussion. I shall focus on the various grammatical forms of comparison: comparative, equative, superlative and some related constructions, and indications of measurement and adverbial indications of degree.
Simplicity as a methodological orientation applies to linguistic theory just as to any other field of research: ‘Occam’s razor’ is the label for the basic heuristic maxim according to which an adequate analysis must ultimately be reduced to indispensible specifications. In this sense, conceptual economy has been a strict and stimulating guideline in the development of Generative Grammar from the very beginning. Halle’s (1959) argument discarding the level of taxonomic phonemics in order to unify two otherwise separate phonological processes is an early characteristic example; a more general notion is that of an evaluation metric introduced in Chomsky (1957, 1975), which relates the relative simplicity of alternative linguistic descriptions systematically to the quest for explanatory adequacy of the theory underlying the descriptions to be evaluated. Further proposals along these lines include the theory of markedness developed in Chomsky and Halle (1968), Kean (1975, 1981), and others, the notion of underspecification proposed e.g. in Archangeli (1984), Farkas (1990), the concept of default values and related notions. An important step promoting this general orientation was the idea of Principles and Parameters developed in Chomsky (1981, 1986), which reduced the notion of language particular rule systems to universal principles, subject merely to parametrization with restricted options, largely related to properties of particular lexical items. On this account, the notion of a simplicity metric is to be dispensed with, as competing analyses of relevant data are now supposed to be essentially excluded by the restrictive system of principles.
Metaphern bestimmen nicht nur unser alltägliches Leben, etwa wenn wir vom Rad der Geschichte oder der Bühne des Lebens sprechen, sie geben auch nützliche Orientierung in vielen Bereichen der Wissenschaft, von den schwarzen Löchern der Physiker bis zur Computermetapher des Gehirns in der Kognitionswissenschaft. Eine solche Metapher ist auch die Deutung der Sprache als Werkzeug.
Generative grammar
(2001)
Generative Grammar is the label of the most influential research program in linguistics and related fields in the second half of the 20. century. Initiated by a short book, Noam Chomsky's Syntactic Structures (1957), it became one of the driving forces among the disciplines jointly called the cognitive sciences. The term generative grammar refers to an explicit, formal characterization of the (largely implicit) knowledge determining the formal aspect of all kinds of language behavior. The program had a strong mentalist orientation right from the beginning, documented e.g. in a fundamental critique of Skinner's Verbal behavior (1957) by Chomsky (1959), arguing that behaviorist stimulus-response-theories could in no way account for the complexities of ordinary language use. The "Generative Enterprise", as the program was called in 1982, went through a number of stages, each of which was accompanied by discussions of specific problems and consequences within the narrower domain of linguistics as well as the wider range of related fields, such as ontogenetic development, psychology of language use, or biological evolution. Four stages of the Generative Enterprise can be marked off for expository purposes.
In hindsight, the debate about presupposition following Frege’s discovery that the referential function of names and definite descriptions depended on the fulfillment of an existence and a uniqueness condition was curiously limited for a very long time. On the one hand, it was only in the 1960s that linguists began to take an interest and showed that presupposition was an allpervasive phenomenon far beyond this philosophers’ pet definite descriptions. And on the other hand, and this is our real concern, it is now only too obvious that the uniqueness condition is too restrictive to be applicable to the general case. An utterance of “The cat is on the mat” should not imply that there is only one cat and one mat in the whole world. The obvious move is to limit the uniqueness condition to some notion of utterance context.
Reflexive pronouns as central anaphoric elements are subject to general principles determined by Universal Grammar and shared by all languages that use reflexives as part of their grammatical structure. In addition to these general conditions, there are language particular properties, which different languages can exhibit on the basis of different regulations. One variation of this sort is the particular role of Reflexives in German, which can show up as improper Arguments, which are subject to standard syntactic and morphological conditions, but do not represent an argument of the head they belong to. Hence the particular property is the effect of syntactic, morphological and semantic conditions. A simple illustration of the phenomena I will explore in this contribution is based on the following observation.
Thematic Roles (or Theta-Roles) are theoretical constructs that account for a variety of well known empirical facts, which are more or less clearly delimited. In other words, Theta-Roles are not directly observable, but they do have empirical content that is open to empirical observation. The objective of the present paper is to sketch the nature and content of Theta-Roles, distinguishing their universal foundation as part of the language faculty, their language particular realization, which depends on the conditions of individual languages, and idiosyncratic properties, determined by specific information of individual lexical items.
Semantic form as interface
(2007)
The term interface had a remarkable career over the past several decades, motivated largely by its use in computer science. Although the concept of a "surface common to two areas" (Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, 1980) is intuitively clear enough, the range of its application is not very sharp and well defined, a "common surface" is open to a wide range of interpretations.
Linguistik, Poetik, Ästhetik
(2008)
The paper briefly summarizes the proposal made in 1965 that "Poetic Competence" is the basis for creating and evaluating poetry. That this competence lives on, but is different from linguistic competence is exemplified by a close look at the segmental and supra-segmental, morpho-syntactic, lexical, and conceptual structure of Hölderlin's poem "An Zimmern", revealing a surprisingly complex and balanced structure of the apparently simple four lines. The second part of the paper discusses the question whether judgments about poetry are to be studied as based on the relation between specific properties of poems and persons. Finally the problem is raised, whether literary art is based on a specific Poetic Competence, or instantiates a general aesthetic ability applied to linguistic objects. This is construed as a speculative, but still empirical question.
