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Die Digitalisierung aller Lebensbereiche stellt die Bildungsarbeit in Schulen, Kirchgemeinden und in der Gedenkstättenpädagogik vor neue Herausforderungen. Der Artikel beschreibt vor diesem Hintergrund Digitalisierungsprojekte an der Goethe-Universität in Frankfurt am Main, die sich mit virtuellen Realitäten, ambivalenten Narrativen und fiktiven Entscheidungssituationen beschäftigen. Besondere Aufmerksamkeit erhalten dabei das Judentum und die bildungstheoretischen Anliegen einer Didaktik der Multiperspektivität.
Johannes Hoffmann : 75 Jahre
(2012)
Auf den Spuren Buddhas
(2016)
Ein außergewöhnliches Lehr- und Lernprojekt hatten die Fachbereiche Theologie, Religionswissenschaften, Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaften für ihre Studenten in 2015 organisiert: eine Reise zu den Ursprüngen Buddhas. Vor Ort wollte man sich informieren über die Religionsvielfalt dieser Länder und mit einem Pilgerzug mehrere heilige Orte des Buddhismus erleben. Den Freunden schien dies förderungswürdig.
Die gegenwärtige Krise der Demokratie wird besonders sichtbar in der "symbolischen Dimension politischer Repräsentation". Diese Auffassung vertritt Paula Diehl in ihrem Aufsatz Demokratische Repräsentation und ihre Krise. "In Bildern, Inszenierungen und Diskursen werden sowohl demokratisierende als auch antidemokratische Konzepte 'getestet'. Erfahren sie Resonanz in der Öffentlichkeit und in der Bevölkerung, kann sich die Lage in die eine oder in die andere Richtung entwickeln. Denn Symbole aktivieren Vorstellungen über die politische Ordnung, Repräsentanten, Bürgerinnen und Bürger, über den Staat und auch darüber, wie politische Institutionen funktionieren sollen." So Paula Diehl im besagten Aufsatz, der Überlegungen bündelt, die sie in ihrer Studie Das Symbolische, das Imaginäre und die Demokratie. systematisch entfaltet hat. In dieser Arbeit analysiert Diehl den Zusammenhang zwischen den normativen Strukturen und der symbolischen Praxis eines demokratisch verfassten politischen Gemeinwesens. Beide bedingen sich gegenseitig. Die normative Struktur einer Gesellschaft findet den Grund ihrer Geltung und der Stabilität in der symbolischen Praxis; diese wiederum muss begriffen werden als Ausdruck der Prinzipien und Regeln der normativen Grundstruktur. Eine Krise des Politischen ist zu verstehen als Resultat und Ausdruck einer Störung in diesem wechselseitigen Bedingungsverhältnis von normativer Struktur und symbolischer Praxis der politischen Gemeinschaft. ...
Das Wissen um die Bedeutung des menschlichen Herzens als zentrales Organ ist den Menschen aller Kulturen und Zeiten gemeinsam. Das Herz bildete den Referenzpunkt anthropologischer Selbstidentifikation und wurde bereits bei den antiken Völkern zu einem existenziellen Symbol, das auch in die christliche Kultur transformiert wurde. Dem Herzen sowie seiner symbolischen Verwendung in Theologie, Mystik und Frömmigkeit kommt in der gesamten Christentumsgeschichte eine herausragende Stellung zu. Ungeachtet des Fokus der modernen medizinischen Forschung auf die physiologische Funktionalität des Herzens hat sich dessen starke Symbolkraft bis in unsere Gegenwart erhalten. Exemplarisch soll hier beleuchtet werden, welche Veränderungen dieses Symbol im Laufe der Christentumsgeschichte erfuhr. ...
Von November 2018 bis April 2019 hat die Arbeitsstelle »Medizinethik in der Klinikseelsorge« am Fachbereich Katholische Theologie der Goethe Universität Frankfurt am Main eine partizipative Studie über Herausforderungen und Kompetenzprofile der Medizinethik in der Klinikseelsorge durchgeführt.
Im Zentrum dieser Broschüre stehen die Ergebnisse, die eine Gruppe von 19 Klinikseelsorger*innen erarbeitet hat. Welche Kompetenzen benötigen Klinikseelsorger*innen, um medizinethisch tätig zu sein? Welche Herausforderungen erleben sie im Alltag? Wie sehen sie die Zukunft der Medizinethik? Diese Broschüre präsentiert einige der Ergebnisse in aufbereiteter Form.
Since the turn of the millennium, historical research has become increasingly interested in knowledge-based societies and their cultures, not least medieval ones. Whereas legal historical medieval studies have joined the interdisciplinary discussion about the notion of order as well as that of law, the notion of knowledge, and especially that of legal knowledge, has not been in the focus of interest. This observation serves as the starting point for Stephan Dusil’s habilitation thesis, which he submitted in 2016 at the Faculty of Law of the University of Zurich and which is now available as a monograph. ...
Das Pallium des Metropoliten ist ein Band aus weißer Wolle, bestickt mit sechs schwarzen Kreuzen, durch das die Gewalt angezeigt wird, mit welcher der Metropolit, in Gemeinschaft mit der römischen Kirche, in der eigenen Provinz von Rechts wegen ausgestattet wird (vgl. 437 § 1 CIC/ 83). Als Papst Franziskus am 12. Januar 2015 die Verleihung der Pallien ändern ließ, schlugen ihm geteilte Meinungen entgegen. Anstelle des Papstes kommt nun dem zuständigen Apostolischen Nuntius die Aufgabe zu, dem neu ernannten Metropoliten das Pallium in dessen Heimatdiözese zu verleihen (vgl. Communicationes 47 (2015), 110 f.). Für den Aufruhr, den diese Änderung verursacht hat, lassen sich zwei Gründe erkennen: Einerseits sind das Pallium und die damit verbundenen Zeremonien keineswegs bedeutungslos geworden. Andererseits liegen die gewachsenen Traditionen, Veränderungen und Entwicklungen, denen das Pallium im Laufe seiner Geschichte unterlag, größtenteils im Dunkeln. ...
