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This article is concerned with the specification and estimation of relationships whose dependent variable is qualitative in nature (such as "yes" or "no"). It discusses logit equations with and without interaction, and the estimation procedure is generalized least squares. Part I deals with dependent variables that take only two values, part II with variables taking more than two values, and part III describes informational measures for the explanatory power of the determining factors. The discussion of more advanced technical matters is contained in various appendixes.
An attempt has been made in this article to critically survey the field of low Reynolds number flows, with particular regard to the hydrodynamic resistance of particles in this regime. A remarkable burgeoning of interest in such problems has occurred wlthin the past decade. Significant advances have been recorded on both the theoretical and experimental sides, with the former gains far outdlstancing the latter m scope. Problems which would have been impossible to solve rigorously before the advent of singular perturbation techniques are now being regularly solved, though hardly in a routine fashion; insight, intuition, inspiration, and ingenuity are still the order of the day. For those interested in direct engineering applications of the material covered by this review, the perspective from which many of the more general results set forth here should be viewed is, perhaps, best illustrated by an example: The resistance of any solid particle to translational and rotational motions in Stokes flow may be completely calculated from knowledge of a set of 21 scalar coefficients (Section II,C,l). While it seems highly improbable to expect that all these coefficients could be experimentally measured in practice, except perhaps in the trivial case of highly symmetrical bodies for which many of the coefficients vanish identically, this does not detract from the conceptual advantages of knowing exactly how much one does not know. Having an ideal goal against which the extent of present knowledge can be gaged permits a rational decision as to how to optimize one's investment of time, effort, and money in the pursuit of additional data. Furthermore, with the development of high-speed digital computers it may soon be possible to calculate all these coefficients for any given body (O 1 b). The general theory provides a rigorous framework into which such knowledge may be embedded. Use of symbolic" drag coefficients" (Section II,C,2) and symbolic heat- and mass-transfer" coefficients" (Section IV,A) furnishes a unique method for describing the intrinsic, interphase transport properties of particles for a wide variety of boundary conditions. Here, the particle resistance is characterized by a partial differential operator that represents its intrinsic resistance to vector or scalar transfer, independently of the physical properties of the fluid, the state of motion of the particle, or of the unperturbed velocity or temperature fields at infinity. Though restricted as yet in applicability, the general ideas underlying the existence of these operators appear capable of extension in a variety of ways. A recurrent theme arising throughout the analysis pertains to the screwlike properties of particles and of their intrinsic right- and left-handedness (Sections II,C, 1; II,C,2; III,C and IV,B). Such properties reflect an inseparable coupling between the translational and rotational motions of the particle. Helicoidally isotropic particles furnish the simplest examples of bodies manifesting screw-like behavior. These particles are isotropic, in that their properties are the same in all directions. Yet they possess a sense, and spin as they settle in a fluid. These id eas are likely to be of interest to microbiologists, biophysicists, geneticists, and others in the life sciences for whom handedness and life are intimately intertwined. The microscopic dimensions of the objects of interest to them insures ipso Jacto that the motion takes place at very small Reynolds numbers. Readers interested in an elementary but broad survey of sense in the physical and biological sciences are referred to Gardner's delightful book "The Ambidextrous Universe" (01). First-order corrections to the Stokes force on a particle, arising from wallor inertial-effects, can be directly expressed in terms of the Stokes force on the body in the absence of such effects. Thus, with regard to wall-effects in the Stokes regime, Eq. (135) expresses the force experienced by a particle falling in, say, a circular cylinder, in terms of the comparable force experienced by the particle when falling with the same velocity and orientation in the unbounded fluid. Equation (139) expresses a similar relationship for the torque on a rotating particle in a circular cylinder, as does Eq. (166) for the first-order interaction between two particles in an unbounded fluid in terms of the properties of the individual particles. Analogously, Eq. (234) expresses the inertial correction to the Stokes drag force in terms of the Stokes force itself. A comparable relationship exists (Section IV, A) between the heat-transfer coefficient at small, nonzero Peelet numbers and the heat-transfer coefficient at zero Peelet number-that is, the coefficient for conduction heat transfer. Finally, Eqs. (78)-(79) (or their symbolic operator counterparts) permit direct calculation of the Stokes force and torque experienced by a particle in an arbitrary field of flow solely from knowledge of the elementary solutions of Stokes equations for translation and rotation of the particle in a fluid at rest at infinity. The utility of already available knowledge is thus greatly extended by the existence of such relations. It permits one whose interests lie entirely in the macroscopic manifestation of the motion, e.g., the force and torque on the body, to bypass the oftentimes difficult problem of obtaining a detailed solution of the equations of motion, and to proceed directly to the computation of the force and torque on the body from the prescribed boundary conditions alone. The calculation is thereby reduced to a quadrature. The contents of this review may be read simultaneously from two different points of view. First and foremost it may be regarded as a compendium of recent advances in low Reynolds number flows. Secondly, from a pedagogic viewpoint it may be profitably used to illustrate the direct application of invariant techniques, that is, vector-polyadic and tensor methods, to a class of physical problems. Because of the relative simplicity and rich variety of physical problems associated with low Reynolds number motions, intuitive arguments may be employed to gain insight into the nature of polyadics and tensors; the role played by the concept of direction as a primitive entity is brought out here to a degree not usually found in standard works on tensor analysis.
