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Rezension zu Schwitalla, Johannes (2006): Gesprochenes Deutsch. Eine Einführung. 3., neu bearbeitete Auflage. Erich Schmidt Verlag. Berlin und Fiehler, Reinhard (2005): Gesprochene Sprache. In: Duden. Die Grammatik. Unentbehrlich für richtiges Deutsch. 7., völlig neu bearbeitete und erweiterte Auflage. Dudenverlag. Mannheim, Leipzig, Wien, Zürich. S. 1175-1256.
Die kognitive Struktur des Erwachsenenlerners, seine Voraussetzungen zum lebenslangen Lernen sowie die institutionellen Rahmenbedingungen der Erwachsenenbildung wurden zum Gegenstand der Andragogik. Der vorliegende Artikel setzt sich mit den Spezifika des Fremdsprachenlernens bei Erwachsenen auseinander, die zur Entstehung einer neuen Disziplin führten – der Sprachandragogik. Er erörtert in diesem Zusammenhang ebenfalls die Relevanz der Prinzipien des kommunikativen Ansatzes.
Der Beitrag beschäftigt sich mit dem Thema der Höflichkeit in der interkulturellen Kommunikation. "Höflichkeit" ist eine der wichtigsten mentalen Kommunikationskategorien und ein untrennbarer Bestandteil des jeweiligen "kulturellen" Kommunikationsbewusstseins. In jeder Kultur gibt es ein "eigenes" Konzept von Höflichkeit, wobei die Wirkungsweise der unterschiedlichen – kulturbedingten – Höflichkeitssysteme (u.a. H-normen, H-traditionen, verbalen sowie nonverbalen Verhaltensweisen) in der inter- bzw. transkulturellen Kommunikation zu Problemen und Misserfolgen führen kann und deswegen im gesteuerten Fremdsprach(en)lernprozess ganz bewusst vermittelt werden sollte.
Im ersten Teil wird zunächst die wenige Forschungsliteratur zum Thema Deskriptivität selbst und eng verwandten Themen vorgestellt und besprochen. Daraus soll sich im Anschluss auch eine Definition des Begriffes ergeben, die weit genug gefasst ist, um die übliche Verwendungsweise des Begriffs bei Autoren, die ihn zwar benutzen, aber nicht theoretisch behandeln, zu erfassen, die sich aber andererseits dennoch in klar definierten und nachvollziehbaren Grenzen bewegt. Dabei soll weiterhin deutlich werden, dass es sich bei Deskriptivität um ein prinzipiell in allen Sprachen anzutreffendes Phänomen handelt, dass sich aber die Frequenz deskriptiver Ausdrücke von Sprache zu Sprache stark unterscheiden kann. Dabei werde ich Daten aus ausgewählten Sprachen einbeziehen und eine quantitative Analyse des Ausmaßes, mit dem verschiedene Sprachen von deskriptiven Bildungen Gebrauch machen vorstellen. Der zweite Hauptteil der Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit folgender Frage: Wenn jede Sprache zu einem gewissen Grad von deskriptiven Benennungen Gebrauch macht, welche Mechanismen des Sprachwandels gibt es, die die Position einer Sprache auf dieser Skala in die eine oder die andere Richtung verändern können?
Im Laufe der letzten Jahrzehnte haben in die Aspektologie und die ihr gewidmeten wissenschaftlichen Debatten zunehmend Versuche Einzug gehalten, die mit dem Ziel unternommen wurden und darauf ausgerichtet waren, die Lexik der Verben in den Mittelpunkt des Interesses zu rücken und in der Hoffnung darauf zu durchforsten, darin Hinweise aufzuspüren, die es gestatten, entsprechende verlässliche Rückschlüsse auf das von ihnen gezeitigte Aspektverhalten, d.h. die in dem jeweiligen Fall zutage tretende Art der der Imperfektiv-Perfektiv-Opposition zugrunde liegenden Bedeutung zu ziehen. In dem Bemühen, eine aspektuell relevante Verbklassifikation, d.h. eine solche, die sowohl über die Frage der aspektuellen Paarigkeit von Verben als auch über die semantischen Eigenschaften von Perfektivum und Imperfektivum innerhalb eines Aspektpaares Aufschluss erteilt, zu erstellen, musste man sich zunächst auf die Aufgabe zurückbesinnen, die die Sprache dem Aspekt zubedacht hat und die durch den morphologisch geschiedenen Gegensatz von Imperfektiva und Perfektiva wahrgenommen wird: die - von mir eindeutig ausschließlich in diesem Sinne so genannte - Aspektualität.