Daß die Sprache Voraussetzung und Grundlage für die Gesamtheit menschlicher Vollzüge und kultureller Gestaltung ist, dieser Gedanke ist nicht erst in der sprachanalytischen Philosophie des 20. Jahrhunderts zum Thema geworden. Allerdings nimmt er hier mit der These von der Unhintergehbarkeit der Sprache, also der Feststellung, daß nur in der Sprache die Grundlagen der Sprache behandelt und geklärt werden können, einen zentralen Platz ein. Aber die Reihe der Vorläufer ist lang. Herder etwa hatte befunden "Ohne Sprache hat der Mensch keine Vernunft, und ohne Vernunft keine Sprache." (1772), und Heidegger hat in seiner raunenden Art die Sprache zum "Haus des Seins" (1947) erklärt. Über die möglichen Grenzen dieses unhintergehbaren Mediums haben auf sehr unterschiedliche Weise Ludwig Wittgenstein und Samuel Beckett gegrübelt. Die Titelfrage dieses Beitrags beruht auf Wittgensteins These 5. 6 in der Logisch-philosophischen Abhandlung: Die Grenzen meiner Sprache bedeuten die Grenzen meiner Welt.
The main tenet of the present paper is the thesis that nominalization – like other cases of derivational morphology – is an essentially lexical phenomenon with well defined syntactic (and semantic) conditions and consequences. More specifically, it will be argued that the relation between a verb and the noun derived from it is subject to both systematic and idiosyncratic conditions with respect to lexical as well as syntactic aspects.
Arguing against Bhat’s (1974) claim that retroflexion cannot be correlated with retraction, the present article illustrates that retroflexes are always retracted, though retraction is not claimed to be a sufficient criterion for retroflexion. The cooccurrence of retraction with retroflexion is shown to make two further implications; first, that non-velarized retroflexes do not exist, and second, that secondary palatalization of retroflexes is phonetically impossible. The process of palatalization is shown to trigger a change in the primary place of articulation to non-retroflex. Phonologically, retraction has to be represented by the feature specification [+back] for all retroflex segments.
The present study poses the question on what phonetic and phonological grounds postalveolar fricatives in Polish can be analyzed as retroflex and whether postalveolar fricatives in other Slavic languages are retroflex as well. Velarization and incompatibility with front vowels are introduced as articulatory criteria for retroflexion, based on crosslinguistic data. According to these criteria, Polish and Russian have retroflex fricatives, whereas Bulgarian and Czech do not. In a phonological representation of these Slavic retroflexes, the necessity of perceptual features is shown. Lastly, it is illustrated that palatalization of retroflex fricatives both in Slavic languages and more generally causes a phonetic and phonological change to a non-retroflex sound.
On the basis of perceptual experiments we show that alveolo-palatal fricatives and palatalized post-alveolars are two separate sounds which are distinguished not only by Polish native speakers but also by German ones. This claim is partly attested by centre of gravity measurements of the two sibilants. In this paper we revise the claim made by Halle & Stevens [1] and Maddieson & Ladefoged [2] that the Polish alveolo-palatal fricatives [˛, ¸] are palatalized postalveolars [SJ, ZJ]. On the basis of perceptual experiments we show that alveolo-palatal fricatives and palatalized post-alveolars are two separate sounds which are distinguished not only by Polish native speakers but also by German ones. This claim is partly attested by centre of gravity measurements of the two sibilants.
In this article we propose that there are two universal properties for phonological stop assibilations, namely (i) assibilations cannot be triggered by /i/ unless they are also triggered by /j/, and (ii) voiced stops cannot undergo assibilations unless voiceless ones do. The article presents typological evidence from assibilations in 45 languages supporting both (i) and (ii). It is argued that assibilations are to be captured in the Optimality Theoretic framework by ranking markedness constraints grounded in perception which penalize sequences like [ti] ahead of a faith constraint which militates against the change from /t/ to some sibilant sound. The occurring language types predicted by (i) and (ii) will be shown to involve permutations of the rankings between several different markedness constraints and the one faith constraint. The article demonstrates that there exist several logically possible assibilation types which are ruled out because they would involve illicit rankings.
Glide formation, a process whereby an underlying high front vowel is realized as a palatal glide, is shown to occur only in unstressed prevocalic position in German, and to be blocked by specific surface restrictions such as *ji and *“j. Traditional descriptions of glide formation (including derivational as well as Optimality theoretic approaches) refer to the syllable in order to capture its conditions. The present study illustrates that glide formation (plus the distribution of long and short tense /i/) in German can better be captured in a Functional Phonology account (Boersma 1998) which makes reference to stress instead of the syllable and thus overcomes problems of former approaches.
In the following study we present the results of three acoustic experiments with native speakers of German and Polish which support implications (a) and (b). In our experiments we measured the friction phase after the /t d/ release before the onset of the following high front vocoid for four speakers of German and Polish. We found that the friction phase for /tj/ was significantly longer than that of /ti/, and that the friction phase of /t/ in the assibilation context is significantly longer than that of /d/.
