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Flashmob, App, E-Bike, Gendermainstreaming, bloggen, skypen, gefaked/gefakt, geliked/gelikt, Coffee-to-go, Latte macchiato, Gnocchi, Yallah, Shisha oder Sushi – die beherrschenden Fremdwörter aus Wissenschaft und Alltag der Gegenwartssprache im 21. Jahrhundert sind englischen Ursprungs, im letzten Jahrzehnt auch zunehmend aus anderen modernen europäischen und außereuropäischen Sprachen entlehnt. Die Entlehnungsbedingungen dieser Wörter unterscheiden sich damit grundsätzlich von den Gegebenheiten, die für die Integrationsentwicklungen bei Gräzismen und Latinismen sowie für Gallizismen bestimmend waren. Während die Fremdwörter aus den drei bis ins 20. Jahrhundert hinein wesentlichen Gebersprachen über Jahrhunderte hinweg in mehreren Phasen schrittweise Eingang in die deutsche Sprache fanden und dabei durch einen kontinuierlichen, wenn auch nicht immer widerspruchsfreien Prozess orthografischer Normierung begleitet wurden, erfolgte die Übernahme einer Vielzahl von Anglizismen und anderer Neologismen erheblich schneller im Rahmen umfassender Internationalisierung und Globalisierung von Sprache und Gesellschaft. Die entlehnten Wörter bezeichnen zum allergrößten Teil neue Phänomene, Wortbedeutungen oder Sachverhalte, sie sind Indizien für fundamentale gesellschaftliche Veränderungen, die einen grundlegenden Sprach- und schließlich auch Schreibwandel zur Folge haben. Im Gegensatz zum Umfeld früherer Entlehnungen bieten normierende Texte wie Grammatiken oder Wörterbücher daher zunächst noch keine orthografische Orientierung. Stattdessen gewinnt das Internet, bestimmt von professionellen wie auch informellen Schreibern, sowohl als Bezugsquelle von Informationen als auch als Orientierungsrahmen für die Schreibung neuer Wörter eine immer stärkere Bedeutung. Anglizismen spielen dabei eine Sonderrolle: Sie werden sowohl von englischen als auch von deutschen Quelltexten aus rezipiert und zum Teil in ihrem gebersprachlichen graphemischen Status übernommen, zum Teil modifiziert.
The interpretation of traces
(2004)
This paper argues that parts of the lexical content of an A-bar moved phrase must be interpreted in the base position of movement. The argument is based on a study of deletion of a phrase that contains the base position of movement. I show that deletion licensing is sensitive to the content of the moved phrase. In this way, I corroborate and extend conclusions based on Condition C reconstruction by N. Chomsky and D. Fox. My result provides semantic evidence for the existence of traces and gives semantic content to the A/A-bar distinction.
A contrast to a trace
(2001)
For movement, such as quantifier raising, the three different structures illustrated in (1) are discussed in the recent literature.
(1) A girl danced with every boy
a. [every boy]x a girl danced with x (copy + replace)
b. [every boy]x a girl danced with [every boy] (copy)
c. [every boy]x a girl danced with [thex boy] (copy + modify)
In this paper, I'll call the proposal illustrated by (1a) the copy+replace theory since the movement is analyzed as first copying the moving phrase followed by replacing the moving phrase with a trace in the base position of movement. Chomsky (1993) and Fox (1999) argue against the copy+replace theory (1a) on the basis of Condition C data that show that moved material can behave as if it occupied the base position of movement. This behavior would, for example, be expected on the copy theory of movement illustrated by (1b), which also seems conceptually simpler than the copy+replace theory since it involves only copying without replacement. This conceptual advantage, however, is probably only apparent since a theory of the interpretation of structures like (1b) would probably be more complicated than for (1a). Standard assumptions about interpretation, at least, don't predict the right meaning when applied to (1b). For this reason, Chomsky and Fox propose what I'll call the copy+modify-theory illustrated in (1c). This proposes that copying is followed by a trace modification operation that replaces the determiner of the moved DP with something else. I assume that this is an indexed definite determiner, the interpretation of which is to be clarified below.
Why variables?
