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South African Journal of Industrial and Organisational Psychology: Annual editorial overview 2015
(2015)
Orientation: Employees’ perceptions of their leaders’ behaviour play a role in creating empowering environments where employees are willing to do more than what is expected, with retention of employees as a result. Research purpose: The aim of this study was to theoretically conceptualise and empirically determine the relationships between employees’ perception of their leaders’ empowering behaviour, psychological empowerment, organisational citizenship behaviours and intention to leave within a manufacturing division of an organisation. Motivation for the study: In the ever-changing work environment, organisations must capitalise on their human capital in order to maintain competitiveness. It is therefore important to identify the role of employees’ perception of leadership in contributing to the establishment of an environment where employees feel empowered, are willing to do more than what is expected and want to stay in the organisation. Research design, approach and method: A non-experimental, cross-sectional survey design was used. The total population (N = 300) employed at the manufacturing division was targeted. Two hundred completed questionnaires were obtained. The Leader Empowering Behaviour Questionnaire, Measuring Empowerment Questionnaire, Organisational Citizenship Behaviour Questionnaire and Intention to Leave Scale were administered. Main findings: Employees’ perception of their leaders’ empowering behaviour (keeping employees accountable, self-directed decision-making and people development), psychological empowerment (attitude and influence) and organisational citizenship behaviours (loyalty, deviant behaviour and participation) predict intention to leave the organisation. Practical/managerial implications: Organisations should foster the elements of a positive organisation, in this case leader empowering behaviours, if they want to retain their employees. Contribution/value-add: The results of this research contribute to scientific knowledge about the positive effects of employees experiencing their leaders as empowering.
Psychological ownership is a cognitive–affective construct based on individuals’ feelings of possessiveness towards and of being psychologically tied/attached to objects that are material (e.g. tools or work) and immaterial (e.g. ideas or workspace) in nature. Research suggests that psychological ownership could be influenced by various individual, organisational and contextual factors. The South African Employment Equity Act, which was implemented to grant equitable opportunities to previously disadvantaged employees, could be a significant contextual factor affecting psychological ownership, due to perceptions associated with inequality. Ethnicity may also act as a moderator for the relationship between perceptions of employment equity and psychological ownership. The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between employment equity perceptions and psychological ownership and to explore whether ethnicity plays a moderating role in the relationship. A cross-sectional survey design was employed with a purposeful sample of 202 respondents employed in a large South African mining house. Pearson product–moment correlations and structural equation modelling confirmed that employment equity perceptions could predict the five components of psychological ownership. However, the results revealed that ethnicity has no moderating effect on the relationship between perceptions of employment equity and the emergence of psychological ownership. By implication, organisations that seek to retain employees targeted through equity initiatives need to find ways to enhance and develop the psychological ownership of these employees. The research contributes new insights into and knowledge of how contextual factors could influence employees’ psychological ownership.
The present research investigates if and how a more digitally centered communication between supervisors and employees satisfies employees’ needs regarding the communication with their supervisors and influences employees’ attitudes toward the supervisor and the job. In a cross-sectional online study, 261 employees rated their supervisors’ actual and ideal use of different communication channels (i.e., telephone, face-to-face, email) regarding quality and quantity. Employees’ job satisfaction and their perceptions of their supervisors’ effectiveness and team identification were measured as dependent variables. Employees perceived face-to-face communication to be of higher quality than telephone and email communication, and they indicated a preference for more face-to-face communication with their supervisors than they actually had. Moreover, the perceived quality of communication, especially via face-to-face, was strongly and positively related to the dependent variables. These results provide insights into potential problems of increasing e-leadership in organizations. We conclude with recommendations to reduce these problems.
Synesthesia is a phenomenon in which additional perceptual experiences are elicited by sensory stimuli or cognitive concepts. Synesthetes possess a unique type of phenomenal experiences not directly triggered by sensory stimulation. Therefore, for better understanding of consciousness it is relevant to identify the mental and physiological processes that subserve synesthetic experience. In the present work we suggest several reasons why synesthesia has merit for research on consciousness. We first review the research on the dynamic and rapidly growing field of the studies of synesthesia. We particularly draw attention to the role of semantics in synesthesia, which is important for establishing synesthetic associations in the brain. We then propose that the interplay between semantics and sensory input in synesthesia can be helpful for the study of the neural correlates of consciousness, especially when making use of ambiguous stimuli for inducing synesthesia. Finally, synesthesia-related alterations of brain networks and functional connectivity can be of merit for the study of consciousness.
