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This dissertation investigates several aspects of nominal modification in Ògè, an understudied language of Benue-congo spoken in Àkókó Northwest in Nigeria. The study focuses on two areas of nominal modification namely, Nominal Attributive Modifiers (NAMs) and the strategies of number marking.
The discussion and analysis of NAMs in the language reveal that Ògè belongs to the group of languages which lacks adjectives as a lexical category. NAMs are nominal and they
are derived from an existing lexical category namely, verbs. Predicative modifiers and NAMs have forms that are similar to the long and short forms (LF & SF) of adjectives in languages in which adjectives form an open class, for example, Russian, SerBoCroatian (BCS) and German.
Based on the Minimalist program, the dissertation reveals that unlike Russian, BCS, and German in which the discrepancies between the two forms of adjectives are related to definiteness (as in the case of BCS) and Agree, the discrepancies in the two forms of modifiers in Ògè are related to the fact that Ògè lacks adjectives and resorts into the nominalization of stative verbs in order to derive attributive forms. Using the analyses of adjuncts according to Truswell (2004) and Zeijlstra (2020), the dissertation proposes that NAMs are adjuncts in a modification structure while they are heads in possessive and genitive constructions. In addition, I propose that NAMs are attributive-only modifiers which modify the NP rather than
the DP.
The dissertation also investigates the strategies of number marking in Ògè. Unlike languages in which number marking is obligatory in the nominal domain (Hebrew, German, English),
nouns in Ògè are not always marked for number. This means that nouns in Ògè have general number. The general number nature of nouns in Ògè is like that of the nouns in modifying plural marking languages namely, Halkomelem, Korean, Yucatec Maya and Yorùbá. However, I argue that unlike the modifying plural marking languages in which the Number Phrase (NumP) is not projected, NumP is projected in the nominal spine of Ògè, claiming that NumP bears an
interpretable number feature which values the uninterpretable number feature in D. Argument in support of this comes from the interpretation of the noun in the presence of òtúro (an element which translates to the plural definite interpretation of the noun). I analyze òtúro as a plural determiner which occupies the D-head in the syntax of Ògè. The dissertation argues following Alexiadou (2019) that the locus of the occurrence of the marker of plurality in the nominal spine does not depend on its interpretation as a plural morpheme, rather, the locus of the occurrence of the element that is sensitive to the plural interpretation of the noun depends on other parameters which are definiteness, specificity and animacy.
Die vorliegende Arbeit diente der Gewinnung neuer Erkenntnisse über die historische Entwicklung und Typisierung von Fragesätzen. Die Analyse basiert auf Materialien verschiedener indogermanischer Sprachen (Griechisch, Armenisch, Gotisch, Altkirchenslavisch, Altrussisch) sowie einer außerindogermanischen kaukasischen Sprache (Altgeorgisch). Primär wurden Bibeltexte aus dem Alten und Neuen Testament anhand von Faksimileausgaben und elektronischen Textcorpora untersucht. Die Arbeit demonstrierte anhand von über 540 Beispielen, welche Kriterien, graphische oder grammatische Mittel, Fragewortstellung oder Satzgliederfolge, in den überlieferten Texten für die Entschlüsselung von Fragesätzen hilfreich waren. Für jede betrachtete Sprache wurde eine möglichst ausführliche Klassifikation der Hauptfragesatztypen vorgelegt. Ferner gehörte zum Untersuchungsobjekt der Arbeit die in den Fragesätzen implizierte Antworterwartung. Für die weitere Analyse dieser Erscheinung wurden die Fragesätze aufgrund ihrer formalen Kennzeichen für Antworterwartung und Bedeutung eingeteilt. Anhand des übereinzelsprachlichen Vergleiches war es möglich, die spezifischen interrogativen Charakteristika aufzuzeigen, die in den einzelnen Sprachen für die jeweiligen schriftlich fixierten Perioden typisch waren. Wenn relevant, wurden auch Daten aus jüngeren Sprachstufen herangezogen. Die zum Schluss vorgestellte Gegenüberstellung von indogermanischen und kaukasischen Sprachen war erforderlich, um nicht nur genetisch bedingte sprachspezifische Charakteristika von Fragesätzen aufzuzeigen, sondern auch allgemeinsprachliche spezifische Merkmale zu eruieren.
Die vorliegende Arbeit stellt die Phonologie, Morphologie und Syntax des Nyam, einer westtschadischen Minoritätensprache Nordostnigerias, dar. Es handelt sich um eine Erstbeschreibung, die im Zuge eines von der DFG finanzierten Projekts mit dem Titel „Das Nyam – Dokumentation einer westtschadischen Minoritätensprache“ durchgeführt werden konnte.
Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, eine grammatische Beschreibung des Nyam – eine bis dato unbekannte Sprache – vorzulegen. Mit nur ca. 5000 Sprechern ist sie schon im Hinblick auf die geringe Zahl, vor allem aber durch die regionale Dominanz der mit ihr genetisch verwandten Verkehrssprache Hausa, akut in ihrer Existenz bedroht. Zudem befindet sich diese Sprache in einer geographisch exponierten Lage, d.h. sie ist weitgehend von Benue-Kongo-Sprachen umgeben. Vor diesem Hintergrund kann die Dokumentation des Nyam einerseits den Nyam-Sprechern selbst zur Erhaltung ihrer kulturellen Identität und der damit verbundenen Traditionen dienen. Andererseits ist dieser wissenschaftliche Beitrag als Ergänzung zu den noch fehlenden Grammatiken innerhalb der tschadischen Sprachfamilie und im Besonderen der Bole-Tangale-Sprachgruppe zu sehen und kann als Grundstein zukünftiger Forschungen für vergleichende Arbeiten mit den benachbarten Benue-Kongo-Sprachen betrachtet werden.
This dissertation provides an analysis of Finnish prosody, with a focus on the sentence or phrase level. The thesis analyses Finnish as a phrase language. Thus, it accounts for prosodic variation through prosodic phrasing and explains intonational differences in terms of phrase tones.
Finnish intonation has traditionally been described in terms of accents associated with stressed syllables, i.e. similarly as prototypical intonation languages like English or German. However, accents are usually described as uniform instead of forming an inventory of contrasting accent types. The present thesis confirms the uniformity of Finnish tonal contours and explains it as based on realisations of tones associated with prosodic phrases instead of accents. Two levels of phrasing are discussed: Prosodic phrases (p-phrases) and intonational phrases (i-phrases). Most prominently, the p-phrase is marked by a high tone associated with its beginning and a low tone associated with its end; realisations of these tones form the rise-fall contours traditionally analysed as accents. The i-phrase is associated with a final tone that is either low or high and additionally marked by voice quality and final lengthening. While the tonal specifications of these phrases are thus predominantly invariant, variation arises from different distributions of phrases.
This analysis is based on three studies, two production experiments and one perception study. The first production study investigated systematic variation in information structure, first syllable vowel quantity and the target word's position in the sentence, while the second production experiment induced variation in information structure, first and second syllable type and number of syllables. In addition to fundamental frequency, the materials were analysed regarding duration, the occurrence of pauses and voice quality. The perception study investigated the interpretation of compound/noun phrase minimal pairs with manipulated fundamental frequency contours using a two-alternative forced-choice picture selection task. Additionally, a pilot perception study on variation in peak height and timing supported the assumption of uniform tonal contours.
This dissertation investigates a special class of anaphoric form, yè, in Ewe known as the logophoric pronoun. This research makes a number of novel observations.
In the first chapter, I introduce the reader to the phenomenon under investigation as well as provide information on Ewe and its dialects and, methodology. In Chapter 2, I present the pronominal system of Ewe which is categorised into strong and weak forms following Cardinaletti & Starke (1994) and Agbedor (1996). The distribution of pronouns is outlined which sets the tone for an overview of logophoric marking. In this respect, I present variations in logophoric marking strategies cross linguistically and show that Ewe differs significantly from other pronouns in this category. In an effort to explain the deviant case of yè, I entertain the idea that yè is a pure logophoric pronoun in the sense of Clements (1975) and thus, its additional de re and strict interpretation does not imply non-logophoricity.