(1999)
This paper addresses the question of how sentence-internal semantic dependencies are computed? The kind of semantic dependency I am looking at is that between a so called "bound (variable) pronoun" and its binder illustrated in (1), where the dependency is indicated by a connecting line. With all the literature on the topic (see for example Partee 1973, Percus 1998), I assume that this case is the prototype of all semantic dependencies, and therefore any result for this case generalizes to all types of sentence-internal semantic dependencies.
This paper addresses the syntax and semantics plurals, and then applies it to reciprocal expressions. In the course of this investigation, I address two problems for the conventional view that a reciprocal makes essentially the same semantic contribution to the sentence as other noun phrases, but has an interesting internal structure. I will show that both problems are properties of plurality in general, and can be successfully explained along these lines. As a result, the paper is more about plurality in general than reciprocals though the goal of the paper is to account for the two problems relating to reciprocals.
Alle germanischen Sprachen haben in den nachchristlichen Jahrhunderten eine phonologische Umlautphase durchlaufen, allerdings mit je unterschiedlichen Resultaten. Dieser Umgang mit den Umlautprodukten wurde bisher nie vergleichend in den Blick genommen; vielmehr bekommt man in jeder Einzelphilologie den Eindruck, als habe die Umlautentwicklung nur so und nicht anders verlaufen können. Erst die historisch-kontrastive Perspektive erweist, dass sich drei Pfade systematisieren lassen: Der Umlaut wird konserviert (Isländisch), er wird eliminiert (Englisch, Niederländisch) – Schwedisch nimmt hier eine Zwischenposition ein –, oder er wird funktionalisiert (grammatikalisiert) und damit morphologisch ausgedehnt (Deutsch, Luxemburgisch).
Im Folgenden werden diese drei Wege nicht nur beschrieben, sondern auch begründet. Der konsequente Sprachwandelvergleich ermöglicht dabei das Verständnis von Zusammenhängen und erlaubt es, aus den Einzelphilologien abgeleitete Annahmen zu revidieren.
Textkompetenz in mehreren Sprachen : Forschungsergebnisse und weiterführende Forschungsansätze
(2014)
The article presents results of an empirical study which examines productive transfer in the area of text skills competence and the associated writing skill which could be attributed to the learners' contact with several languages. The research was conducted within the research project "Multilingualism in the Czech Republik: Learning and Teaching German after English." After a short presentation of the key concepts in the development of the study and a presentation of selected results, implications and a modell for further research in multilingual writing and on transfer processes between languages are introduced.
O objetivo principal deste artigo é apresentar uma visão geral dos resultados obtidos em uma pesquisa empírica envolvendo aprendizes adultos de alemão como língua estrangeira com conhecimentos prévios de inglês. O foco deste artigo recai sobre os processos envolvidos no ensino/aprendizagem de terceiras línguas, levando-se em consideração que a língua alemã é comumente aprendida como uma segunda língua estrangeira após o inglês. Os principais questionamentos da pesquisa estão baseados em processos de transferência positiva, bem como na interferência linguística observada em um grupo de 50 aprendizes de alemão dos níveis A1 a B1 do Quadro Europeu Comum de Referência para as Línguas. Ao que concerne a relação entre as línguas alemã e inglesa, a afirmação de que o inglês exerce um papel importante na aprendizagem de alemão pôde ser confirmada, sendo o parentesco etimológico entre as duas línguas um dos mais importantes fatores para se determinar a ocorrência de influência interlinguística. Por outro lado, a interferência linguística resultante da coexistência de ambas as línguas demanda o desenvolvimento de uma didática do plurilinguismo que compreenda métodos alternativos para o ensino/aprendizagem de alemão como segunda língua estrangeira no Brasil.
The aim of this paper is to give a unified account of the way that German demonstrative pronouns (henceforth: D-pronouns) like der, die and das behave (a) in sentences where they receive a coreferential interpretation, and (b) in sentences where they receive a covarying interpretation because they are in some way dependent on a quantificational expression – either via direct binding or indirectly, because the value they receive varies with the value that is assigned to the variable bound by an indefinite determiner.