Reading is not only "cold" information processing, but involves affective and aesthetic processes that go far beyond what current models of word recognition, sentence processing, or text comprehension can explain. To investigate such "hot" reading processes, standardized instruments that quantify both psycholinguistic and emotional variables at the sublexical, lexical, inter-, and supralexical levels (e.g., phonological iconicity, word valence, arousal-span, or passage suspense) are necessary. One such instrument, the Berlin Affective Word List (BAWL) has been used in over 50 published studies demonstrating effects of lexical emotional variables on all relevant processing levels (experiential, behavioral, neuronal). In this paper, we first present new data from several BAWL studies. Together, these studies examine various views on affective effects in reading arising from dimensional (e.g., valence) and discrete emotion features (e.g., happiness), or embodied cognition features like smelling. Second, we extend our investigation of the complex issue of affective word processing to words characterized by a mixture of affects. These words entail positive and negative valence, and/or features making them beautiful or ugly. Finally, we discuss tentative neurocognitive models of affective word processing in the light of the present results, raising new issues for future studies.
Over the last decade, the prospect of improving or maintaining cognitive functioning has provoked a steadily increasing number of cognitive training studies. Central target populations are individuals at risk for a disadvantageous development, such as older adults exhibiting cognitive decline or children with learning impairments. They rely on cognitive resources to meet the challenges of an independent life in old age or requirements at school.
To support daily cognitive functioning, training outcomes need to generalize to other cognitive abilities. Such transfer effects are, however, highly discussed. For example, recent meta-analyses on working memory training differed in the conclusion on the presence (Au et al., 2015; Karbach and Verhaeghen, 2014) or absence of transfer effects (Melby-Lervåg and Hulme, 2013). Usually training-specific design factors such as type, intensity, duration, and feedback routines are discussed as reasons for such inconsistent findings. However, even individuals participating in exactly the same training regime highly differ in their training outcomes. We argue that it is time to study the individual development during trainings to understand these differential outcomes. It is time to have a closer look at the intraindividual training data.
Previous studies used a text-fading procedure as a training tool with the goal to increase silent reading fluency (i.e., proficient reading rate and comprehension). In recently published studies, this procedure resulted in lasting reading enhancements for adult and adolescent research samples. However, studies working with children reported mixed results. While reading rate improvements were observable for Dutch reading children in a text-fading training study, reading fluency improvements in standardized reading tests post-training attributable to the fading manipulation were not detectable. These results raise the question of whether text-fading training is not effective for children or whether research design issues have concealed possible transfer effects. Hence, the present study sought to investigate possible transfer effects resulting from a text-fading based reading training program, using a modified research design. Over a period of 3 weeks, two groups of German third-graders read sentences either with an adaptive text-fading procedure or at their self-paced reading rate. A standardized test measuring reading fluency at the word, sentence, and text level was conducted pre- and post-training. Text level reading fluency improved for both groups equally. Post-training gains at the word level were found for the text-fading group, however, no significant interaction between groups was revealed for word reading fluency. Sentence level reading fluency gains were found for the text-fading group, which significantly differed from the group of children reading at their self-paced reading routine. These findings provide evidence for the efficacy of text-fading as a training method for sentence reading fluency improvement also for children.
Recent research has revealed that learning behavior is associated with academic achievement at the college level, but the impact of specific learning strategies on academic success as well as gender differences therein are still not clear. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate gender differences in the incremental contribution of learning strategies over general cognitive ability in the prediction of academic achievement. The relationship between these variables was examined by correlation analyses. A set of t-tests was used to test for gender differences in learning strategies, whereas structural equation modeling as well as multi-group analyses were applied to investigate the incremental contribution of learning strategies for male and female students’ academic performance. The sample consisted of 461 students (mean age = 21.2 years, SD = 3.2). Correlation analyses revealed that general cognitive ability as well as the learning strategies effort, attention, and learning environment were positively correlated with academic achievement. Gender differences were found in the reported application of many learning strategies. Importantly, the prediction of achievement in structural equation modeling revealed that only effort explained incremental variance (10%) over general cognitive ability. Results of multi-group analyses showed no gender differences in this prediction model. This finding provides further knowledge regarding gender differences in learning research and the specific role of learning strategies for academic achievement. The incremental assessment of learning strategy use as well as gender-differences in their predictive value contributes to the understanding and improvement of successful academic development.