Dutch has a three-way contrast in labiodental sounds, which causes problems for native speakers of German in their acquisition of Dutch, since German contrasts only two labiodentals. The present study investigates the perception of the Dutch labiodental fricative system by German L2 learners of Dutch and shows that native Germans with no or little knowledge of the Dutch language categorize the Dutch labiodental voiced fricative and approximant as their native voiced fricative. Advanced learners, however, succeed in acquiring a category for the voiced fricative, illustrating that plasticity in the perception of a second language develops with the amount of exposure to the language.
This paper addresses remarks made by Flemming (2003) to the effect that his analysis of the interaction between retroflexion and vowel backness is superior to that of Hamann (2003b). While Hamann maintained that retroflex articulations are always back, Flemming adduces phonological as well as phonetic evidence to prove that retroflex consonants can be non-back and even front (i.e. palatalised). The present paper, however, shows that the phonetic evidence fails under closer scrutiny. A closer consideration of the phonological evidence shows, by making a principled distinction between articulatory and perceptual drives, that a reanalysis of Flemming’s data in terms of unviolated retroflex backness is not only possible but also simpler with respect to the number of language-specific stipulations.
The present study shows that though retroflex segments can be considered articulatorily marked, there are perceptual reasons why languages introduce this class into their phoneme inventory. This observation is illustrated with the diachronic developments of retroflexes in Norwegian (North- Germanic), Nyawaygi (Australian) and Minto-Nenana (Athapaskan). The developments in these three languages are modelled in a perceptually oriented phonological theory, since traditional articulatorily-based features cannot deal with such processes.
This paper reconciles the standpoint that language users do not aim at improving their sound systems with the observation that languages seem to improve their sound systems. Computer simulations of inventories of sibilants show that Optimality-Theoretic learners who optimize their perception grammars automatically introduce a so-called prototype effect, i.e. the phenomenon that the learner’s preferred auditory realization of a certain phonological category is more peripheral than the average auditory realization of this category in her language environment. In production, however, this prototype effect is counteracted by an articulatory effect that limits the auditory form to something that is not too difficult to pronounce. If the prototype effect and the articulatory effect are of a different size, the learner must end up with an auditorily different sound system from that of her language environment. The computer simulations show that, independently of the initial auditory sound system, a stable equilibrium is reached within a small number of generations. In this stable state, the dispersion of the sibilants of the language strikes an optimal balance between articulatory ease and auditory contrast. The important point is that this is derived within a model without any goal-oriented elements such as dispersion constraints.
In Ocotepec Mixe, the stem-initial sibilants /s tÉs ß/ undergo a palatalization process when the prefix /j/ is added. Descriptions of other Mixe languages report that this palatalization is realized either as addition of a glide (in the case of the alveolar and retroflex sibilants) or as a change in the primary place of articulation (in the case of the affricate). The acoustic measurements in the present study indicate that all palatalized sibilants in Ocotepec have an additional glide, unless they are followed by the high front vowel(s) /i (e)/, and that both the affricate and retroflex fricative show a consistent change in primary place of articulation under palatalization.
The present article illustrates that the specific articulatory and aerodynamic requirements for voiced but not voiceless alveolar or dental stops can cause tongue tip retraction and tongue mid lowering and thus retroflexion of front coronals. This retroflexion is shown to have occurred diachronically in the three typologically unrelated languages Dhao (Malayo-Polynesian), Thulung (Sino-Tibetan), and Afar (East-Cushitic). In addition to the diachronic cases, we provide synchronic data for retroflexion from an articulatory study with four speakers of German, a language usually described as having alveolar stops. With these combined data we supply evidence that voiced retroflex stops (as the only retroflex segments in a language) did not necessarily emerge from implosives, as argued by Haudricourt (1950), Greenberg (1970), Bhat (1973), and Ohala (1983). Instead, we propose that the voiced front coronal plosive /d/ is generally articulated in a way that favours retroflexion, that is, with a smaller and more retracted place of articulation and a lower tongue and jaw position than /t/.
Experimental data shows that adult learners of an artificial language with a phonotactic restriction learned this restriction better when being trained on word types (e.g. when they were presented with 80 different words twice each) than when being trained on word tokens (e.g. when presented with 40 different words four times each) (Hamann & Ernestus submitted). These findings support Pierrehumbert’s (2003) observation that phonotactic co-occurrence restrictions are formed across lexical entries, since only lexical levels of representation can be sensitive to type frequencies.
We show that loanword adaptation can be understood entirely in terms of phonological and phonetic comprehension and production mechanisms in the first language. We provide explicit accounts of several loanword adaptation phenomena (in Korean) in terms of an Optimality-Theoretic grammar model with the same three levels of representation that are needed to describe L1 phonology: the underlying form, the phonological surface form, and the auditory-phonetic form. The model is bidirectional, i.e., the same constraints and rankings are used by the listener and by the speaker. These constraints and rankings are the same for L1 processing and loanword adaptation.
