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This article reports an investigation of how inhibition contributes to fluid reasoning when it is decomposed into the reasoning ability, item-position, and speed components to control for possible method effects. Working memory was also taken into consideration. A sample of 223 university students completed a fluid reasoning scale, two tasks tapping prepotent response inhibition, and two working memory tasks. Fixed-links modeling was used to separate the effect of reasoning ability from the effects of item-position and speed. The goodness-of-fit results confirmed the necessity to consider the reasoning ability, item-position, and speed components simultaneously. Prepotent response inhibition was only associated with reasoning ability. This association disappeared when working memory served as a mediator. Taken together, these results reflect the inhomogeneity of what is tapped by the fluid reasoning scale on one hand and, on the other, suggest inhibition as an important component of working memory.
Even though extensively investigated, the nature of working memory (WM) deficits in patients with schizophrenia (PSZ) is not yet fully understood. In particular, the contribution of different WM sub-processes to the severe WM deficit observed in PSZ is a matter of debate. So far, most research has focused on impaired WM maintenance. By analyzing different types of errors in a spatial delayed response task (DRT), we have recently demonstrated that incorrect yet confident responses (which we labeled as false memory errors) rather than incorrect/not-confident responses reflect failures of WM encoding, which was also impaired in PSZ. In the present study, we provide further evidence for a functional dissociation between confident and not-confident errors by manipulating the demands on WM maintenance, i.e., the length over which information has to be maintained in WM. Furthermore, we investigate whether these functionally distinguishable WM processes are impaired in PSZ. Twenty-four PSZ and 24 demographically matched healthy controls (HC) performed a spatial DRT in which the length of the delay period was varied between 1, 2, 4, and 6 s. In each trial, participants also rated their level of response confidence. Across both groups, longer delays led to increased rates of incorrect/not-confident responses, while incorrect/confident responses were not affected by delay length. This functional dissociation provides additional support for our proposal that false memory errors (i.e., confident errors) reflect problems at the level of WM encoding, while not-confident errors reflect failures of WM maintenance. Schizophrenic patients showed increased numbers of both confident and not-confident errors, suggesting that both sub-processes of WM—encoding and maintenance—are impaired in schizophrenia. Combined with the delay length-dependent functional dissociation, we propose that these impairments in schizophrenic patients are functionally distinguishable.
Previous research on working memory (WM) in children with poor mathematical skills has yielded heterogeneous results, possibly due to inconsistent consideration of the IQ-achievement discrepancy and additional reading and spelling difficulties. To examine the impact of both, the WM of 68 average-achieving and 68 low-achieving third-graders in mathematics was assessed. Preliminary analyses showed that poor mathematical skills were associated with poor WM. Afterwards, children with isolated mathematical difficulties were separated from those with additional reading and spelling difficulties. Half of each group fulfilled the IQ-achievement discrepancy, resulting in a 2 (additional reading and spelling difficulties: yes/no) by 2 (IQ-achievement discrepancy: yes/no) factorial design. Analyses revealed that not fulfilling the IQ achievement discrepancy was associated with poor visual WM, whereas additional reading and spelling difficulties were associated with poor central executive functioning in children fulfilling the IQ-achievement discrepancy. Therefore, WM in children with poor mathematical skills differs according to the IQ-achievement discrepancy and additional reading and spelling difficulties.
Over the last decade, the prospect of improving or maintaining cognitive functioning has provoked a steadily increasing number of cognitive training studies. Central target populations are individuals at risk for a disadvantageous development, such as older adults exhibiting cognitive decline or children with learning impairments. They rely on cognitive resources to meet the challenges of an independent life in old age or requirements at school.
To support daily cognitive functioning, training outcomes need to generalize to other cognitive abilities. Such transfer effects are, however, highly discussed. For example, recent meta-analyses on working memory training differed in the conclusion on the presence (Au et al., 2015; Karbach and Verhaeghen, 2014) or absence of transfer effects (Melby-Lervåg and Hulme, 2013). Usually training-specific design factors such as type, intensity, duration, and feedback routines are discussed as reasons for such inconsistent findings. However, even individuals participating in exactly the same training regime highly differ in their training outcomes. We argue that it is time to study the individual development during trainings to understand these differential outcomes. It is time to have a closer look at the intraindividual training data.
Based on a meta-analysis, Redick and Lindsey (2013) found that complex span and n-back tasks show an average correlation of r = 0.20, and concluded that "complex span and n-back tasks cannot be used interchangeably as working memory measures in research applications" (p. 1102). Here, we comment on this conclusion from a psychometric perspective. In addition to construct variance, performance on a test contains measurement error, task-specific variance, and paradigm-specific variance. Hence, low correlations among dissimilar indicators do not provide strong evidence for the existence, or absence, of a construct common to both indicators. One way to arrive at such evidence is to fit hierarchical latent factors that model task-specific, paradigm-specific, and construct variance. We report analyses for 101 younger and 103 older adults who worked on nine different working memory tasks. The data are consistent with a hierarchical model of working memory, according to which both complex span and n-back tasks are valid indicators of working memory. The working memory factor predicts 71% of the variance in a factor of reasoning among younger adults (83% for among older adults). When the working memory factor was restricted to any possible triplet of working memory tasks, the correlation between working memory and reasoning was inversely related to the average magnitude of the correlations among the indicators, indicating that more highly intercorrelated indicators may provide poorer coverage of the construct space. We stress the need to go beyond specific tasks and paradigms when studying higher-order cognitive constructs, such as working memory.