Welchen Stellenwert hat der Glaube im Bereich der menschlichen Überzeugungen? Wie verhalten sich Wissen und Gewissheit zueinander? Die moderne Wissenschaft wird oft mit Faktenwissen gleichgesetzt, doch ohne die Reflexion über die Welt ist Wissenschaft nicht denkbar. Sie findet z.B. statt in der Religionsphilosophie.
Die Diskussion über die zeitgenössische Globalethik im Kontext von Hans Küng und Iḫwān aṣ-ṣafāʾ
(2013)
Die Menschheit befindet sich in einer globalen Krise, die sich nicht nur im wirtschaftlichen, politischen und ökologischen Bereich zeigt. Auch Religion und Moral sind davon betroffen. Die Modernisierung führt zunehmend dazu, dass menschliche Werte wie bedingungslose Solidarität, Aufrichtigkeit, Hilfsbereitschaft und Großzügigkeit immer mehr durch Geldgier und Ausbeutung der Umwelt ersetzt werden. Man beschwert sich oft über die Kriegsgefahren, über die Probleme des Bevölkerungswachstums, die Umweltverschmutzung und die Vergiftung von Gewässern sowie über die Gefahr des globalen Terrors. Viele dieser Probleme berühren Religion und Moral, die nicht unabhängig von modernen Problemen denkbar sind. Globaler Terror hat beispielsweise neben vielen anderen Faktoren auch religiös begründete Motive.
Il presente lavoro ha come oggetto d'esame lo scontro del filosofo neo-idealista Giovanni Gentile (1875-1944) col Modernismo cattolico. Obiettivo del lavoro è offrire per la prima volta un esame completo della controversa, durata sei anni, dal 1903 al 1909, attraverso una constestualizzazione storico ecclesiastica e storico filosofica di essa. Il tutto basandosi sulla pubblicazione di inediti fonti d'archivio.
Kennt die Nächstenliebe Grenzen? : wie christliche Ethik über die aktuelle Migration nachdenkt
(2016)
In der Flüchtlingsdebatte geht es auch um die moralische Frage: Dürfen wir Menschen in Not abweisen? Einfache Antworten sind unseriös. Verschiedenste soziale, kulturelle und religiöse Aspekte müssen berücksichtigt werden. Die christliche Ethik kann zu dieser Diskussion u. a. ihr Handlungsmotiv der "Nächstenliebe" beisteuern, das allerdings auch der Interpretation bedarf.
[Jahresbericht 2014] Katholische Theologie der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main
(2014)
[Jahresbericht 2013] Katholische Theologie der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main
(2013)
[Jahresbericht 2012] Katholische Theologie der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main
(2012)
[Jahresbericht 2011] Katholische Theologie der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main
(2011)
[Jahresbericht 2010] Katholische Theologie der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main
(2010)
[Jahresbericht 2009] Katholische Theologie der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main
(2009)
[Jahresbericht 2008] Katholische Theologie der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main
(2008)
[Jahresbericht 2007] Katholische Theologie der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main
(2007)
[Jahresbericht 2006] Katholische Theologie der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main
(2006)
[Jahresbericht 2005] Katholische Theologie der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main
(2005)
[Jahresbericht 2004] Katholische Theologie der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main
(2004)
[Jahresbericht 2003] Katholische Theologie der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main
(2003)
[Jahresbericht 2002] Katholische Theologie der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main
(2002)
[Jahresbericht 2001] Katholische Theologie der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main
(2001)
[Jahresbericht 2000] Katholische Theologie der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main
(2000)
[Jahresbericht 1999] Katholische Theologie der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main
(1999)
[Jahresbericht] Katholische Theologie der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main
(2000)
Fachspezifischer Anhang zur SpoL (Teil III): Studienfach Katholische Religion im Studiengang L3
(2008)
From the dawn of civilization, a multitude of religious has developed each very complex. These great differences among religions make it difficult to find a least common denominator or to talk at length of religion in general. On the other hand, focusing on just one specific religion often causes us to ignore or underestimate some of the very broad traits that religions seem to share. The fact remains that we will make no headway into the question of what makes a specific religion a religion if we do not seek some characteristics common to all religions.
Religion is usually associated with the supernatural or the divine.505 However, the notion of a supernatural realm does not occur in the non-theistic schools of Buddhism and functions in very different ways, say, in Taoism, Hinduism, and Islam. These shortcomings suggest that religion is notoriously difficult to define. To me, religion is any action taken through every aspect of our being to release us from our weakness or imperfection, and bring us closer to the divine reality. In other words, it is a human inner desire or activity to unite with an absolute being.
The examination of the intellectual dimension of religion that is, its key beliefs is most beneficial when it is guided and informed. Since epistemology is the theory of knowledge, one would therefore expect epistemological discussions of religion to concentrate on the question whether one could have knowledge of religious beliefs. Religious epistemology is simple to say that it is the epistemology of distinctively religious beliefs, but that will not be helpful in the absence of a definition of religious beliefs.
Philosophers of religion might consider the epistemology of religious belief, pondering questions about the sources and justifications of religious knowledge. Fundamental questions regarding the nature of knowledge are likely to arise in any culture. After all, everyone has some stake in distinguishing truth from error, wisdom from ignorance, and the path to knowledge from the path to ignorance. Epistemologists have discussed, in addition to the defining conditions and the sources of knowledge, the extent of human knowledge. They have asked how far human knowledge can extend. Many philosophers find it obvious that we know at least some things, if only things about personal experiences or household physical objects. Others have claimed, however, that we really have no knowledge. Such philosophers admit that people typically feel confident that they have some knowledge, but these philosophers insist that our apparent cases of knowledge are mere illusions. Many epistemologists aim not to set knowledge beyond our reach or to escape the quest for knowledge but rather to make many of our ordinary claims to knowledge more secure by explaining knowledge. They seek to explain what knowledge consists in and how we get it.506
Therefore, a good deal of the task of general epistemology is to understand the nature of the various truth-relevant merits which beliefs can possess, the necessary and sufficient conditions for beliefs to possess those merits, and the virtues of mind and practice requisite and apt for their presence merits such as being reliably formed, being warranted, being entitled, being scientific, being rational, being justified and indeed being true.