At the outset of this dissertation one might pose the question why retroflex consonants should still be of interest for phonetics and for phonological theory since ample work on this segmental class already exists. Bhat (1973) conducted a quite extensive study on retroflexion that treated the geographical spread of this class, some phonological processes its members can undergo, and the phonetic motivation for these processes. Furthermore, several phonological representations of retroflexes have been proposed in the framework of Feature Geometry, as in work by Sagey (1986), Pulleyblank (1989), Gnanadesikan (1993), and Clements (2001). Most recently, Steriade (1995, 2001) has discussed the perceptual cues of retroflexes and has argued that the distribution of these cues can account for the phonotactic restrictions on retroflexes and their assimilatory behaviour. Purely phonetically oriented studies such as Dixit (1990) and Simonsen, Moen & Cowen (2000) have shown the large articulatory variation that can be found for retroflexes and hint at the insufficiency of existing definitions.
The present study argues that variation across listeners in the perception of a non-native contrast is due to two factors: the listener-specic weighting of auditory dimensions and the listener-specic construction of new segmental representations. The interaction of both factors is shown to take place in the perception grammar, which can be modelled within an OT framework. These points are illustrated with the acquisition of the Dutch three-member labiodental contrast [V v f] by German learners of Dutch, focussing on four types of learners from the perception study by Hamann and Sennema (2005a).
A common topic in recent literature on phonology is the question of whether phonological processes and segments are licensed by prosodic position or by perceptual cues. The former is the traditional view, as represented by e.g. Lombardi (1995) and Beckman (1998), and holds that segments occur in specific prosodic positions such as the coda. In a licensing by cue approach, as represented by Steriade (1995, 1999), on the other hand, segments are assumed to occur in those positions only where their perceptual cues are prominent, independent of the prosodic position. In positions where the cues are not salient, neutralization occurs.
Die Orthographie ist ein wichtiger Baustein des Fremdsprachenunterrichts, in der Schreiberwerbsforschung im Fremdsprachenkontext konzentrierte man sich dagegen auf Phänomene der Textgestaltung (z.B. Portman 1991). Es wird eine korpusbasierte Untersuchung von Orthographiefehlern in Texten fortgeschrittener Lernender des Deutschen als Fremdsprache (DaF) vorgestellt. Als Datengrundlage dient das Lernerkorpus Falko (fehlerannotiertes Lernerkorpus), ein Gemeinschaftsprojekt der Freien Universität und der Humboldt Universität Berlin (http://www2.hu-berlin.de/korpling/projekte/falko/FalkoKernBeschreibung.pdf). In diesem Korpus werden sog. Wortschreibungsfehler (vgl. Eisenberg 2004) analysiert werden. Die Untersuchung geht von der Annahme aus, dass sich, abgesehen von direkten Übertragungen, die Beschaffenheit der Orthographie einer Muttersprache (L1) nicht signifikant auf die Lernerorthographie (die Orthographie der Zielsprache) auswirkt. Diese Annahme soll an ausgewählten Wortschreibungsfehlern überprüft werden, so z.B. an fehlerhaften Dehnungs- und Schärfungsmarkierungen englischer DaF-Lernender. Sollte die L1 einen nachweisbaren Einfluss auf die Lernerorthographie haben, so müssten bspw. signifikant mehr Fehler bei der dem Englischen unbekannten Dehnungsgraphie mit Dehnungs-h auftreten als bei der dem Englischen bekannten Schärfungsgraphie mithilfe von Konsonantendopplung im Silbengelenk. Die Ergebnisse der Korpusuntersuchung werden in einem spracherwerbstheoretischen Rahmen diskutiert werden.
Iranica Armeno-Iberica : Studien zu den iranischen Lehnwörtern im Armenischen und Georgischen
(1993)
Enthält die beiden Bände: [Hauptbd.] Materialien. Die hier vorgelegten Untersuchungen zeigen deutlich, daß das Problem der Herkunft iranischer Lehnwörter im Altgeorgischen in keiner Weise pauschal abgehandelt werden kann, und daß statt dessen jeder Einzelfall einer eigenen Uberprüfung bedarf. Dennoch zeichnen sich auf ihrer Basis bereits neue Ansätze für eine Lösung der anstehenden Problematik ab. Die Sprachwissenschaft war bisher davon ausgegangen, daß ein mitteliranisches Lexem im Georgischen normalerweise "via armeniaca" entlehnt wurde; wer für eine direkte Übernahme aus dem Mitteliranischen argumentieren wollte, mußte Kriterien heranziehen, die gegen eine armen. Vermittlung sprachen. Akzeptiert wurden in diesem SInne v.a. Wörter, die im Armenischen selbst nicht bezeugt waren, ferner aber auch solche, deren Lautstand im Georgischen und Armenischen Differenzen aufwies. Bei einem Paar wie arm. apizar und georg. abezar- ist dies zwar sicher zutreffend, da sich das armen. und das georg. Wort durchaus zwei verschiedenen miran. Strata zuweisen lassen. Immer dann, wenn die lautlichen Unterschiede eine Folge der innerarm. Vokalschwächung darstellen wie etwa im Falle von arm. visap und georg. veSap- < miran. *vesäp oder arm. ankoyz und georg. nigoz- < miran. *nigoz-, hat das letztere Kriterium jedoch keine entscheidende Aussagekraft, da das Georgische in solchen Fällen den früheren Lautstand des armen. Wortes bewahrt haben könnte; die betreffenden Fälle wären dann als Entlehnungen aus einem vorhistorischen Zustand des Armenischen aufzufassens . Die gleiche Annahme kann, zumindest im Falle parthiseher Entlehnungen, auch gegen das erstgenannte Kriterium ins Feld geführt werden, da das Fehlen eines Lehnwortes im Armenischen immer durch seinen Verlust in vorhistorischer Zeit erklärbar ist. Ein solcher Fall könnte z.B. bei dem hier behandelten Ifaran- gegeben sein, wenn man die vorgeschlagene iran. Etymologie akzeptiert, nach der das Wort die typisch "armen." Vertretung von miran. -0- durch -r- aufweisen müßte. Außerdem kann das Fehlen eines iran. Etymons im Armenischen prinzipiell auch auf einer zufalligen Nichtbezeugung beruhen. Auf der Basis dieses methodologischen Dilemmas bleibt die Entscheidung v.a. im Bereich der zahlreichen parth. Entlehnungen letztlich eine Glaubensfrage. Die hier vorgelegten Untersuchungen legen gegenüber dem als unzureichend erweisbaren älteren Verfahren nun ein umgekehrtes Vorgehen nahe. Sie führen zu der methodoIogischen Forderung, ein mitteliran. Wort im Altgeorgischen prinzipiell als eigenständige Entlehnung anzusehen, wenn nicht spezifische Kriterien für eine Übernahme aus dem Armenischen sprechen. ...