Chapter 3 demonstrates that yè is sensitive to contexts which portray the intention of an individual. Following Sells (1987), the antecedent of yè must have an intention to communicate. I broadly categorize logophoric contexts into reportative (direct-indirect speech) or non-reportative (speaker’s mental attitude, reporter’s observation or background knowledge of a situation). Based on this categorization, indirect speech report (Clements 1975), dis- course units such as a paragraph or an episode (Clements 1975), and sentential adjuncts such as purpose, causal and consequence clauses (Culy 1994a) are reviewed. The logophoric pro- noun occurs in the complement of attitude verbs (Clements 1975), also termed logocentric (à la (Stirling 1994)) or logophoric predicates (à la (Culy 1994a)) as well as with non-attitudinal verbs (e.g. va ‘come’ or wO ‘do’ as in sentential adjuncts). I argue contra Clements (1975) and Culy (1994a) that yè can occur with perception predicates. I further provide three new instances of non-reportative contexts which are compatible with yè namely, as-if clauses, benefactive na clauses and alesi ‘how’ clauses. I show, corroborating previous studies that contexts which are necessary for the licensing of yè include all of the aforementioned except causal clauses. Among these contexts, the complementizer be or regarding cases where there is no be, an element in C (due to the Doubly-Filled-Comp Filter (DFCF) c.f. Chomsky & Lasnik (1977)), is sufficient to license yè. Following Bimpeh & Sode (2021), yè is licensed by feature checking (in the spirit of von Stechow (2004)): be bears the interpretatble [log] feature which checks the uninterpretable [log] feature of yè. I include a redefinition of logophoricity as pertaining to Ewe.
Given the disparity found in the literature concerning the interpretation of yè: Ewedome (pronounce EVedome) has only de se readings (Bimpeh 2019); while ‘pure’ Ewe, Mina (variety of Ewe spoken in Togo) Pearson (2015), Danyi (O’Neill 2015) and Anlo (pronounced ANlO) (Satık 2019) has de re readings; chapter 4 aims at lending empirical support to the ungoing discussion by verifying the interpretation of yè. Two acceptability judgment tasks were conducted namely, truth value judgment task and binary forced choice task. The results corroborates Pearson (2012, 2015) and others’ discovery that yè has a de re interpretation in the Ewedome (contra Bimpeh (2019); Bimpeh et al. (2022)), Anlo and Tonu (pronounced TONu) dialects of Ewe.
In chapter 5, I discuss the relation between logophoricity (yè, yè a) and Control (PRO). I show that yè may be restricted to a set of verbs which obligatorily require the morpheme a ‘potential marker’ (Essegbey 2008), in subject position. This set of verbs are those that are known as control verbs c.f. (Landau 1999) in English. As a result of this restriction, research such as Satık (2019) claims that yè a is the overt instantiation of PRO in English. According to the Ewe facts, it appears as though on one hand, yè and PRO share similar properties in logophoric contexts and on the other hand, yè in combination with the potential marker, a also share properties with PRO in subject control environments. Against this background, I discuss the relation between yè, yè a and PRO and show that neither yè in isolation nor yè in combination with a, contrary to Satık (2019), is the overt instantiation of PRO. I clarify that the potential morpheme a is not cliticised or combined with the logophoric yè. The two forms are seperate morphemes. The potential marker a only shows up in control environments because a sub-class of verbs require it for grammaticality purposes. As such, the property of de se-ness does not come from yè by itself, yè a or a but rather from the sub-class of verbs which require the potential marker a...
In literary translation 'correctness' is rarely ratified by linguistic rules; it is more often a question of what a sensitive translator feels to be correct. Intuition will therefore play a major part. This intuition is seen here neither as instinctive reaction prompted by experience, nor as native competence, but as an inquiring, self-moderating influence inspired by the language itself. It is treated in this respect as an informed intuition, that is, as having a linguistic base for sensitive judgement. This assumes that the literary translator is both a creative writer and his own critical reader as well as a fine judge of language potential. This line is applied to translating meaning and sense, transferring the very language, imitating the form and style, re-creating the features, and above all, to capturing those unique qualities of the original. After dealing with word-accuracy, the question of literary input demanded by form and style is examined. The treatment of language used for effect features in a section on Kafka. The merits and the problems of translating dialect as dialect for its own sake are looked at closely and in a positive way as are the possibilities of reproducing 'oddities' of language. The immense task of translating the language of Joyce ('Ulysses ') with all its vagaries and skilful manipulation of words is examined for the possibility of providing an accurate copy. The ultimate test of reproducing a uniqueness of artistic creation together with the profound thought which inspired it, is reserved for a section on Hopkins. While it is recognized that, owing to the constrictions imposed by the extreme and sensitive use of language, no translation can fully include all that there is in his poems, it might be possible to capture enough of their essence to give an impression of a 'German' Hopkins at work. A major objective throughout is the establishment of a linguistic base for the part played by intuition in literary translation.