Conventional treatments for mood disorders primarily focus on reducing negative affect, but little on enhancing positive affect. Loving-kindness meditation (LKM) is a traditional meditation practice directly oriented toward enhancing unconditional and positive emotional states of kindness towards oneself and others. We report here two independent and uncontrolled studies carried out at different centers, one in Boston, USA (n = 10), and one in Frankfurt, Germany (n = 8), to examine the potential therapeutic utility of a brief LKM group intervention for symptoms of dysthymia and depression. Results at both centers suggest that LKM was associated with large-sized effects on self-reported symptoms of depression (d = 3.33 and 1.90), negative affect (d = 1.98 and 0.92), and positive affect (d = 1.63 and 0.94). Large effects were also found for clinician-reported changes in depression, rumination and specific positive emotions, and moderate effects for changes in adaptive emotion regulation strategies. The qualitative data analyses provide additional support for the potential clinical utility of the intervention. This proof-of-concept evaluation of LKM as a clinical strategy warrants further investigation.
Previous research on working memory (WM) in children with poor mathematical skills has yielded heterogeneous results, possibly due to inconsistent consideration of the IQ-achievement discrepancy and additional reading and spelling difficulties. To examine the impact of both, the WM of 68 average-achieving and 68 low-achieving third-graders in mathematics was assessed. Preliminary analyses showed that poor mathematical skills were associated with poor WM. Afterwards, children with isolated mathematical difficulties were separated from those with additional reading and spelling difficulties. Half of each group fulfilled the IQ-achievement discrepancy, resulting in a 2 (additional reading and spelling difficulties: yes/no) by 2 (IQ-achievement discrepancy: yes/no) factorial design. Analyses revealed that not fulfilling the IQ achievement discrepancy was associated with poor visual WM, whereas additional reading and spelling difficulties were associated with poor central executive functioning in children fulfilling the IQ-achievement discrepancy. Therefore, WM in children with poor mathematical skills differs according to the IQ-achievement discrepancy and additional reading and spelling difficulties.
Different types of altruistic behavior, namely help-giving, altruistic punishment, and moral courage, are identifiable and distinguishable in the literature, but little is known how they relate to each other. This is significant because understanding altruism and other-regarding behavior is important in the attempt to solve global problems of overpopulation and depletion of natural resources. Understanding the helping forms of altruism (help-giving and sharing) can be helpful, for example, when designing donation collections or recruiting volunteers. Understanding the punitive forms of altruism (moral courage and altruistic punishment) gives valuable insight on individuals participating in campaigns where there is a need to take action, for example, against polluters or governments that violate human rights. The empirical evidence presented in this dissertation demonstrate individual and cultural differences in help-giving, altruistic punishment, and morally courageous behavior. The willingness to engage in the three types of altruistic behaviors relate differently to subjectively preferred thinking style and to personality traits, both in real-life and on the Internet. The divergencies are observable between Eastern (Indian) and Western (German) cultures, where the overlap of oneself and other individuals is experienced in different levels.
Self-narratives of patients have received increasing interest in schizophrenia since they offer unique material to study patients’ subjective experience related to their illness, in particular the alteration of self that accompanies schizophrenia. In this study, we investigated the life narratives and the ability to integrate and bind memories of personal events into a coherent narrative in 27 patients with schizophrenia and 26 controls. Four aspects of life narratives were analyzed: coherence with cultural concept of biography, temporal coherence, causal-motivational coherence and thematic coherence. Results showed that in patients cultural biographical knowledge is preserved, whereas temporal coherence is partially impaired. Furthermore, causal-motivational and thematic coherence are significantly impaired: patients have difficulties explaining how events have modeled their identity, and integrating different events along thematic lines. Impairment of global causal-motivational and thematic coherence was significantly correlated with patients’ executive dysfunction, suggesting that cognitive impairment observed in patients could affect their ability to construct a coherent narrative of their life by binding important events to their self. This study provides new understanding of the cognitive deficits underlying self-disorders in patients with schizophrenia. Our findings suggest the potential usefulness of developing new therapeutic interventions to improve autobiographical reasoning skills.