Relating propositions : subordination and coordination strategies in a polysynthetic language
(1998)
This paper discusses the relationship between the morphological structure of language and its syntactic structure. Although it is primarily a single language which is analysed in detail, namely, Inuktitut, an Eskimo language of the Canadian Eastern Arctic, the findings seem to be of general relevance.
In the following I will discuss grammatical structures of Inuktitut, an Eskimo language spoken in the Canadian Eastern Arctic. Inuktitut is a polysynthetic language exhibiting an exceedingly elaborate verbal inflectional system including polypersonal marking. Furthermore, Inuktitut features free word order and optionality of noun phrases crossreferenced with the predicate. But Inuktitut also exhibits a number of features which seem to contradict the possibility of its being a "pronominal argument language" -- or as I would prefer to express it, a morphological argument language.
Research on a variety of structurally different languages suggests that information is assigned to grammatical form in way of preferred representations of arguments. These preferences can be captured by four interacting constraints which are based on the analysis of spoken and written discourse. These constraints represent measurable discourse preferences: pragmatically unmarked utterances seem to follow them blindly and widely. Consequently, the preferences motivating these constraints seem to represent the default structuring of discourse in immediate relation to elementary grammatical form. Discourse is no longer viewed as acting upon grammatical form, but as being ‘grammatical’ itself.
The Inuit inhabit a vast area of--from a European point of view--most inhospitable land, stretching from the northeastern tip of Asia to the east coast of Greenland. Inuit peoples have never been numerous, their settlements being scattered over enormous distances. But nevertheless, from an ethnological point of view, all Inuit peoples shared a distinct culture, featuring sea mammal and caribou hunting, sophisticated survival skills, technical and social devices, including the sharing of essential goods and strategies for minimizing and controlling aggression.
Inuktitut : Affixliste
(2003)
Sprachwandel
(2004)
Nicht zuletzt durch die Entwicklung und Verbreitung der sogenannten Neuen Medien ist das Thema 'Medialität' im gesamten Bereich der Geistes- und Kulturwissenschaften virulent geworden. Im Rahmen der aktuellen Diskurse um den Begriff des Mediums ist zu beobachten, daß dieser Ausdruck häufig unterschiedslos auf so verschiedene Referenzobjekte wie Internet, Fernsehen, Printmedien, Computer, Schrift, Bilder, Schallwellen u. v. a. bezogen wird. Das Medium orale Sprache gerät dabei sonderbarerweise häufig aus dem Blickfeld. - Warum ist dies so?
Woher kommt das neuerwachte Interesse an Sprachrichtigkeit? Woher kommt die ausgeprägte sprachliche Unsicherheit, die auch bei vielen hochgebildeten Menschen den Wunsch entstehen lässt, von Sprachpflegern über ihr Ureigenstes, nämlich ihre Muttersprache, belehrt zu werden? Obwohl Antworten auf diese Fragen letztlich spekulativ bleiben, wage ich doch die These, dass eine Ursache hierfür die Rechtschreibreform ist, die von einem Großteil der Bevölkerung nach wie vor nicht angenommen wird, die insgesamt weder zur Vereinfachung noch zu einer höheren Einheitlichkeit geführt hat; die aber andererseits ein öffentliches Nachdenken und Diskutieren über Sprachrichtigkeit in Gang setzte. – Jedenfalls ist die Verunsicherung ein Faktum, das von Linguisten nicht ignoriert werden sollte.