This study identifies the language learning strategies associated with the achievement of higher levels o f oral proficiency in German for one hundred Irish third level students. It is one of the first studies of this kind to be conducted in Ireland and one of the very few, if any, conducted on third level learners of German. Furthermore, as well as identifying the strategies associated with higher levels of proficiency, the study also investigates how these strategies are used by learners displaying higher and lower levels of proficiency. It then explores the question of how the strategies associated with higher levels of proficiency contribute to the process of proficiency development, and how students perceive them as contributing to this process. Finally, the relationships between learner specific characteristics, strategic behaviour and proficiency levels are assessed. The experimental design combines a quantitative survey with in-depth interviews. The results indicate that orally more proficient students use more strategies more frequently. In particular, they use more cognitive, metacognitive and social strategies. Furthermore, they have a repertoire of approximately ten key strategies which they employ in a structured, purposeful manner and apply to a range of language learning situations. They are convinced that these strategies contribute to the development of proficiency, a view which is borne out by the quantitative findings. Finally, higher levels of motivation and more positive perceptions of personal proficiency levels are strongly associated with higher levels of both strategic behaviour and oral proficiency. These findings have significant theoretical and practical implications. Firstly, they demonstrate the importance of expanding the research framework in studies of this kind beyond the mere identification of the strategies associated with higher proficiency levels. Instead, as in this study, future research should incorporate questions relating to the process of strategy implementation by more and less successful learners and to relationships between the use of particular strategies and the process of foreign language acquisition. Secondly, the findings contribute to our understanding of the strategic behaviour of the orally more proficient student, and in particular the orally more proficient learner of German in an Irish third level context. This understanding relates primarily to the strategies these learners use, the way in which they use them and their attitudes towards their use. Such an understanding forms the basis of successful strategies based instruction in the language classroom.
Worum geht es in dieser Arbeit? Dies ist eine Arbeit über Websites. Darüber, wie sie gelesen und geschrieben werden und wie man das lernen kann. Da es in dieser Arbeit um Lesen, Schreiben und Lernen geht, fließen in sie sowohl Aspekte der Sprachwissenschaft als auch der Sprachdidaktik ein. Was will diese Arbeit? Diese Arbeit hat zwei Ziele, ein sprachwissenschaftliches und ein sprachdidaktisches. In sprachwissenschaftlicher Hinsicht sollen, auf der Grundlage einer gründlichen Analyse seiner Eigenschaften, die Besonderheiten des Lesens und Schreibens im World Wide Web herausgearbeitet werden. Aufbauend auf dieser Analyse sollen im sprachdidaktischen Teil der Arbeit die Kompetenzen ermittelt und in Beziehung zueinander gesetzt werden, die zur Erstellung von Websites notwendig sind. Das so entstehende Kompetenzmodell bildet die Basis für eine zielgerichtete, effektive und evaluierbare Umsetzung der Gestaltung von Websites in der Schule und die Grundlage für weiterführende empirische Arbeiten. Wie ist die Arbeit aufgebaut? Im ersten Kapitel der Arbeit wird die Entwicklung der technischen und strukturellen Formate geschildert, welche die Grundlage des Websiteformats bilden. Darauf aufbauend werden seine wichtigsten Eigenschaften beschrieben. Im zweiten Kapitel wird das Websiteformat von anderen kommunikativen Formaten abgegrenzt und mit Hilfe der besonderen Charakteristika, die es besitzt, sein überwältigender Erfolg erklärt. Im dritten Kapitel wird unter Rückgriff auf Ergebnisse der Leseforschung und empirische Untersuchungen zum Lesen im World Wide Web erarbeitet, welchen Einfluss das Websiteformat auf das Lesen von Texten hat und welche Unterschiede es zum Lesen von Texten in anderen kommunikativen Formaten gibt. Auf dieser Grundlage wird ein Bewertungs- und Analyseraster für die Lesbarkeit von Texten im Websiteformat entwickelt. Im vierten Kapitel wird auf der Grundlage verschiedener Modelle des Schreibprozesses dargestellt, was das Schreiben für das Websiteformat vom Schreiben für andere Formate unterscheidet, was dabei besonders beachtet werden muss und welche Entwicklungen für die Zukunft zu erwarten sind. Dabei werden, unter Berücksichtigung des in Kapitel drei erarbeiteten Bewertungs- und Analyserasters, Hinweise für eine sinnvolle Vorgehensweise bei der Gestaltung von Websites gegeben. Im fünften Kapitel wird vor dem Hintergrund der aktuellen bildungspolitischen Diskussion ein Kompetenzmodell für die Gestaltung von Websites entwickelt, das als Basis für die Festlegung von Bildungsstandards und die Beschreibung der Rahmenbedingungen dient, unter denen diese in der Schule verwirklicht werden können. In einer abschließenden Diskussion werden die wichtigsten Ergebnisse nochmals herausgearbeitet und es wird auf Perspektiven für zukünftige sprachwissenschaftliche und sprachdidaktische Forschungsvorhaben hingewiesen.