Die vorliegende kumulative Dissertation befasst sich mit der Erfassung der Behandlungsintegrität bestehend aus psychotherapeutischer Adhärenz, Kompetenz sowie der Behandlungsdifferenzierung im Rahmen der Psychotherapieforschung. Die Überprüfung, ob Behandlungen bzw. Interventionen so wie intendiert durchgeführt wurden, ist für die Sicherstellung valider Schlussfolgerungen aus einer klinischen Studie von hoher Relevanz.
Die erste Studie untersucht, ob die Erfassung der Behandlungsintegrität ökonomischer gestaltbar ist. Es zeigte sich, dass Beurteilungen der Adhärenz und Kompetenz basierend auf Sitzungssegmenten im Vergleich zu ganzen Sitzungen keine Unterschiede aufweisen hinsichtlich Reliabilität, Validität und Prädiktion des Behandlungserfolgs.
In der zweiten Studie wird die Entwicklung und Validierung einer Adhärenz- und Kompetenzskala vorgestellt. Diese Studie weist zudem auf die Verwendung im Rahmen der Aus- und Weiterbildung von Therapeuten hin.
Die dritte Studie zeigt, dass in Psychotherapiestudien die im Vergleich stehenden Behandlungsbedingungen gut voneinander unterscheidbar sein müssen. Für die Beschreibung der Behandlungsdifferenzierung und -spezifität wurde der Behandlungs-Spezifitäts-Index entwickelt, dessen Eignung bestätigt werden konnte.
Die vierte Studie überprüft, ob sich erfolgreiche von nicht erfolgreichen Therapien hinsichtlich der psychotherapeutischen Kompetenz, Adhärenz und psychotherapeutischen Beziehung unterscheiden. Es zeigte sich, dass Adhärenz eine Voraussetzung für kompetentes Vorgehen darstellt. Kompetenz beeinflusst die psychotherapeutische Beziehung maßgebend, die mitentscheidend für den (Miss-)Erfolg einer Behandlung zu sein scheint.
Insgesamt tragen die Ergebnisse zu einer differenzierteren, spezifischeren und ökonomischeren Erfassung der Behandlungsintegrität innerhalb der Psychotherapieforschung bei. Gleichzeitig erweitern sie den Fokus auf neue Ansätze für zukünftige Forschungen.
Eye-Tracking bezeichnet das Messen und Aufzeichnen der Blickbewegungen einer Person. Historisch gesehen basiert Eye-Tracking auf Beobachtungen des Testleiters, der das Blickverhalten der Probanden während des Versuchsablaufes oder die Videoaufzeichnung des Blickverhaltens eines Probanden in einer Testsituation kodierte. Dabei konnte allerdings nur die Blickrichtung des Probanden erhoben werden. Heutzutage ist es jedoch möglich, aufgrund neuerer, automatisierter Eye-Tracking-Techniken detailliertere Blickbewegungen, wie z.B. Fixationen und Sakkaden, zu messen. Diese Verbesserung der Eye-Tracking-Technik ermöglicht nicht nur passives Eye-Tracking, sondern auch aktives Blickkontingenz-Eye-Tracking. Passives Eye-Tracking bezeichnet das Messen und Aufzeichnen des Blickverhaltens, um herauszufinden, wo der Proband hinschaut. Im Gegensatz dazu erhebt das aktive Blickkontingenz-Eye-Tracking nicht nur, wo ein Proband hinschaut, sondern ermöglicht dem Probanden auch, die Stimuli, die auf einem Bildschirm präsentiert werden, aktiv zu verändern oder zu kontrollieren. Dabei wird das Blickverhalten online kodiert, und spezifisches Blickverhalten ist an eine kontingente Veränderung der Stimuli auf dem Bildschirm gekoppelt. Deshalb kann das aktive Blickkontingenz-Eye-Tracking eingesetzt werden, um den Probanden aktive Kontrolle über ihre visuelle Umwelt zu ermöglichen.