Ausgangspunkt: Die Kritik am "Zwei-Welten-Modell": Die grundlegende linguistische Unterscheidung zwischen "Sprache" und "Sprechen" ist im Rahmen der neueren Debatten um Sprachmedialität wieder verstärkt thematisiert und kritisiert worden. Lässt sich dieses schulbildende, in der Linguistik geradezu eherne Begriffspaar überhaupt noch sinnvollerweise aufrechterhalten? Oder muss es mindestens umdefiniert, vielleicht sogar gänzlich verworfen werden? Hat sich insbesondere die auf Chomsky zurückgehende Unterscheidung von Sprachkompetenz und -performanz nicht von selbst ad absurdum geführt, nachdem der linguistische Kognitivismus chomskyscher Provenienz Sprache als lebendiges Phänomen, als Medium menschlicher Kommunikation, vollständig aus dem Blick verloren hat? Führt nicht schon die scheinbar harmlose linguistische Differenzierung zwischen einer Sprachregel und ihrer Anwendung zu einer irreführenden und unangemessenen Verdinglichung von Sprache? ...
Die Themen Sprachrichtigkeit und Sprachidentität haben in Deutschland seit einiger Zeit Hochkonjunktur. Der 'Sprachpfleger' Bastian Sick, in der massenmedialen Berichterstattung stereotyp als gleichermaßen "kompetent" wie "lustig" und "gar nicht oberlehrerhaft" angepriesen, verkauft seine Kolumnensammlungen millionenfach und füllt bei seinen Lesungen mühelos ganze Konzertsäle. Der Verein Deutsche Sprache, Speerspitze der Anglizismenkritik im deutschsprachigen Raum, hat nach eigenen Angaben mittlerweile fast 30.000 Mitglieder. Betrachtet man diese Protagonisten des öffentlichen Sprachdiskurses aus linguistischer Perspektive, so stellt man fest, dass sich die von ihnen propagierte Sprachauffassung in der Regel an einer alten Metapher orientiert – der biologistischen Metapher von Sprache als einem Organismus: Ein Organismus kann geboren werden und sterben; er kann krank werden und verfallen, er ist – um es mit einem Ausdruck von Jürgen Spitzmüller zu sagen – eine klar "abgrenzbare Einheit". Ein Sprachsystem erscheint somit als ein abgeschlossenes organisches Gebilde, welches es zu erhalten gilt und das durch schädliche Einflüsse von außen in seiner Identität gefährdet ist.
The medium of (oral) language is mostly disregarded (or overlooked) in contemporary media theories. This "ignoring of language" in media studies is often accompanied by an inadequate transport model of communication, and it converges with an "ignoring of mediality" in mentalistic theories of language. In the present article it will be argued that this misleading opposition of language and media can only be overcome if one already regards oral language, not just written language, as a medium of the human mind. In my argumentation I fall back on Wittgenstein’s conception of language games to try to show how Wittgenstein’s ideas can help us to clear up the problem of the mediality of language and also to show to what extent the mentalistic conception of Chomskyan provenance cannot be adequate to the phenomenon of language.
Ziel des vorliegenden Aufsatzes ist es, zu einer neuerlichen Diskussion der Begriffe 'Medium' und 'Kommunikation' in der Linguistik beizutragen. Dabei versuche ich insbesondere, den philosophisch-kulturwissenschaftlichen Diskurs, in welchem die Themen 'Medialität' und 'Perfonnanz' seit längerer Zeit intensiv diskutiert werden, zu dem in der Angewandten Linguistik geläufigen Modell der Kommunikationsformen in Beziehung zu setzen und Möglichkeiten einer Verbindung dieser beiden Diskurse zumindest anzudeuten. Der Aufsatz gliedert sich in vier Abschnitte: Zunächst werden einige geläufige Mediendefinitionen vorgestellt. Im zweiten Kapitel stelle ich dann die Frage 'Ist Kommunikation ein Transportvorgang?', um auf dieser Grundlage im dritten Kapitel eine alternative Medienkonzeption vorzustellen. Im letzten Kapitel wird dieser Medienbegriff dann sowohl vom Begriff des Zeichensystems, als auch von dem der Kommunikationsform abgegrenzt.
Sprache als kranker Organismus : linguistische Anmerkungen zum Spiegel-Titel "Rettet dem Deutsch!"
(2007)
Als ich im Juli 2002 vor der Philosophischen Fakultät der Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf meinen Habilitationsvortrag über populäre Anglizismenkritik hielt, ahnte ich noch nicht, zu welchen Aufgeregtheiten ich damit bzw. mit der Veröffentlichung im Sprachreport (4/2002: 4-10) und im Internet (http://www.phil-fak.uniduesseldorf.de/germ1/mitarbeiter/niehr/anglizismen. html) Anlass geben würde. Ich hatte in dieser Veröffentlichung aufgezeigt, dass die Kriterien, die der Verein deutsche sprache (VDS) zur Grundlage seiner sprachkritischen Beurteilung von Anglizismen heranzieht, nicht nur einer linguistischen Überprüfung nicht standhalten, sondern auch für die Sprachpraxis völlig ungeeignet sind.
Betrachtet man im Rückblick, welche linguistischen Themen in der jüngeren Vergangenheit die Öffentlichkeit bewegt haben, dann fallen einem vor allem die Rechtschreibreform, die Bestrebungen der feministischen Linguistik, die Klage über den Verfall oder Niedergang der deutschen Sprache und in diesem Zusammenhang auch Bedenken gegen einen übermäßigen Anglizismen-Gebrauch im Deutschen ein.