Epistemology in Western philosophical tradition has until recently offered a prominent definition of knowledge that analyzes knowledge into three essential components: justification, truth, and belief. According to this analysis, propositional knowledge is, by definition, justified true belief. Epistemologists typically focus on propositional knowledge. Knowledge that something is the case, as opposed to knowledge of how to do something. The content of propositional knowledge can be expressed in a proposition, that is, what is meant by a declarative sentence. Knowledge how to do something is by contrast, a skill or competence in performing a certain task. Within the last few decades, philosophers have discovers that these three conditions are not really sufficient for knowledge; something else is required. Genuine knowledge requires not only truth and belief, but also the satisfaction of the belief condition be appropriately related to the satisfaction of the truth condition. That is, on the traditional approach, genuine knowledge requires that a knower have an “adequate indication” that a believed proposition is true. The required “adequate indication”507 of truth, according to Plato, Kant, and many other philosophers, is evidence indicating that a proposition is true. These philosophers thus hold that knowledge must be based on evidence, or justifying reason.
The kind of justification crucial to knowledge is called epistemic justification. Even if knowledge requires justification, a justified belief can be false. In allowing for justified false beliefs, contemporary epistemologists endorse fallibilism about justification. Reformed epistemologists contend that belief in the existence of God can, in some circumstances, have an epistemic status high enough to render it worthy of acceptance even if it has no support from the arguments of natural theology or from any other beliefs. The views of Alston and Mavrodes are sometimes said to display an affinity with Reformed epistemology, and Nicholas Wolterstorff has made significant contributions to its development. But Plantinga has clearly been the leading contemporary advocate of this school of thought in religious epistemology. During the earlier phase of their development, Plantinga concentrated on defending the view that theistic belief can be in certain conditions, is justified or rationally held even in the absence of any propositional evidence or supporting argument.508
For the conviction that theistic belief is properly basic, foundationalists carry out a reconstructive project that would put our revised doxastic structures on foundations so firm that they could withstand rather than ignore skeptical challenges. That is, for the classical foundationlist theistic belief requires support from propositional evidence or argument if it is to be rationally or justifiably held. However, it is fairly clear that belief in God’s existence does not satisfy this criterion; it is neither self-evident nor incorrigible nor evident to the sense for humans at any time in this life.
The question of justification attracts philosophers especially in contemporary epistemology. And controversy of this question focuses on the meaning of ‘justification’ as well as on the substantive conditions of a belief’s being justified in a way appropriate to knowledge. William Alston, for instance, has introduced a non-deontological normative concept of justification that relies mainly on the notion of what is epistemically good from the view-point of maximizing truth and minimizing falsity. Alston link epistemic goodness to a belief’s being based on adequate grounds in the absence of overriding reason to the contrary. But for some epistemologists “Epistemic justification” means simply “evidential support” of certain sort.509 To say that s is epistemically justifiable to some extent for you is, on this view, just to say that s is supportable to some extent by your overall evidential reason. According to epistemologist, knowledge entails beliefs, so that I cannot know that such and such is the case unless I believe that such and such is the case.
Robert Audi mentioned that knowledge arises in experience. It is constituted by conclusively justified true belief, meaning that: the believer may be justified by psychological certain of the true proposition in question and this proposition is so well-grounded as to be itself propositionally certain. And knowledge constitute by such belief may be called epistemic certainty. When we come to religious knowledge, Audi says that religious propositions are simply beyond the scope of human knowledge. But the point is why would it be thought that no religious propositions are known? The most common ground for holding this view is namely, that religious propositions, such as that God exists, cannot be known either a priori or on the basis of experience. The concept of justification or evidence would occur with the concept of belief in a more complex analysis of the concept of knowledge.510
In recent decades, questions of knowledge seem to have been marginalized by question of justification. As a matter of fact, however, epistemological discussion of religious belief, at least since the Enlightenment has tended to focus, not on the question whether religious belief has warrant, but whether it is justified. More precisely, it has tended to focus on the question whether those properties are enjoyed by theistic belief - the belief that there exists a person like the God of traditional Christianity, Judaism, and Islam: an almighty, all knowing, wholly benevolent and loving spiritual person who has created the world. The main epistemological question about religious belief, therefore, has been the question whether or not religious belief in general and theistic belief in particular is rational or rationally acceptable, or whether it is justified?
In its primary sense, rationality is a normative concept that philosophers have generally tried to characterize in such a way that, for any action, belief, or desire, if it is rational we ought to choose it. Rationality is the use of reason to reach a certain level of reasonableness or unreasonableness. Many positive characterizations of rational beliefs have been proposed by beliefs that are either self-evident or derived from self-evident beliefs by a reliable procedure and beliefs that are consistent with the overwhelming majority of one’s beliefs.511 Analytic epistemology in the twentieth century was conducted as if there were a part from truth itself - just one truth-relevant merit in beliefs, that one typically called either “justification or rationality;”512 and since there was a great deal of disagreement on the answer to that question, there was a great flowering of theories of justification, or theories of rationality.
According to Nicholas Wolterstorff, there are a large number of distinct truth-relevant merits in beliefs, and that neither “Justification” nor “rationality”513 picks out single such merit, both are highly ambiguous terms, each picking out a number of distinct merits. Religious beliefs are formed or evoked by experience of some sort, or by believing what is said in some discourse, or by reflection on the implications of some complex of beliefs that one has previously acquired. Here, we notice that there are no rational activities to understand or justify the experience.