Statistical machine translation (SMT) should benefit from linguistic information to improve performance but current state-of-the-art models rely purely on data-driven models. There are several reasons why prior efforts to build linguistically annotated models have failed or not even been attempted. Firstly, the practical implementation often requires too much work to be cost effective. Where ad-hoc implementations have been created, they impose too strict constraints to be of general use. Lastly, many linguistically-motivated approaches are language dependent, tackling peculiarities in certain languages that do not apply to other languages. This thesis successfully integrates linguistic information about part-of-speech tags, lemmas and phrase structure to improve MT quality. The major contributions of this thesis are: 1. We enhance the phrase-based model to incorporate linguistic information as additional factors in the word representation. The factored phrase-based model allows us to make use of different types of linguistic information in a systematic way within the predefined framework. We show how this model improves translation by as much as 0.9 BLEU for small German-English training corpora, and 0.2 BLEU for larger corpora. 2. We extend the factored model to the factored template model to focus on improving reordering. We show that by generalising translation with part-of-speech tags, we can improve performance by as much as 1.1 BLEU on a small French- English system. 3. Finally, we switch from the phrase-based model to a syntax-based model with the mixed syntax model. This allows us to transition from the word-level approaches using factors to multiword linguistic information such as syntactic labels and shallow tags. The mixed syntax model uses source language syntactic information to inform translation. We show that the model is able to explain translation better, leading to a 0.8 BLEU improvement over the baseline hierarchical phrase-based model for a small German-English task. Also, the model requires only labels on continuous source spans, it is not dependent on a tree structure, therefore, other types of syntactic information can be integrated into the model. We experimented with a shallow parser and see a gain of 0.5 BLEU for the same dataset. Training with more training data, we improve translation by 0.6 BLEU (1.3 BLEU out-of-domain) over the hierarchical baseline. During the development of these three models, we discover that attempting to rigidly model translation as linguistic transfer process results in degraded performance. However, by combining the advantages of standard SMT models with linguistically-motivated models, we are able to achieve better translation performance. Our work shows the importance of balancing the specificity of linguistic information with the robustness of simpler models.
This dissertation is concerned with the phenomenon of intervention effects, observed in three different domains: wh-questions, alternative questions (AltQ) and Negative Polarity Item (NPI) licensing. I propose that these three domains share some common properties, namely, they all involve focus-sensitive licensing, and are thus sensitive to an intervening focus phrase. The overview of the dissertation is as follows. In chapter 2, I discuss the phenomenon of intervention effects in wh-questions, brought to light in the discussion of German in Beck (1996), and Korean in Beck and Kim (1997). The basic idea of their analysis is that quantifiers block LF wh-movement. I show that intervention effects are observed in many other languages, too, suggesting that the intervention effect has a universal character. I then point out some problems with the analysis proposed by Beck (1996) and Beck and Kim (1997). In chapter 3, I propose a new generalization of the wh-intervention effects, namely that the core set of interveners, which is crosslinguistically stable, consists of focus phrases (and not quantifiers in general). Furthermore, I argue that the wh-intervention effect is actually an instance of the more general intervention effect, the "Focus Intervention Effect", which says that in a focus-sensitive licensing construction, no independent focus phrase may intervene between the licensor Op and the licensee XP. The underlying idea is that the Q operator is a focus-sensitive operator and that wh-phrases in-situ are dependent (i.e., semantically deficient) focus elements, which must be associated with the Q operator in order to be interpreted. An intervening independent focus operator precisely blocks that association. I further propose that the domain of focus-sensitive licensing includes not only wh-licensing, but also AltQ-licensing and NPI-licensing. In chapter 4, I show that alternative questions are also subject to the focus intervention effect, just like wh-questions. I provide evidence that the intervention effect in wh-questions and in alternative questions should receive a parallel analysis, in terms of focus-sensitivity. In chapter 5, I discuss a third construction which is sensitive to the focus intervention effect: the licensing of Negative Polarity Items (NPIs). I show that focus consistently blocks NPI licensing, with data from German and Korean. I propose that NPIs are also semantically deficient focus elements, which need to be associated with a NEG operator. Finally, chapter 6 summarizes the intervention effects and suggests some topics for future research into the precise nature of the intervention effect.