We examined whether positive transfer of cognitive training, which so far has been observed for individual tests only, also generalizes to cognitive abilities, thereby carrying greater promise for improving everyday intellectual competence in adulthood and old age. In the COGITO Study, 101 younger and 103 older adults practiced six tests of perceptual speed (PS), three tests of working memory (WM), and three tests of episodic memory (EM) for over 100 daily 1-h sessions. Transfer assessment included multiple tests of PS, WM, EM, and reasoning. In both age groups, reliable positive transfer was found not only for individual tests but also for cognitive abilities, represented as latent factors. Furthermore, the pattern of correlations between latent change factors of practiced and latent change factors of transfer tasks indicates systematic relations at the level of broad abilities, making the interpretation of effects as resulting from unspecific increases in motivation or self-concept less likely. Keywords: cognitive training, cognitive abilities, transfer, latent factors, working memory
We examined the neural signatures of stimulus features in visual working memory (WM) by integrating functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and event-related potential data recorded during mental manipulation of colors, rotation angles, and color–angle conjunctions. The N200, negative slow wave, and P3b were modulated by the information content of WM, and an fMRI-constrained source model revealed a progression in neural activity from posterior visual areas to higher order areas in the ventral and dorsal processing streams. Color processing was associated with activity in inferior frontal gyrus during encoding and retrieval, whereas angle processing involved right parietal regions during the delay interval. WM for color–angle conjunctions did not involve any additional neural processes. The finding that different patterns of brain activity underlie WM for color and spatial information is consistent with ideas that the ventral/dorsal “what/where” segregation of perceptual processing influences WM organization. The absence of characteristic signatures of conjunction-related brain activity, which was generally intermediate between the 2 single conditions, suggests that conjunction judgments are based on the coordinated activity of these 2 streams. Keywords: EEG, fMRI, source analysis, visual, working memory
Visual working memory (WM) and selective attention are fundamental cognitive mechanisms, both operating at the interface between perception and action. They are related because both are postulated to have limits with respect to how much information can be processed. Specifically, selective attention has been implicated as a limiting factor for the storage capacity of visual WM. However, visual WM and attention have been largely studied in isolation and interactions between the two have rarely been addressed. This dissertation aimed at investigating interactions between selective attention and the encoding of information into visual WM in the context of one common characteristic feature, namely their limitation in capacity. An experimental task was used that combined visual search with delayed discrimination and the demands on selective attention and WM encoding were manipulated orthogonally. In each trial participants were presented with a search array consisting of nine different grey geometric shapes. A small L-shaped item that appeared in one of four different orientations and that was coloured either blue or red was placed in the centre of each shape. Participants were instructed to search for predefined target items (Ls oriented 90°) and to memorise the shapes associated with these target items. After a delay phase a probe was presented and participants decided whether it did or did not match one of the memorised shapes. Attentional demand was manipulated by changing the search efficiency in the visual search component of the task (easy vs. difficult search) and WM load was manipulated by the number of targets (1 to 5). A behavioural study was conducted to isolate the processes that allowed participants to successfully encode complex shapes into WM while engaging spatial attention for a visual search task. The data provided evidence for a two-step encoding strategy. In the first step participants selected and memorised only the locations of all target items and only then they encoded the associated shapes at a later step. This strategy allowed them to cope with the interference between WM and attention that would otherwise take place. In the second part of this dissertation interference between visual attention and the encoding into visual WM was investigated on the level of neural activation using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Specifically, the hypothesis was tested that the capacity limitation of visual WM is due to common limited-capacity neural resources shared by visual WM and attention. Two separate fMRI experiments were conducted that combined visual search and delayed visual discrimination for either objects (experiment 1) or locations (experiment 2). The results revealed overlapping activation for attention-demanding visual search and object WM encoding in distributed posterior and frontal regions. In the right prefrontal cortex and bilateral insula BOLD activation additively increased with increased WM load and attentional demand. Conversely, the analysis revealed an interaction effect in several visual, parietal, and premotor areas. These regions showed overlapping activation for the two task components and were severely reduced in their WM load response under the condition with high attentional demand. This interaction effect was found in similar frontal and posterior regions when combining visual search and spatial WM encoding in experiment 2. In contrast, regions in the prefrontal cortex were selectively responsive to WM load and differed to some degree depending on the WM domain. Here, activation associated with increased WM load was delayed rather than reduced under high attentional demand. The fMRI results provide convergent evidence that visual selective attention and the encoding of information into WM share, to a high degree, common neural resources. The findings indicate that competition for resources shared by visual attention and WM encoding can limit processing capabilities in distributed posterior brain regions but not the prefrontal cortex. The findings support the view that WM evolves from the recruitement of attentional mechanisms (Cowan, 2001; Wheeler und Treisman, 2002) the very same that act upon perceptual representations as well (Slotnick, 2004; Jonides et al., 2005; Pasternak and Greenlee, 2005; Postle, 2006; Ranganath, 2006). The similarity in the effects of interference between attention and the encoding of objects or locations into WM indicates that the attention-based model of WM encoding is valid across different WM domains. The capacity of visual WM can be limited at various stages of processing. The behavioural and fMRI data presented in this dissertation illustrate that one major bottleneck of information processing arises from the common demands on neural and cognitive resources shared between visual WM and selective attention during the encoding stage.