Die vorliegende Arbeit ist eine kritische Auseinandersetzung mit dem Hofstedeschen Ansatz. Dabei soll in erster Linie das Werk von Hofstede selbst einer wissenschaftstheoretisch-methodologischen Prüfung unterzogen werden. Bei sehr populären Standardansätzen, die sowohl in der Praxis einen großen Anklang finden als auch in der wissenschaftlichen Gemeinschaft ständig rezipiert und weiterentwickelt werden, bleibt es natürlich nicht aus, dass durch Vereinfachungen oder Uminterpretationen in der Literatur Inkonsistenzen entstehen, die so im Originalwerk nicht enthalten sind. In dieser Arbeit soll es im Wesentlichen nicht um solche Probleme der Hofstedeschen Rezeption gehen. Vielmehr werde ich die Argumentation von Hofstede selbst in seinen eigenen Schriften […] einer detaillierten kritischen Analyse zu unterziehen, um auf diese Weise zu prüfen, ob bestimmte gravierende Probleme schon im Originalwerk angelegt sind.
The special issue of The Linguistic Review on "The Role of Linguistics in Cognitive Science" presents a variety of viewpoints that complement or contrast with the perspective offered in Foundations of Language (Jackendoff 2002a). The present article is a response to the special issue. It discusses what it would mean to integrate linguistics into cognitive science, then shows how the parallel architecture proposed in Foundations seeks to accomplish this goal by altering certain fundamental assumptions of generative grammar. It defends this approach against criticisms both from mainstream generative grammar and from a variety of broader attacks on the generative enterprise, and it reflects on the nature of Universal Grammar. It then shows how the parallel architecture applies directly to processing and defends this construal against various critiques. Finally, it contrasts views in the special issue with that of Foundations with respect to what is unique about language among cognitive capacities, and it conjectures about the course of the evolution of the language faculty.
Du fait de la traite négrière qui a vu des millions d’Africains être déportés aux Amériques, les langues européennes (anglais, espagnol, français, néerlandais, portugais) des colons qui y étaient déjà installés et qui avaient un fort besoin en main-d’oeuvre africaine, ont eu à intégrer à des degrés divers de nombreux mots africains. Les chercheurs qui travaillent sur ces africanismes sont d’accord pour dire que ces mots ont deux grandes origines africaines : bantoue et non-bantoue.
Traditionally, the term "grammatical relation" (GR) refers to the morphosyntactic properties that relate an argument to a clause, as, for example, its subject or its object. Alternative terms are "syntactic function" or "syntactic role", and they highlight the fact that GRs are defined by the way in which arguments are integrated syntactically into a clause, i.e. by functioning as subject, object etc. Whatever terminology one prefers, what is crucial about the traditional notion of GRs is (a) that they are identified by syntactic properties, and (b) that they relate an argument to the clause.
Language universals are statements that are true of all languages, for example: “all languages have stop consonants”. But beneath this simple definition lurks deep ambiguity, and this triggers misunderstanding in both interdisciplinary discourse and within linguistics itself. A core dimension of the ambiguity is captured by the opposition “absolute vs. statistical universal”, although the literature uses these terms in varied ways. Many textbooks draw the boundary between absolute and statistical according to whether a sample of languages contains exceptions to a universal. But the notion of an exception-free sample is not very revealing even if the sample contained all known languages: there is always a chance that an as yet undescribed language, or an unknown language from the past or future, will provide an exception.