Noch nie haben vom Aussterben bedrohte Sprachen so sehr im Mittelpunkt linguistischer Forschung gestanden wie in den vergangenen zehn bis 15 Jahren. Seitdem sich die UNESCO das Thema zu Eigen gemacht hat, sind in Europa und Übersee verschiedene Förderprogramme ins Leben gerufen worden, die sich zum Ziel setzen, Bestandsaufnahmen, linguistische Dokumentationen und Initiativen zu unterstützen, um »endangered languages« zu bewahren oder sogar wiederzubeleben. Überall in der Welt sind seither Dutzende von Forscherteams unterwegs, um mit Computern, Tonbandgeräten und Video-Kameras Aufnahmen von Sprachen zu machen, von denen zu erwarten ist, dass sie das Ende dieses Jahrhunderts nicht »überleben« werden. Auch an der Universität Frankfurt stehen bedrohte Sprachen im Fokus linguistischer Forschung, wobei so unterschiedliche Weltgegenden wie der Kaukasus, Afrika, Sibirien und Südostasien im Mittelpunkt stehen.
Die nachfolgenden Sprichwörter sind von mir selbst unter den Bapedi gesammelt. Ich habe meine Kinderjahre unter diesem Volksstamm zugebracht und von frühester Jugend an als Missionarskind die Sprichwörter im Umgang mit meinen schwarzen Spielgefährten täglich gebraucht. Später habe ich als Lehrer über zwei Jahre tagtäglich und fast ausschließlich in dieser Sprache unterrichtet. Das Pedi hat verschiedene Dialekte. Ich habe die Sprichwörter aber in dem eigentlichen Pedi-Dialekt, der für alle schriftlichen Arbeiten der Missionare gebraucht wird, aufgezeichnet. Außer etwa 50-80 Sprichwörtern, die ich aus "Ditaba tsa Mechutachuta" einem von der Berliner Missionsgesellschaft herausgegebenen Pedi-Schullesebuch entnahm, sind meines Wissens die andern noch in keiner gedruckten Sammlung erschienen. Sie sind von mir persönlich mit Beihilfe von eingeborenen Hilfssammlern zusammengetragen) die von mir angeleitet waren. Beaconsfield bei Kimberley, den 23. Juni 1927. G. Kuhn.
The self-teaching hypothesis proposes that phonological recoding functions as a self-teaching mechanism enabling the learner to independently acquire an autonomous orthographic lexicon. Successful decoding encounters with novel letter strings provide opportunities to learn word-specific print-to-meaning connections. Although it may not playa central role in skilled word recognition, phonological recoding, by virtue of its self-teaching function, is regarded as critical to successful reading acquisition. This paper elaborates the self-teaching hypothesis proposed by Jorm and Share (1983), and reviews relevant evidence. Key features of phonological recoding include an item-based rather than stage-based role in development, the progressive "lexicalization" of the process of recoding, and the importance of phonological awareness and contextual information in resolving decoding ambiguity. Although phonological skills have been shown to be primary in reading acquisition, orthographic processing appears to be an important but secondary source of individual differences. This implies an asymmetrical pattern of dissociations in both developmental and acquired reading disorders. Strong relationships between word recognition, basic phonological processing abilities and phonemic awareness are also consistent with the self-teaching notion. Finally, it is noted that current models of word recognition (both PDP and dual-route) fail to address the quintessential problem of reading acquisition - independent generation of target pronunciations for novel orthographic strings.
Language planning for the Irish language in the Republic of Ireland has featured prominently in international language policy and planning literature over the years. Researchers in the field may not be up to date, however, with recent developments in the area of Irish language planning and their impact on the language ecology. This monograph describes the language planning situation in the Republic of Ireland in its historical and social contexts as well as delineating language policy and planning for the Irish language implemented over the past number of years, showing developments in education, community, media, religion and local politics.
Syntax-semantics interface
(2001)
In German, prosody interacts with quantifier scope. We investigate this interaction in inverse linking constructions. We present evidence from elicited production of linguistically naive speakers supporting the following two claims: 1) There are two kinds of inverse linking constructions of which only the prepositional type requires a marked intonation contour for inverse scope. 2) In the prepositional construction, a double focus contour is employed with inverse scope rather that a topic-focus (rise-fall) contour as previously assumed (Krifka 1998).