Several types of symbolic weapons are portrayed in the hands of divinities on the most diverse artistic works of the third millennium, such as maces or sceptres, daggers, spears. hows and arrows. There is also a weapon which has a form similar to a sickle. Data referring to it may be found - in addition to the representations - in written sources. We learn from the Cy1. «A» of Gudea that the king, the en-priest of Ningirsu, was the first to reach the cedar mountains and fell the cedars with his big axe. He then made the SAR.UR, the «Floodstorm Weapon» of his god, the right hand of Lagas. The inscription of statue «B» tells us the Same. When Gudea built the temple of Ningirsu, the god aided him in reaching the cedar mountains from which he took gigantic logs to make a weapon for his god: the SAR.UR, having the power ofa flood storm and the SAR.GAZ, a mace with seven copper knobs.
In a joint enterprise, the ground water supplies in some Oases in UAR (namely El Kharga, El Dakhla, El Baharia and Siwa), in Wadi El Natrun (to the west of the Nile Delta), in Ayoun Mousa (West Sinai) and in some places along the Mediterranean Littoral, have been investigated. According to the dating of the water by the C14 method, the age of the artesian water from the Oases is between 25,000 and 40,000 years and the origin is obviously from rain water which fell and infiltrated within the "Nubian Sandstone" layers, occupying almost entirely the southern portion of the western Desert (the water underwent some evaporation before it disappeared in the subsurface as indicated from the loss of the 016). This process took place during one or more of the Pluvial periods which followed (and were not coincident with) the last "Würm" eustatic lowering of the Mediterranean. No infiltration water have presumably recharged the layers in question, so almost entirely fossil water reserves are tapped at present. The quantities of such reserves are unknown. More ancient waters, however, may be expected to the north of El Kharga and El Dakhla Oases. Such waters may- to their greater portions - enter these two oases from that direction. On the other hand, little or almost no water is expected to feed the reservoir from the opposite direction.
Neither classical scholars nor medical bibliographers have yet given adequate attention to Renaissance Latin translations of Galen. The German editors of the Corpus Medicorum Graecorum have concluded that detailed study of these versions will seldom aid materially in the reconstruction of the Greek text. Mediaeval Latin translations on the other hand, which are both literal and based On manuscripts some two to three centuries older than those used by the editors of the Aldine editio princeps, have been diligently studied by textual critics. The classical specialist tends therefore to underestimate the interest oflater versions for the historian ofideas, the medical historian and the professional bibliographer. Nevertheless, these translations provide material for the treatment of several topics not yet fully investigated: the rise and fall of Galen's reputation in the Renaissance; the relative importance attached to his works and their place in the contemporary medical curriculum, the attitude of the scholar-physicians to the task of translation, and their contribution towards the new medical terminology. A necessary task preliminary to any such investigation is the exhaustive listing of printed translations and editions, for the existing bibliographies are far from adequate. It is hoped that the present census, based on the holdings of just under a hundred libraries.