Richard Swinburne considered the nature of actual belief. He saw how in a sense all beliefs given rise to action and must be based on evidence. But he knows that not all beliefs are rational beliefs. For him a beliefs will fail to be rational if it is based on evidence in the wrong way or if it is based on the wrong sort of evidence. According to Swinburne beliefs are rational in so far as they are based on investigation which was, in the believer’s view, adequate, and if the believer believes it to be rational. Swinburne understand by religious beliefs as about transcendent reality, including his belief about whether or not there is a God, and his beliefs about what properties God has (what God is like) and what actions he has performed.514
According to John Hick, the issue is not whether it can be established as an item of indubitable public knowledge that God (or the divine or the Transcendent) exists, or most probably exists, but whether it is rational for those who experience some of life’s moments theistically to believe that God exists, and to proceed to conduct their lives on that basis. Hick looks at a rational belief in general way. For him “belief” can mean a proposition believed or it can be defined as an act or state of believing. The idea of evidence normally presupposes a gap between an observed fact, or body of facts, and an inferred conclusion. Therefore, our ordinary moment - to moment perceptual beliefs contradict the principle that all rational believing must be based upon adequate evidence. It is not that they are based upon inadequate evidence, but rather that the model of evidence-inference-belief does not apply here. Ordinary perceptual beliefs arise directly out of our experience, and it is entirely appropriate, proper, and rational to form these beliefs in this way. The relationship between experience and belief has been much debated in recent work in the philosophy of religion. This discussion has focused upon specifically theistic belief and Hick discusses also in these terms and his argument is that it is rational to believe in the reality of God.
Alvin Plantinga argues on these manifestation-experiences that they are properly basic.515 That is to say, it is as rational for religious persons to hold these basic religious beliefs as it is for all of us to hold our basic perceptual beliefs. But, more basically, it is the biblical assumption translated into philosophical terms. According to Plantinga this experience is what justifies me in holding (the belief) that is the ground of my justification, and by extension, the ground of the belief itself. He then applies this principle to religious beliefs.
In philosophy, experience is generally what we perceive by the senses what we learn from others, or whatever comes from external sources or from inner reflection. In the sense, experience is associated with observation and experiment. Empiricism stresses that our knowledge must be based on experience, but rationalism claims that experience is a potential source of error and prefers rational certainty to mere empirical generalization. In ordinary usage, for every experience there must be something experienced that is independent of the subject of experience. But in philosophy, the relation between experience as a state of consciousness and independent objects of experience becomes a focus of debate. There are many different kinds of experiences, but it is religious experiences that interest me here.
From the point of view of epistemology the modifications of consciousness consisting our apparently perceptual experience are of importantly different kinds. In addition to true perceptions there are misperceptions, illusions, and hallucinations. Therefore, if anyone misled by any of these forms of perceptual error, he or she is then deluded. In each case the delusion consists in a mistaken implicit belief about the cause of the experience: Applying this concept of delusion to the realm of religious experience, we have to ask whether those who assume that their experience of living in God’s presence is caused by their being in God’s presence are believing truly or are, on the contrary, under a delusion.
In modern philosophy of mind a major theme which bears on many theoretical issues, concerns the alleged privacy of an experience as an event knowable only to its possessor and the possibility of public access to that experience. There is much philosophical debate concerning precisely how perception is to be analyzed. In particular, questions are raised concerning the status of the phenomenon. But there is general agreement that in perception, objects present themselves to us in ways that enable us to know them. Similarly, in religious experience God presents himself in ways that enable us to know him and his actions. For Alston there are, it seems, important differences between ordinary perceptual or sense experience and religious experience. Sense perception is a common experience, whereas religious experience is less common, perhaps, even rare, sense perception yields a great deal of information about the world, whereas religious experience yields apparently little information about God, all humans have the capacity for sense perception, but many seem not to have the capacity for religious experience. These differences, however, do not show that religious experience has a structure unlike perception. For one thing, neither the frequency of an experience nor the amount of information it yields tells us anything about its structure.
On the other hand, the limitation of the rationalist way is that the only truths capable of being strictly proved are analytic and ultimately tautological. But we cannot by logic alone demonstrate any matter of fact and existence; these must be known through experience. For sure if nothing were given through experience in its various modes, we should never have anything to reason about. This is as true in religion as in other fields. If God exists, God is not an idea but a reality outside us, in order to be known to men and women, God must therefore become manifest in some way within their experience. This conclusion is in line with the contemporary revolt against the rationalist assumptions which have dominated much of western philosophy since the time of Descartes.516 Descartes held that we can properly be said to know only truths that are self-evident or that can be reached by logical inferences from self-evident premises.
Therefore, those who stress faith and attack reason often place a great deal of emphasis on religious experience. However, religious experience is by no means a purely emotional “happening”; rather, it involves concepts and beliefs about the being that is experienced. If we tried to separate religious experiences from such concepts and beliefs - from the religious belief-system, as we shall call it - then there would be no way saying who or what is that is experienced, or of explaining what sort of difference the experience ought to make to the person who has it. However, such a religious belief system needs to be understood; at least to some degree - it is hard to see how understanding it is not going to involve the use of reason.
For Rationalisms, in order for a religious belief-system to be properly and rationally accepted, it must be possible to prove that the belief-system is true. Rationalism in this sense implies a reliance on reason, or intelligence, in deciding our beliefs and actions. The central idea of strong rationalism was stated forcefully by W. K. Clifford. According to his opinion, no religious belief-system is capable of meeting the high standard of proof that should govern all of our believing, and so a reasonable (and moral) person must do without religious beliefs. Among the objections to Christian belief, as well as to Judaic and Muslim, Characteristic of the modern intelligentsia is the objection that it is no longer rational, if ever it was, to believe that God exists. Therefore, the rational person will have to make his way in the world without supposing that there exists any God in whom he could trust.517
However, according to Nicholas Wolterstorff, to believe in God is our fundamental human obligation. Central to Christianity, Judaism, and Islam alike is the conviction that we as human beings are called to believe in God to trust in him, to rely on him, to place our confidence in him. Central also is the conviction that only by believing in God can the deepest stirrings of the human heart be satisfied. Duty and fulfillment here coalesce. The rationality of trusting someone presupposes the rationality of believing that person exists.