1. Für die Vertretung eines eine Nebenhandlung einführenden zweiten Rhemas im Satz lassen sich drei Haupttypen aufstellen: a) "finiter" Typus mit der fast ausschließlichen Vertretung durch Nebensätze; b) "nominaler" Typus mit der Vertretung durch Nominalbildungen, wie Partizipien und Verbalnomina, letztere mit vollständigem Paradigma und genitivischer Patiensbehandlung; c) "infinitivischer" Typus mit der Vertretung durch sogenannte "infinitivische Bildungen", die sich nach formalen und junktionalen Kriterien von den finiten Bildungen abtrennen lassen. Innerhalb der Haupttypen, spez. (da auf idg. Sprachraum dominant) innerhalb des "infinitivischen" Typus lassen sich die Einzelsprachen bzw. Sprachfamilien in Untertypen-Gruppen zusammenfassen. Dabei gibt es einheitliche und Misch-Typen, je nachdem, ob "infinitivische Bildungen" gleicher oder verschiedener Ausprägung vertreten sind. 2. Die Stufen entsprechen Zuständen auf dem Wege zur Erstarrung von rein nominalen Bildungen zu dem verbalen System zugeordneten "infinitivischen" Formen. Die Erstarrung eines nominalen Kasus zu einern "Absolutiv", d.h. einer nicht-nominalen und nicht-finiten Form mit koinzidenter Funktion (die Gleichzeitigkeit des zweiten Rhemas mit dem Prädikat angibt), hängt dabei an der Ubernabrne akkusativischer Rektion sowie der Herauslösung der Form aus dem paradigmatischen Zusammenhang. Die Erstarrung eines nominalen Kasus zu einem ("erweiterten") "Infinitiv", d.h. einer nicht-nominalen und nicht-finiten Form in mehreren syntaktischen und semantischen Funktionen (Subjekts- und Objektsfunktion, iussive und historische Funktion, hauptsächlich aber finale Funktion) zeigt sich ebenfalls an der Übernahrne akkusativischer Rektion und der Herauslösung aus dem Paradigma; dazu kommt aber noch, daß sich der Weg von der Abdeckung einer Funktion zu der mehrerer Funktionen bei dieser Formation nachvollziehen läßt: 3. Zu "Infinitiven" erstarrende Formen stehen ursprünglich in finaler Funktion. Der Übergang in die Objekts- bzw. Subjektsfunktion erfolgt in Verbindung mit prädikaten, die von solchen Verben repräsentiert werden, die der Form ihre finale Konnotation belassen, die aber gleichzeitig die Interpretation der Form als ("patientisches") Objekt bzw. als Subjekt ermöglichen. Dies ist der Fall bei vielen Verben, die man als "Modalverben" bezeichnen kann. Die Erstarrung der "infinitivischen" Formation ist vollzogen, wo die Interpretation als Objekt bzw. Subjekt obsiegt; hier kann die Form ins temporale wie diathetische System eingeordnet werden, und auch andere Funktionen abdecken. 4. Der Verlust der finalen Konnotation der Form macht es erforderlich, für die finale Funktion eine neue Vertretung zu bilden. Soweit hierzu wieder nominale, zu "Infinitiven" Übergehende Bildungen verwendet werden, liegt eine Restitution des durch den Haupttypus bestimmten Systems vor; ein Haupttypuswechsel, angezeigt durch die neue Abdeckung speziell der finalen Funktion durch Nebensätze, ist für den idg. Sprachraum selten (liegt z.B. beim Übergang vom Agr. zum Ngr. vor).
This paper addresses a set of issues related to language documentation that are not often explicitly dealt with in academic publications, yet are highly important for the development and success of this new discipline. These issues include embedding language documentation in the socio-political context not only at the community level but also at the national level, the ethical and technical challenges of digital language archives, and the importance of regional and international cooperation among documentation activities. These issues play a major role in the initiative to set up a network of regional language archives in three South American countries, which this paper reports on. Local archives for data on endangered languages have recently been set up in Iquitos (Peru), Buenos Aires (Argentina), and in various locations in Brazil. An important feature of these is that they provide fast and secure access to linguistic and cultural data for local researchers and the language communities. They also make data safer by allowing for regular update procedures within the network.
In this paper, we argue that difficulties in the definition of coreference itself contribute to lower inter-annotator agreement in certain cases. Data from a large referentially annotated corpus serves to corroborate this point, using a quantitative investigation to assess which effects or problems are likely to be the most prominent. Several examples where such problems occur are discussed in more detail, and we then propose a generalisation of Poesio, Reyle and Stevenson’s Justified Sloppiness Hypothesis to provide a unified model for these cases of disagreement and argue that a deeper understanding of the phenomena involved allows to tackle problematic cases in a more principled fashion than would be possible using only pre-theoretic intuitions.
Traditionally, parsers are evaluated against gold standard test data. This can cause problems if there is a mismatch between the data structures and representations used by the parser and the gold standard. A particular case in point is German, for which two treebanks (TiGer and TüBa-D/Z) are available with highly different annotation schemes for the acquisition of (e.g.) PCFG parsers. The differences between the TiGer and TüBa-D/Z annotation schemes make fair and unbiased parser evaluation difficult [7, 9, 12]. The resource (TEPACOC) presented in this paper takes a different approach to parser evaluation: instead of providing evaluation data in a single annotation scheme, TEPACOC uses comparable sentences and their annotations for 5 selected key grammatical phenomena (with 20 sentences each per phenomena) from both TiGer and TüBa-D/Z resources. This provides a 2 times 100 sentence comparable testsuite which allows us to evaluate TiGer-trained parsers against the TiGer part of TEPACOC, and TüBa-D/Z-trained parsers against the TüBa-D/Z part of TEPACOC for key phenomena, instead of comparing them against a single (and potentially biased) gold standard. To overcome the problem of inconsistency in human evaluation and to bridge the gap between the two different annotation schemes, we provide an extensive error classification, which enables us to compare parser output across the two different treebanks. In the remaining part of the paper we present the testsuite and describe the grammatical phenomena covered in the data. We discuss the different annotation strategies used in the two treebanks to encode these phenomena and present our error classification of potential parser errors.