In this paper I tried to demonstrate that the British films depicting football hooliganism could be viewed as glorifying violence. A considerably great number of scenes and a great amount of time devoted to the presentation of violence, together with the unpunished, painless and heroic aspects of such presentations are just one side of the glorifying coin. The other side is occupied with the deeper meaning of particular scenes or the general overtones of the films which seem to develop a tendency to present a hooligan firm as a family-like community that offers happiness and produces a strong feeling of belonging and solidarity that adds spice to the boring working or middle class life. Violent confrontations are depicted as a source of pleasurable emotional arousal that surpass other forms of enjoyment. Moreover, confronting other hooligans helps hooligans to construct hard masculine identity based on physical prowess. Finally, being a good fighter is a fast track to earning a reputation that provides hooligans with a sense of power and importance. Real hooligans starring in the films, thus potentially encouraging viewers to become “wannabe warriors”, is also of great importance. However, the way the audiences react to the on-screen presentation of violence with all its aspects is a topic for much broader research.
Several phenomena associated with the differences in the performance of novice interpreters and semi-professionals have been discussed in the paper. Particular emphasis was placed on the occurrence of imported cognitive load which strongly influenced the performance of the subjects also in places where no intrinsic difficulty had been detected. Nevertheless, too little evidence was provided to establish a more detailed pattern of imported cognitive load, which was due to the limited number of participants in the study. It would be possible to obtain more detailed data and comments from the participants by means of interviews conducted individually with the participants. It would allow asking detailed questions to the participants, which might be a more reliable method than the immediate retrospective accounts. Moreover, in the present study such variables as gender differences, age differences and the possible influence of other foreign languages were not taken into account. Perhaps these variables might shed some light on the issue of the management of cognitive resources. Also, the corpus gathered for the present study may be used for the investigation of other aspects of the SI performance.
In the sections that follow we shall be concerned with analyzing the semantic evolution of the noun cheek in the history of English. The semantics of the lexical item under scrutiny will be examined with reference to its two aspects, that is (1) the semantic potential of the analysed lexical unit in its primary, etymological sense (sense A) and its secondary senses (senses B > E), (2) as well as the secondary senses emerging from various phraseological units which echo the nominal sense B (henceforth B-related senses). The analysis proposed here continues the area of research initiated in Wieclawska (2009a, 2009b), Wieclawska 2010, Kleparski and Wieclawska (2010) and Wieclawska (2011), the target of which are semantic changes and phraseological productivity of lexical items variously related to the conceptual macrocategory BODY PARTS. The methodological apparatus employed here is the one that follows the theoretical frames developed by, among others, Kleparski (1996, 1997, 2002), Kieltyka (2008, 2010) that may be referred to as representing much cognitivistic spirit of semantic analysis.
Translation is a very broad, complex and multi-faceted phenomenon, encompassing much more factors than it seems at first glance. It is not just copying the words from the original work while changing the language, but it consists of a careful selection of appropriate phrases and expressions, combining them together in a skillful way while taking into consideration numerous aspects, one of them being the text type. The purpose of this article is, therefore, to present various text typologies and text types, specify their implications for translators and determine the role of the correct recognition of text type in producing a successful translation. This will be done on the assumption that a text type is one of the basic factors that allow the translator to recognise the function and purpose of the text as well as the author's intention. Thus, depending on the nature of these, the translator will inevitably resort to different techniques and strategies in order to successfully render the source text. Therefore, identifying the text type also helps the translator to select the appropriate translation strategy.
For reasons of space, we only discussed one text in which the metaphors used seem to take their root in the context in which it has been written. One text is definitely not enough to make any definite claims on how widespread this phenomenon is. Given what we know about the two domains - Food and taste - one has reasons to believe that when speakers/conceptualisers (e.g. journalists) describe something which stands in some relation to both, they may intuitively be reaching for taste metaphors of the kind described above on the premise that this kind of ‘ornamentation’ will add some spice to what the addressee might otherwise consider a trivial (and boring) topic. At the same time, taste is only one among many properties a particular item of food or a substance (e.g. sugar) has. In consequence, one may well imagine contexts in which it is not its taste, but other properties (e.g. what Harbottle [1997:183] refers to as its 'pure white and deadly’ image) that will make the conceptualiser reach for a particular linguistic or conceptual metaphor.
The aim of this article is to follow the changes that took place in the history of easy-to-please constructions. To fully apprehend that, we will begin by looking at Middle English infinitives and the change which affected them. Our attempt here is to prove that Early Middle English to was at its intermediate stage of development, i.e. it was neither a preposition nor inflection. In Late Middle English, to reached its final stage of a gradual evolution heading TR On account of the analysis of to and infinitives in Middle English, new constructions in which easv-to-please appear will be explained.