John Locke was among the first to formulate articulately the evidentialist challenge to theistic belief. Reason is reasoning for Locke, and clearly he thinks of it as one among others of our belief-forming processes. Faith is another belief-forming process. It, by contrast, consists in accepting something “as coming from God.”518 However, for Locke it still belongs to reason to judge of the truth of its being a revelation, and of the signification of the words wherein it is delivered.
For evidentialist, one’s belief that God exists is rational only if it is formed or sustained by good inference by inferring it from others of one’s beliefs, which in fact provide adequate evidence for it. But, Wolterstorff, see no reason what so ever to suppose that by the criterion offered the evidentialist challenge is tenable. He see no reason to suppose that people who hold as one of their immediate beliefs that God exists always have adequate reason to surrender that belief or ought to believe that they do. However, for him those abstract and highly general theses of evidentialism no longer look very interesting, once we regard them in the light of the criterion offered. Therefore, for him the fact that it is not rational for some person to believe that God exists does not follow that he ought to give up that belief.
But can we accept the Principle of Credulity? One problem is that whereas there is a fundamental uniformity about the way we report both ordinary perceptual experiences and the beliefs about objects of those experiences, there is quite a diversity of reports about religious experiences and the claim based on them. Person give incompatible descriptions of the Reality experienced. Therefore, where perceptions yield conflicting testimony, we must turn to other experiences and rational arguments to determine the truth of the various claims. That is, where there are different accounts, additional considerations must be introduced to help decide which, if any, of the religious experiences are veridical. Although the reports provide a prima facie ground for their acceptance, not all beliefs based on such experiences are true. Just as we at times doubt perceptual claims for good reason, we might do the same for claims based on religious experience.
According to Hick, religion constitutes our varied human response to transcendent reality. Religious experience then is structured by religious beliefs which are implicit within religious experience. But the question is if this complex of experience and beliefs that takes place in different shapes within the different traditions, is to be regarded simply as a human creation or as our response to a transcendent reality, even if a response whose particular forms always involve the creative activity of the human imagination. Of course the problem of terminology is obvious as we see in many parts of philosophy, and without explanatory gloss none of the available descriptive labels for these two possibilities is entirely adequate.
Much of the philosophical discussion of religious diversity continues to centre on the work of John Hick.519 He is not interested in the question of what can justifiably be affirmed in the face of such diversity, rather, he is primarily concerned with the question of which justified response is most reasonable. Moreover, on this question, he leaves no doubt as to his opinion:
519 See John Hick, An Interpretation of Religion: Human response to the Transcendent, (New Haven: Yale University and London: Macmillan press, 1989), 172.
194
religious pluralism is by far the most plausible explanation for the pervasive religious diversity we encounter.
Many Westerners will best understand the emergence of inclusivism and pluralism in terms of the history of Christianity. For most of its history, Christianity has been resolutely exclusivist. In late antiquity, it was a new religion, struggling to establish itself in the face of criticism and persecution. It is not surprising to find it making exclusive claims on behalf of its charismatic founder, Jesus of Nazareth. Of course, Christianity is not the only religion to have fostered exclusivist attitudes. In their more militant movements, Muslims have done the same. Some Jews cherish an ethnically exclusive identity as God’s chosen people, and some Hindus revere the Vedas as a source of absolute truth, Buddhists often see in the teachings of Gautama the only dharma that can liberate humans from illusion and suffering.
Hick has set forth a philosophically sophisticated pluralistic hypothesis that may avoid problems of this sort.520 As he sees it, each of the major religious traditions offers a path to salvation or liberation that involves a transformation of human existence from self-centeredness to reality- centeredness.
Religious plurality is simply a fact. There are religious traditions that differ deeply in terms of their doctrines, practices, institutions, scriptures, experiences, and hope. According to pluralism, a single ultimate religious reality is being differently experienced and understood in all the major religious traditions; they all, as far as the philosophers can tell, offer equally effective paths to salvation or liberation.
According to Harold Coward, Judaism is an appropriate tradition in which to begin the stay of religious pluralism and the world religions. The experience of being a minority group in other cultures, which becoming more common place for all the world religions as religious pluralism spreads, has been the norm for Judaism for countless generations. From the biblical period to the present, Judaism has had to formulate its beliefs and practices in the face of challenges from other cultures and religions. The viewpoint of the modern Jew opens the way for relations with Christianity, Islam, and perhaps Hinduism; however, Buddhism - especially Mahayana Buddhism may prove to be in a separate category. The Buddhist consciousness in which no transcendent God is recognized and the Mahayana awareness of the Divine in the
520 Ibid.
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secular may be judged by the Jewish philosopher as a modern idolatry. Therefore, perhaps the most serious challenge for Judaism comes in its response to Buddhism. As long as a religion is founded on the experience of a transcendent God, Judaism seems to be able to enter into spiritual partnership with it. But if that experience does not hold true for the Buddhist - if it is not a transcendent God that is being experienced - can the Jew still embrace the Buddhist as a spiritual partner? This question has yet to be faced by Judaism.521
The relationship between Christianity and the other religions is one of the key issues in Christian self-understanding. Perhaps pluralism is so pressing a challenge because of the exclusivist missionary approaches adopted by Christianity over the past several hundred years.
In the rapidly expanding body of literature resulting from the encounter with other religions, many Christian theologians are concluding that Christian theology cannot continue to be formulated in isolation from the other religions, and that in fact future developments in Christian theology will be the direct result of serious dialogue with the other religions. Although the Churches are altering their ecclesiology so as to open the way for serious dialogue with other religions, the fundamental Christology that underlies traditional ecclesiology has not yet changed.
Through out the centuries the basic Islamic approach to other religions was to search for some fundamental structures that were harmonious with Islam but which lay hidden beneath the other religion’s deviations from true Islam: A major obstacle for understanding other religions was the lack of accurate information. However, Islam has essentially reached the truth toward which all other religions are evolving. Christianity, it seems, has also virtually reached this goal. It is possible that various nations or cultures will reach the truth in their own way. The Qur’an itself teaches that every community in every age has had its prophet. However, modern education will offer Muslims an opportunity to understand each religion in terms of its own culture, history, world view, and claims to truth. This will have an effect on Islamic self-perception.