Das ereigniskorrelierte Potential (EKP) P300 ist eines der am häufigsten untersuchten Potentiale des Elektroenzephalogramms (EEG). Wegen der bedeutsamen Rolle der P300 in der kognitiven Forschung mit gesunden Probanden und psychiatrischen Patienten kommt der Suche nach ihren neuronalen Generatoren ein hoher Stellenwert zu. Man geht im Allgemeinen davon aus, dass sie kein einheitliches Potential darstellt und von mehreren weit verstreuten Quellen generiert wird. Die Fragen nach der genauen Anzahl der P300-Subkomponenten, ihrer Lokalisierung sowie den ihnen zugrunde liegenden kognitiven Prozesse sind jedoch nach wie vor ungelöst. Die Zielsetzung der vorliegenden Arbeit war, die P300 mit Hilfe der Kombination vom EEG und der funktionalen Magnetresonanztomografie (fMRT) in ihre Subkomponenten zu untergliedern und deren Quellen zu lokalisieren. Zu diesem Zweck wurden drei kombinierte EEG/fMRT-Studien durchgeführt. Die ersten beiden Studien beinhalten eine abgewandelte Form des klassischen Oddballparadigmas. Bei der dritten Studie handelt es sich um ein Arbeitsgedächtnisexperiment. Durch die Verknüpfung der fMRT-Ergebnisse mit EKP-Daten aus den beiden Oddball-Experimenten konnten die neuronalen Quellen der zwei wichtigsten Subkomponenten der P300, der P3a und P3b, lokalisiert werden. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass inferiore und posteriore parietale (IPL bzw. PPC) und inferior temporale (IT) Areale zur Entstehung der P3b beitrugen, während hauptsächlich die präzentralen Regionen (PrCS) die P3a generierten. Die Ergebnisse des Arbeitsgedächtnisexperiments bestätigten die P3b-Quellenlokalisierung der Oddball-Untersuchung mit einr Beteiligung von PPC und IT an der Generierung der P3b-Komponente. Das Arbeitsgedächtnisexperiment verdeutlichte aber auch, dass eine komplexere Abrufanforderung (mit langen Reaktionszeiten) zu einer anhaltenden Aktivität im PPC und einer späten Antwort im ventrolateralen präfrontalen Kortex (VLPFC) führte, die eine zweite P3b-Subkomponente generierten. Durch eine umfassende zeitlich-räumliche Trennung der neuronalen Aktivität beim Arbeitsgedächtnisabruf konnten darüber hinaus die einzelnen Stufen der beteiligten Informationsverarbeitungsprozesse (mentale Chronometrie) beschrieben werden. Diese Anwendung ging über die „reine“ Quellenlokalisation der P300-Komponenten hinaus. Die Ergebnisse zeigten frühe transiente Aktivierungen im IT, die sich zeitlich mit dem Beginn einer anhaltenden Aktivität im PPC überlappten. Darüber hinaus wurden eine späte transiente Aktivität im VLPFC und eine späte anhaltende Aktivität im medialen frontalen und motorischen Kortex (MFC bzw. MC) beobachtet. Es liegt nahe, dass diese neuronalen Signaturen einzelne Stufen kognitiver Aufgabenverarbeitungsschritte wie Reizevaluation (IT), Operationen am Gedächtnispuffer (PPC), aktiven Abruf (VLPFC) und Reaktionsorganisation (MFC und MC) reflektieren. Die vorgestellten Quellenmodelle zeigten übereinstimmend, dass mehrere kortikale Generatoren das P300-EKP erzeugen. Dabei trugen neben den erwarteten parietalen interessanterweise auch inferior temporale und inferior frontale Quellen zur P3b bei, während die P3a vor allem auf anterioren Generatoren im prämotorischen Kortex basierte. Diese Ergebnisse bestätigen teilweise die bisherigen Lokalisationsmodelle, die weitgehend auf neuropsychologischen und invasiven neurophysiologischen Befunden beruhen, widersprechen ihnen aber auch zum Teil, besonders was die Abwesenheit der postulierten präfrontalen und hippocampalen Beiträge zur P3a bzw. P3b betrifft.