The Tanzawa mountainland consists of a pyroclastic complex chiefly of basic composition which is intruded by a large mass of quartz-diorite at the center. This complex, well-known as the Misaka series, is the products of largescale geosynclinal volcanisms which took place during the period from the latest Oligocene to the middle Miocene in age. As compared with other geologic units, the present complex is characterized by its unusually thick accumulation of pyroclastic rocks, and by the intense hydrothermal alteration of the rocks, furnishing us an excellent section of the so-called green tuff series in the southeastern region of the Fossa Magna. Also the development of the products of interesting metamorphism of the quartz-diorite to the surrounding pyroclastic rocks is a feature uncommon in the other green tuff series of the above region. The crustal movement occurring during the volcanisms, however, make the structure of this complex highly complicate. In addition, the topographically unfavourable condition of this mountainland causes great hindrance to the geological investigation of this complex. Accordingly, the true natures of the complex remain unknown both stratigraphically and petrographically. Since 1948, the writer has been studying on the complex distributed in the eastern region of the Tanzawa massif from the volcano-stratigraphical point of view, some of the results of which have been published as miscellaneous reports. The main scope of this paper is to describe the stratigraphy, petrography, and the tectonic history of this complex. In this paper are also discussed the characteristics of the volcanic activities and the alterations represented by the same complex.
Second April
(1959)
In the Maizuru zone nearly whole the Triassic successions are developed. The Scythian to Aniso-Ladinian strata make a continuous sequence, in which are distinguished three faunizones, Neoschizous-"Bakevellia", Hollandites-"Danubites" and Monophyllites, corresponding to Scythian, lower Anisian and Aniso-Ladinian, respectively. Main portion of the Ladinian series is lacking in this region. The earliest Carnian or Ladino-Carnian Arakuran age is newly proposed founded on the palaeontological and stratigraphical studies on the Arakura formation. In the next Sakawan (not Carnian) Nabae group, two and probably one more, faunizones are recognizable, Palaeopharus-Lima yataensis, Tosapecten-Pseudolimea, and Pleuromya-Neoschizodus. The Sakawan age is classified into two subages better than the three formerly proposed by K. ICHIKAWA. The Norian sediments are probably represented by the Nakaiso conglomerate bed, although barren in fossil. The Rhaetic strata are not found at all like other regions in Japan. From the facies-analysis, the Palaeo-Maizuru Bay during the Scythian to Aniso-Ladinian epochs and the Palaeo-Maizuru Inland Sea during the Carnian epoch are assumed. Finally, the orogenic history of the Triassic period in this zone is briefly stated.
Energy-budget studies
(1954)
One of the byproducts of World War II of which society is hardly aware is the new stage of development which the social sciences have reached. This development indeed may prove to be as revolutionary at the atom bomb. Applying cultural anthropology to modern rather than "primitive" cultures, experimentation with groups inside and outside the laboratory, the measurement of sociopsychological aspects of large social bodies, the combination of economic, cultural, and psychological fact-finding, all of these developments started before the war. But, by providing unprecedented facilities and by demanding realistic and workable solutions to scientific problems, the war has accelerated greatly the change of social sciences to a new development level. The scientific aspects of this development center around three objectives: (1) Integrating social sciences. (2) Moving from the description of social bodies to dynamic problems of changing group life. (3) Developing new instruments and techniques of· social research. Theoretical progress has hardly kept pace with the development of techniques. It is, however, as true for the social as for the physical and biological sciences that without adequate conceptual development, science cannot proceed beyond a certain stage. It is an important step forward that the hostility to theorizing which dominated a number of social sciences ten years ago has all but vanished. It has been replaced by a relatively wide-spread recognition of the necessity for developing better concepts and higher levels of theory. The theoretical development will have to proceed rather rapidly if social science is to reach that level of practical usefulness which society needs for winning the race against the destructive capacities set free by man's use of the llatural sciences. I should like to survey certain concepts and theories which have emerged mainly from experimental research. They concern: (a) Quasi-stationary social equilibria and social changes. (b) Locomotion through social channels. (c) Social feedback processes and social management. The last two of these will be dealt with in a later article. A cursory introductory discussion of certain aspects of the present state of affairs in social science is included here for those readers who are interested in the general background of these concepts and in the problems from which they have sprung.