Therefore, the religious pluralism of the modern world will force Islam, finding itself in much the same position as the other traditions, to come to grips with them rather provincial
521 See Harold Coward, Pluralism: Challenge to World Religions, Harold Coward, 1-12.
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character of some of its past views of other religions.
According to Hinduism, there is one divine reality that manifests itself in many forms. The various religions are simply different revelations of the one divine reality. Hinduism sees itself as being a very open and tolerant religion. But because it asserts that the Vedas are the most perfect revelation of divine truth, Hinduism also sees itself as providing the criteria against which the revelations of all other religions must be tested. Nevertheless, the Hindu view that there is one Divine, which may be reached by many paths, has proven through out the centuries to be a powerful influence upon Hinduism’s interaction with the other religions.522 Therefore, the Hindu contribution to the modern challenge of religious pluralism is to encourage the inquiring spirit and devotion to truth that is larger than any individual tradition.
The Buddhist attitude to other religions has been described as “critical tolerance”523 combined with a missionary goal. Buddhism has demonstrated a remarkable degree of tolerance and flexibility throughout the course of its expansion. Unlike some other religious expansions, the spread of Buddhism has been accomplished more through the dissemination of ideas than by migration of peoples.
Buddhism rejects the worship of God or gods and the performance of religious rituals as a means to release. It also rejects speculations about ultimate beginnings, especially about whether the self and the world were eternal, and a number of speculations about the ultimate state of the self in the future. The tolerant but critical attitude of the Buddha toward the plurality of religious views is shaped into a rigorous philosophic approach by the Madhyamika Buddhists. If, as the Buddha discovered, the goal of religion is compassion, then, say the Madhyamika, the biggest obstacle to realizing that goal is attachment to our own religious beliefs in such a way as to make them absolute. Based on this understanding, the Madhyamika Buddhist’s attitude towards other religions is one of openness and indeed a “missionary desire”524 to enter into dialogue.
The inherent desire to conceptualize and share religious experience is too deeply ingrained in
522 Ibid., 63-80.
523 See K. N. Jayatilleke, The Buddhist Attitude to Other Religions (Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1975). And see also Harold Coward Pluralism: Challenge to World Religions, 81.
524 See Harold Coward, Pluralism: Challenge to World Religions, 88.
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human nature to render silence an acceptable answer. In fact the Madhyamika himself has been far from silent. His prescription of silence was only intended to apply to claims of absolute knowledge. As long as the limitation is honored, then discussion, including theological discussion, could take place.
The dialogical approach opens the way for the meeting of Christians with Jews, Muslims, and Hindus. However, the theocentric premise could become an obstacle to meaningful encounters with Buddhists and Advaita Vedantists. Therefore, an unresolved problem for all of these approaches is the Buddhist and even those with considerable exposure to Buddhism and Hinduism seem almost willfully to turn a blind eye to this problem. One possible exception might be found in Tillich’s formulation of the “god above gods” as the “ground of being.”525
Dialogue starts from the assumption that each religion has its absolute claims which cannot be relativized. No amount of reformulation will do away with the difference. But, by letting our theologizing be influenced by others we will be forced to greater honesty and deeper spirituality. The prerequisite for dialogue is not the harmonizing of all beliefs but the recognition that each spiritual person has a committed and absolute conviction, and that these convictions are different.
Therefore, the expected outcome is not the homogenization of particular religions but the mutual deepening of spiritual experience within each particular religion, which may lead to glimpses of a common transcendent reality. This shift in perspective had the effect of drawing attention to the universal nature of religious experience in its many different traditions. In addition to turning attention away from metaphysics, rationalism, or revelation, the focus on the humanity of religion has had the effect of highlighting some of the limitations in human nature that must be taken seriously in all future religion.
Wie uns die Finanzkrise lehrt, leben wir in einem Wirtschaftssystem, in dem das Geldkapital Vorrang hat vor allen anderen Werten wie vor Natur, Mensch, Arbeit und Gemeinwohl. Die dadurch hervorgerufenen Schäden regen die Menschen in unserer Gesellschaft dazu an, Ideen im Interesse
einer zukunftsfähigen Marktwirtschaft zu testen. Die ethisch-ökologische Geldanlage wird dafür als eine Möglichkeit angesehen.
Grave visitation and concepts of life after death : a comparative study in Frankfurt and Hong Kong
(2012)
Grave visitation is a tradition common to many cultures. Yet, this sensitive topic is rarely addressed in cross cultural comparisons. Why do people visit the graves of their parents? What do they do in the cemetery? Could there be a similar set of intentions behind the diverse customs? By examining the visiting patterns in Frankfurt and Hong Kong, this research is aimed at comparing the concepts of life after death that underlie the practice. Phenomenologically oriented, this is an exploratory study based on qualitative interviews. Integrated with in-depth semi-structure interviewing and thematic analysis, the project covered twelve cases in each city. Research participants were purposefully selected. Data analysis was conducted according to the analytical framework approach. After identifying and clustering of themes, three central and interlocking issues were found: 1. the grave as a new home that connects the living and the dead; 2. death and the interpretation of hope; and 3.intergenerational reciprocity and continuing bonds. Though the images of life after death were ambiguously depicted, grave tending reflected shared expectations of the world beyond. Most significantly, visits to the graves strengthened the ties between the living and the dead, revealing a longing for a continued bond regardless of the forms of burial. At the end, this research illustrated not only the meanings of death but also the notion of religiosity through evaluating the secularisation thesis. Emphasising the dynamics of tradition and personal experience, this contextual reading of current death rituals serves as an original source for religious dialogue and education.