In der psychologischen Forschung ist Eye-Tracking ein wichtiges Forschungs-instrument, da das Blickverhalten in spezifischen Eye-Tracking-Aufgaben genutzt werden kann, um Aufschluss über kognitive Prozesse, wie z.B. Aufmerksamkeit, Lernen und Gedächtnis, zu gewinnen. Unterschiedliche passive und aktiv-blickkontingente Eye-Tracking- Aufgaben wurden entwickelt, um eine Vielzahl an kognitiven Prozessen im Erwachsenen- und Säuglingsalter zu untersuchen. Diese Aufgaben sind besonders wichtig in der Säuglingsforschung, da es in diesem Alter schwierig ist, kognitive Prozesse zu untersuchen. Dies hängt damit zusammen, dass es sich um eine präverbale Stichprobe, die nur über ein limitiertes motorisches Repertoire verfügt, handelt. Obwohl kognitive Prozesse von Erwachsenen anhand verbaler oder anderer motorischer Aufgaben untersucht werden können, werden passive und aktiv-blickkontingente Eye-Tracking-Aufgaben regelmäßig in dieser Altersgruppe eingesetzt, da sie zusätzliche Informationen über kognitive Prozesse liefern können. Neben der Möglichkeit zur Untersuchung von kognitiven Prozessen bieten aktiv-blickkontingente Eye-Tracking-Aufgaben den Probanden auch die Gelegenheit, ihre visuelle Umwelt aktiv zu kontrollieren. Dennoch werden aktiv-blickkontingente Eye-Tracking- Aufgaben nur selten eingesetzt, um Probanden visuelle Kontrolle über ihre Umwelt zu verschaffen.
Bis jetzt wurden aktiv-blickkontingente Eye-Tracking-Aufgaben zur Kontrolle der visuellen Umwelt nur bei Erwachsenen, aber noch nicht bei Säuglingen eingesetzt. Da diese Aufgaben jedoch auch für Säuglinge und Kleinkinder geeignet sind, besteht die Möglichkeit, diese Methode über die gesamte Lebenspanne hinweg anzuwenden. Somit kann das Erlernen des Kontrollierens der Umwelt durch Blickverhalten über die gesamte Lebensspanne untersucht werden.
Die vorliegende Dissertation hat sich genau dies zum Ziel gesetzt. Um dieses Ziel zu erreichen, wurde eine neue aktiv-blickkontingente Eye-Tracking-Aufgabe entwickelt, die sogenannte gaze-contingent learning task (GCLT). Im Wesentlichen ist die GCLT eine operante Konditionierungsaufgabe, bei der sich Probanden Kontrolle über ihre visuelle Umwelt aneignen, indem sie eine bestimmte blickkontingente Assoziation zwischen ihrem Blickverhalten und einem visuellen Effekt erlernen. Die in dieser Dissertation verwendete GCLT umfasst zwei Hauptversionen: zum einen die sog. one disc GCLT, und zum anderen die two discs GCLT. In der one disc GCLT wird ein Kreis auf der rechten Bildschirmseite gezeigt. Jedes Mal, wenn der Proband auf diesen Kreis schaut, erscheint ein Stimulus auf der linken Bildschirmseite. Somit kommt dem Kreis eine Schalterfunktion zu. In der two discs GCLT ist sowohl am rechten als auch am linken Bildschirmrand ein Kreis zu sehen. Hier kommt nur jeweils einem der beiden Kreise die Schalterfunktion zu. Um ihre visuelle Umwelt zu kontrollieren, müssen Probanden innerhalb der one disc GCLT die blickkontingente Assoziation zwischen ihren Blicken auf den Kreis und dem Erscheinen eines Stimulus erlernen, während sie in der two discs GCLT außerdem noch lernen müssen, zwischen dem Kreis mit und dem Kreis ohne Schalterfunktion zu unterscheiden.