If the Bosnian crisis of 1908-9 may properly be described as the dress rehearsal for 1914, the Austrian project, announced early in 1908, to construct a railway from the Bosnian border through the Sandjalc of Novibazar helped to set the stage. Part of the original program to link up the Ottoman realm with central Europc by iron highways, this line had been overlooked for decades as finance, engineering, and diplomacy spent themselves on the great trunk line, the Orientbahn, running like a backbone down the Balkans to Constantinople, with a branch connecting Nish with Salonica via Uskub. From Uskub a spur penetrated northward to Mitrovitza; another linked Salonica with Monastir. Though small in itself, the reappearance of the Novibazar scheme heralded the revival of the perennial Austro-Russian rivalry over the Near East in an acute form, sharpened international animosities generally, strengthened latent dreads of Teutonic hegemony over the Balkans, and gave an impetus to a plethora of competing railway projects. In spite of Austria's renunciation of her rights in the Sandjak as part of the settlement attendant upon the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, the railway plan was not abandoned, and until well along in 1909 hopes were cherished that the Sandjak road - even today unconstructed - would be built.
Some physical phenomena associated with the anxiety states and their relation to hyperventilation
(1937)
The authors believe that there is a physiological background for the perseverance of an anxiety state as part of a psychoneurosis; that this background is produced by the constant presence of purely emotional disturbances; and that the resultant physiological state aggravates the psychic component to such a degree that a vicioris cycle is instituted, the symptoms of which are manifold. These symptoms increase the severity of the emotional tension ; and, if they are prolonged, permanent structural change with the production of organic clisease results. The mechanism is at first a repetition of attacks, from the stimulation by an emotion such as fear upon the sympathetic nervous system, which in turn becomes increasingly labile. The mechanism is perpetuated by the effects of the simulus on the system of self-defense, which is dispatched by the endocrine group. This reaction causes a state of hyperirritability to exist through the presence of tissue alkalosis, tissue liydremia, and tissue anoxemia; and results in a state of tetany which may be regional or generalized. The Symptoms of tetany, and allied rnanifestations such ac tachycardia, distended stomach and dilated urinary bladder, are enough to aggravate the neurosis because of the patient's fear of impending dissolution. Multiplication of impulses increases the bombardment of the sympathetic nervous system, making repetition of tlie reaction more easy at subsequent intervals. The cure is accomplished through elimination of tlie fear-impulse by psychotherapy. The symptoms may be alleviated medically, and by this rneans that part of the neurosis which is on the basis of anxiety concerning health may be eliminated. Because of the subjective and objective improvement in the patient's condition, contact for psychotherapy is more easily obtained. Medical treatment is directed toward preservation of the acid-base balance; toward decreasing the effect of adrenalin on the nerve-tissue by means of a known chemical antagonist; or toward converting the state of tone of the individual from extreme to moderate, whether parasympathic or sympathetic in type.
Measurement
(1931)
Der Verfasser untersucht die formalen und materialen Voraussetzungen der Messung in der Physik. Insbesondere sucht er zu zeigen, daß die üblichen Formulierungen, die etwa besagen, daß eine Messung eine Korrelation zwischen Zahlen und nichtnumerischen Gebilden bedeute, oder daß eine Messung im Grunde auf die Feststellung einer raumzeitlichen Koinzidenz hinauslaufe, zum mindesten recht unvollständige Charakterisierungen des physikalischen Verfahrens darstellen; in der Arbeit wird eine genauere Analyse versucht. Diese geht aus von den formalen Eigenschaften der Größenordnung, die jeder Messung zugrunde liegt. Eine geeignete Formulierung dieser Eigenschaften bietet sich dem Verfasser in den zwölf "Axiomen der Quantität" die in der S. 315 angegebenen Gestalt von Hölder aufgestellt worden sind. ...
A new method of measuring compressibility and thermal expansions of liquids has been developed, in which the liquid is enclosed in a sylphon, which is then exposed to external hydrostatic pressure, and the volume change determined from the change of length of the sylphon. This method has been applied to 18 liquids at 0°, 50°, and 95° up to a pressure of 12000 kg, or to the freezing pressure, and the results are collected into extensive tables giving the volume as a function of pressure aand temperature over this range. In the discussion it is shown that small scale differences in the volumes of various isomers persist to high· pressures, and there is no simple connection between the relative densities at atmospheric pressure and at high pressure, The compressibility falls off rapidly with rising pressure, as was found in a preceding investigation. Two liquids are found to have the abnormally low compressibility of water. Thermal expansion also drops off by a large factor with increasing pressure, but not as much as the compressibility, as was also found before. The "pressure coefficient" (δp /δt) , is not a function of volume only, as has often been supposed, and suggestions are made as to the theoretical significance of this.