Since the world today is so significantly shaped by media technologies, it has become crucial for organizations, institutions and political parties to embrace this phenomenon in order for them to be able to communicate their message and programmes effectively. If they fail to do so, they in effect fail to exist in the public consciousness. Mass media hugely influence how culture is created: intelligence, artistic talent and technological innovation become visible through the media. The Roman Catholic Church, the world’s largest religious organization has, for the longest time, on the one hand denied the influence of the media, while on the other hand calling it ‘the work of evil’. When the Church eventually came to acknowledge the media as a powerful force, it proceeded to use this power as a mouthpiece for its authorities. The Catholic Church is still not wholly at ease with the media. The question is whether the Catholic Church has sufficiently familiarized itself with how the media function, in order to utilise the media to communicate the Church’s message to a large public audience. Against the background of ecclesial documents this article investigates the attitude of the Catholic Church towards the media as it has developed over the past 50 years.
Die Medien (Sprache, Schrift, Buch etc.) bestimmten schon immer die menschliche Wahrnehmung, das Denken, das Verhalten…, die gesamte Kultur. Allerdings wurde diese Tatsache erst durch die neuen Medien und Technologien wie Radio und Fernsehen und besonders durch den Einzug des Computers und anderer elektronischer Medien in den Alltag der westlichen Gesellschaft fast schmerzlich bewusst, denn die gegenwärtigen Lebensverhältnisse in den technologisch hoch entwickelten Ländern werden zunehmend durch technische Apparate programmiert, sogar dominiert: Ein Ausfall des Computersystems kann Schlangen vor der Supermarktkasse verursachen, oder schlimmer noch – ein Verkehrschaos, oder sogar einen nuklearen Krieg. Die rasante Entwicklung der neuen Medien und Technologien macht die Spekulationen der gewagtesten Science-Fiction-Romane und -Filme immer wahrscheinlicher. Wird der Mensch allmählich zur Maschine oder die Maschine zum Menschen? Im Unterschied zu einem weit verbreiteten technisch-mathematischen Medienmodell1, das die Medien als Input-Output-Kanäle defi niert, die Informationen vom Sender zum Empfänger unverändert übertragen, untersuchte der Literatur- und Medienwissenschaftler Marshall McLuhan bereits in den 60er und 70er Jahren des 20. Jahrhunderts die soziologischen und psychologischen Dimensionen der technologischen Umwelt und stellte fest, dass die von den Medien transportierten Inhalte nur eine geringe Auswirkung auf die menschliche Wahrnehmung ausüben: „Der Inhalt oder die Botschaft eines bestimmten Mediums haben ungefähr soviel Bedeutung wie die Aufschrift auf der Kapsel einer Atombombe.“, sagte in einem „Playboy“–Interview der kanadische Professor, der gerne zu Aphorismen und Metaphern griff, um seine Theorien zu veranschaulichen. Vielmehr verwandeln die Medien selbst, von der Sprache bis zum Computer die gesamte Umwelt, was wiederum eine tiefe, andauernde Veränderung im Menschen auslöst. Die Inhalte dienen nur zur Ablenkung des Bewusstseins: Wie der Dieb stets ein Stück saftiges Fleisch für den Wachhund bereithält, so lenken die Inhalte unsere Aufmerksamkeit ab, während das Medium seinen Einfl uss auf unsere Wahrnehmung ungehindert ausübt. Erst mit der Elektrizität wurde diese Erkenntnis greifbar, da elektrische Medien Informationen mit Lichtgeschwindigkeit übertragen und Kommunikation ohne Verzögerung stattfindet: So wird das Intervall zwischen Senden und Empfangen derart verkürzt, dass der Sender keine Informationen mehr, sonder sich selbst sendet, z.B. wenn wir am Telfon sprechen, werden wir an die Person mit der wir sprechen verschickt und umgekehrt – derjenige oder diejenige, mit dem wir sprechen wird uns durch die Leitung geschickt. Die Telefonierenden selbst sind die Botschaft für einander und nicht das, was sie miteinander bereden. Dieser Feststellung gibt McLuhan mit seinem berühmten und oft zitierten Slogan: „The Medium is the Message“ einen prägnanten Ausdruck. Dieser Artikel richtet die Aufmerksamkeit der Leser und Leserinnen auf einen Kernaspekt von McLuhans vielschichtiger Medientheorie, der für das Ergründen der aktuellen medial-technologischen Realität besonders wichtig ist, nämlich auf die symbiotische Beziehung zwischen dem menschlichen Körper und den Technologien. Davon ausgehend soll die Bedeutung der Kunst und ihrer Erschließungsweisen der Wirklichkeit für den Umgang mit Medien und für die Bewältigung der Herausforderungen unseres hoch technologisierten Zeitalters hervorgehoben werden.
Gibt es eine moderne Religion? : Jürgen Habermas und die Idee der "postsäkularen Gesellschaft"
(2009)
Das Verhältnis von Religion und Moderne ist in jüngster Zeit wieder zu einem heißen Konfliktherd geworden. So geht es beim Streit um die Piusbrüderschaft im Kern darum, ob eine religiöse Tradition die Kontinuität und Verbindlichkeit ihrer Überlieferung aufrechterhalten und zugleich an wesentliche Einsichten und normative Prinzipien der Moderne anschließen kann. Die traditionalistischen Kritiker des II. Vatikanischen Konzils behaupten, dass religiöse Institutionen wie die katholische Kirche ihre Identität in dem Maße verlieren, in dem sie ein bejahendes und konstruktives Verhältnis zur modernen Gesellschaft entwickeln. Die Anerkennung der Menschenrechte und der Ideen der Französischen Revolution durch das Konzil, also die Akzeptanz des Prinzips der Freiheit in Gestalt der Religionsfreiheit, der Gleichheit als Gleichberechtigung und Gleichwertigkeit aller Religionen und der Brüderlichkeit im Sinne einer gemeinsamen und solidarischen Weltverantwortung »aller Menschen guten Willens« bildet für die reaktionären Kritiker den eigentlichen Skandal der Öffnung der Kirche zur säkularen Moderne. Die unbeholfenen und viele empörenden Versuche der Resozialisierung der Piusbrüder sind letztlich unvollständige und unvollkommene Ansätze, auf eine kulturelle und gesellschaftliche Konstellation zu reagieren, für die Jürgen Habermas den prägnanten Ausdruck »postsäkulare Gesellschaft« geprägt hat. Diese Situation ist nach Habermas nämlich dadurch gekennzeichnet, dass sich religiöse Gemeinschaften auch in einer modernen Lebenswelt dauerhaft einrichten und in ihr fortbestehen. Wir haben laut Habermas Abschied zu nehmen von der Vorstellung eines linearen historischen Prozesses, der zwangsläufig zum Absterben der Religion führen wird. Allerdings schreitet die gesellschaftliche Säkularisierung im Sinne einer Ausdifferenzierung gesellschaftlicher Systeme und einer Pluralisierung von Weltanschauungen weiter voran.
Menschen in den modernen städtischen Gesellschaften sind kaum weniger religiös als zu früheren Zeiten. Sie suchen aber eher ihren eigenen Weg und wollen auch über ihre Zustimmung zu den Forderungen der Kirchen und Religionen frei entscheiden. Mit neuen religiösen und kulturellen Einflüssen wollen sie ihre eigenen Erfahrungen machen. Die Konturen der Glaubensgemeinschaften werden unschärfer; zugleich setzen sich Entwicklungen der Subjektivierung und Individualisierung nachhaltiger durch. Was kann es bedeuten, in Würdigung dieser Tendenzen die christliche Botschaft geltend zu machen: »Gott ist Mensch geworden«?
Religiöser Fundamentalismus wird häufig als Reaktion auf die Dominanz der westlichen Zivilisation gedeutet – doch reicht diese Betrachtungsweise aus, um die Konfliktlinien zwischen radikalen Fanatikern und religiösen Liberalisten zu verstehen? Aus ihren jahrzehntelangen Erfahrungen mit »Theologie interkulturell« können die katholischen Theologen der Universität Frankfurt zusätzliche Denkanstöße für diese Debatte in der globalisierten Welt geben: Das religiöse Bewusstsein, ob im Christentum, Islam, Hinduismus oder in anderen Religionen, ist immer geprägt von einer unauflöslichen Dialektik – von der grundlegenden Unterscheidung zwischen Gott und der erlösungsbedürftigen Welt und von der Gegenwart des Göttlichen in der Welt. Wenn dieses sensible dialektische Gefüge gestört wird, wenn beispielsweise die eigene religiöse Welt mit der Wahrheit Gottes gleichgesetzt wird, wie Fundamentalisten aller Religionen es praktizieren, ist auch der interkulturelle Dialog in Gefahr.
Die Promotionsarbeit stellt sich die Aufgabe, den christlichen Missions- oder Sendungsbegriff in seinem nachkonziliaren Verständnis durch eigene Feldforschung empirisch zu überprüfen. Am Beispiel von überwiegend von Christen durchgeführter Entwicklungsarbeit mit Frauengruppen in Indien kann der v.a. geschichtlich belastete Missionsbegriff revidiert werden. Im Schnittfeld von Soziologie/Ethnologie einerseits und Praktischer sowie Systematischer Theologie andererseits stehend gliedert sich die Arbeit in drei große Teile: Theorie-Teil A. Untersuchung des bisherigen Missionsbegriffs, Empirie-Teil B. Theoriegenerierung aus den erhobenen Daten des Entwicklungsprojektes und Synthese-Teil C. Rückfragen aus der Projektanalyse an den christlichen Sendungsbegriff. Teil A diskutiert die mit dem Zweiten Vatikanum eingeläutete Wende des Missionsverständnisses weg von einer geographischen Begrenzung hin zu einer Wesensaktivität der Kirche und die teilweise Rücknahme dieses Neuverständnisses in nachkonziliaren kirchenamtlichen Dokumenten. Sodann wird das Verständnis von Mission bzw. christlicher Sendung in der heutigen theologischen Forschung unter Einschluss der indischen Theologie dargestellt. Gerade in Indien wird die historische Belastung des Begriffs Mission und zugleich ein Bedarf an missionarischen Handeln in Form von Zeugnis geben deutlich. Vier entscheidende Leitfragen, welche durch die Feldforschung zu beantworten sind, resultieren daraus: Wer betreibt Mission? Bei welcher Zielgruppe spricht man von Mission? Wie ist Mission einzugrenzen? Was ist eine missionarische Tätigkeit? Teil 3 wertet die Daten der Feldforschung in einem südindischen Dorf aus. Dabei gewährleistet die Methode der Grounded Theorie als reflexiv-parallel verlaufender Prozess der Datengewinnung, Datenauswertung und Dateninterpretation, dass theoretische Missionsansätze nicht als Hypothesen herangezogen werden. Die Datenanalyse orientiert sich an der rekonstruktiven Sozialforschung. Der Teil C diskutiert anhand der vier Leitfragen den Überschuß des bisherigen, in Teil A diskutierten Sendungsbegriffs, der im Projekt noch nicht zum Tragen kommt, und zugleich seine Mängel, welche die Projektauswertung aufzeigt. Daraus resultiert: (1) Die Identifikation mit dem christlichen Glauben beinhaltet per se eine missionarische Dimension, jeder Christ handelt also unbewusst missionarisch. (2) Dieses missionarische Handeln geschieht sowohl gegenüber Christen wie gegenüber Nicht-Christen, jedoch ist die Kommunikationsweise verschieden. (3) Deswegen wird zwischen innerer und äußerer Mission unterschieden: Äußere Mission findet überall dort statt, wo Christen mit Nicht-Christen kommunizieren. Sie endet gegebenenfalls bei deren freier Entscheidung für das Christ-sein. Dort, wo die äußere Mission zu einer Identifizierung mit dem Inhalt der christlichen Botschaft führt, beginnt die innere Mission, welche nie endet. (4) Insofern ist jedwedes bewusste und unbewusste, verbale und non-verbale Kommunizieren eines überzeugten Christen als missionarische Tätigkeit zu bezeichnen. Entsprechend wird Entwicklungsarbeit, von Christen durchgeführt, auch zu einer missionarischen Tätigkeit, sofern Christen aus ihrem Christ-sein heraus leben und handeln.