Guessing
(1929)
The report that follows gives the results of tests to deterrnine the compressive strength of artificial roof supports of various kinds used in the mining of anthracite in Pennsylvania. Some of the types tested also are used in bituminous coal mining in Pennsylvania and other parts of the United States. The report was rendered Bebruary 26, 1913, by the United States Bureau of Mines, then in the Interior Department, to the Pennsylvania State Anthracite Mine Cave Commission and was appended, without discussion, to the general report on mine caving made by that commission under date of March 1, 19 13, to the Governor and Legislature of Pennsylvanin. The commission's reporh remains unpublished. As numerous requests have been made for the test data obtained by the Bureau of Mines at its Pittsburgh Experiment Station in 1912-13 and as the data relate to the strength of artificial supports without reference to particular local places of application, they have permanent value in the designing of mine roof supports. It has therefore been deemed advisable to publish the results of the bureau's tests. In order that the reader may understand the reasons for makig these tests of roof supports and the procedure foIIowed by the Pennsylvania commission, its duties will be briefly described. The commission was created by an act of the Legislature of Pennsylvania, approved March 24, 1911, its members being appointed by the Governor of Pennsylvania under the terms of the act. There had been serious cave-ins of the surface in some of the cities and towns in the anthracite districts of Pennsylvania and particularly in the city of Scranton froin 1909 to 1911, destroying surface buildings, public and private, and seriously endangering life. ....
The results of the pre:lent investigation may be summarized as follows: (1) The heat content of carbon steels at high temperatures was determined by the mixture method, while the oxidation of the specimen was prevented by passing a purified hydrogen gas through the furnace. The specimens were twelve kinds of steels with different carbon contents from 0.09 % to 2.84 % and the range of temperature was 23~250°C. (2) According to A. Meuthen, the specific heat is constant below the A1 point, but the present writer showed that the specific heat is only constant above the A3 point, and that below this point, it increases with the rise of temperature. (3) The quantity of heat for the dissolution of pearlite in iron was determined by measuring the heat content above and below the A1 point. This heat increases proportionally with the content of carbon, reaches a maximum at 0.9 percent and ends at 6.7 percent. For the dissolution of I gr. of carbon in iron, a heat of 1760 calories is required, while, 16.1 calories are necessary for the dissolution of 1 gr. of pearlite in iron. (4) From the heat content-concentration curve, it was found that, the mean specific heat of cementite increases with the rise of temperature; it is 0.149 at 150°C and 02.20 at 850°C. (5) It was observed that the specific heat of the carbon poles with 98 %C increases almost linearly up to 700°C, and afterwards its rate of increase gradually diminishes. (6) It is confirmed by experiments that the A1 transformation is a function of temperature and time, but that the A2 transformation is a definite function of temperature only. (7) From the heat content-concentration curves, the heat of transformation from martensite to pearlite was obtained and found to be proportional to the carbon content. (8) The heat of transformation from austenite to martensite, or that from martensite to pearlite, increases proportionally with the content of eutectoid carbon. The heat of transformation from austenite to martensite for a eutectoid steel amOlmts to 5.9 calories.
Constructive waterfalls
(1911)
The excavation of valleys by waterfalls is one of the best known and most effective processes by which rivers cut down the surface of the earth. The influence of waterfalls is usually regarded as solely destructive, and as always helping to lower the land. They undermine and cut backward the rock faces over which they fall : by this recession they excavate deep gorges ; and the existence of these gorges enables the adjacent country to be lowered to the level of the valIey floors. The waterfalls, moreover, empty any lakes they rnay reach in their retreat, while the ravines below the falls may drain the springs and thus desiccate the neighbouring hihlands. Observations in various countries had suggested to me that waterfalls may sometimes be constructive in stead of destructive, and that they may reserse their usual procedure, advancing instead of retreating, filling valleys instead of excavating them, and forrning alluvial plains and lakes instead of destroying them. The best illustrations I have seen of such advancing, constructive waterfalls are on some rivers of Dalmatia and Bosnia, where they occur in various stages of development. ...
Biblical theophanies
(1911)
Architectural acoustics
(1906)
The foundations of dynamics
(1893)
Ephesus and its coinage
(1881)
The Semitic nations
(1874)
On seatangle tent
(1869)