Rawang [...] is a Tibeto-Burman language spoken by people who live in the far north of Kachin State in Myanmar (Burma), particularly along the Mae Hka ('Nmai Hka) and Maeli Hka (Mali Hka) river valleys (see map on back page); population unknown, although Ethnologue gives 100,000. In the past they had been called ‘Nung’, or (mistakenly) ‘Hkanung’, and are considered to be a sub-group of the Kachin by the Myanmar government. Until government policies put a stop to the clearing of new land in 1994, the Rawang speakers still practiced slash and burn farming on the mountainsides (they still do a bit, but only on already claimed land), in conjunction with planting paddy rice near the river. They are closely related to people on the other side of the Chinese border in Yunnan classified as either Dulong or Nu(ng) (see LaPolla 2001, 2003 on the Dulong language). In this paper, I will be discussing the word-class-changing constructions found in Rawang, using data of the Mvtwang (Mvt River) dialect of Rawang, which is considered the most central of those dialects in Myanmar and so has become something of a standard for writing and inter-group communication.
Minority languages of China
(2007)
This chapter looks at language endangerment in the People's Republic of China, focusing on three of the main factors that influence language maintenance in China today: increased contact due to population movements and changes in the economy; the population policies of the government, particularly the identification of nationalities and languages; and the education system, particularly bilingual education. Finally, we give a brief account of the major efforts to document endangered languages.
Winter's law again
(2007)
Since I discussed the scholarly literature on Winter’s law twenty years ago (1988), several important articles on the subject have appeared (Young 1990, Campanile 1994, Matasovic 1995, Derksen 2002, Dybo 2002, Patri 2005, Derksen 2007). As the law evidently continues to be controversial, it is important to look into the nature of the evidence and counter-evidence which is adduced. It appears that doubts about Winter’s law are largely the result of four types of misunderstanding.
Gothic gen.pl. -e
(2007)
Like its predecessor in Zagreb, the conference on Balto-Slavic accentology in Copenhagen was a great success. The enthusiasm of the organizers Adam Hyllested and Thomas Olander proved highly effective in stimulating discussion among the participants. While in Zagreb most papers dealt with Slavic data, in Copenhagen the emphasis was on Balto-Slavic problems.
Last year Georg Holzer proposed a relative chronology of accentual developments in Slavic (2005). Here I shall compare his chronology with the one I put forward earlier (1975, 1989a, 2003) and discuss the differences. For the sake of convenience, I first reproduce the relevant parts of my chronology, omitting asterisks before pre-historic Slavic forms. 1. Proto-Indo-European. 2. Dialectal Indo-European. 3. Early Balto-Slavic. During this period the characteristic lateral mobility of Balto-Slavic accent patterns came into existence. 4. Late Balto-Slavic. During this period the Balto-Slavic accent patterns obtained their final shape.
Koivulehto and Vennemann have recently (1996) revived Posti’s theory (1953) which attributed Finnic consonant gradation to Germanic influence, in particular to the influence of Verner’s law. This theory disregards the major differences between Finnic and Saami gradation (cf. Sammallahti 1998: 3) and ignores the similar gradation in Nganasan and Selkup (cf. Kallio 2000: 92).
In his magnificent book on the language relations across Bering Strait (1998), Michael Fortescue does not consider Nivkh (Gilyak) to be a Uralo-Siberian language. Elsewhere I have argued that the Indo-European verbal system can be understood in terms of its Indo-Uralic origins (2001). All of these languages belong to Joseph Greenberg’s Eurasiatic macro-family (2000). In the following I intend to reconsider the grammatical evidence for including Nivkh into the Uralo-Siberian language family. The Indo-Uralic evidence is of particular importance because it guarantees a time depth which cannot otherwise be attained.
The Germanic perfect presents (Präteritopräsentien) form a past tense by adding the endings of the weak preterit to the stem of the past participle, e.g. Go. wissa ‘knew’. This is a recent formation (cf. Kortlandt 1989). We may therefore ask ourselves if we can reconstruct the earlier formation which was ousted by the weak preterit. We may also try to recover the motivation for the replacement.
The Germanic weak preterit
(2007)
The main difficulty with the Germanic weak preterit is that one cannot endeavor an explanation of its origin without taking into account almost every aspect of the historical phonology and morphology of the Germanic languages. In the following I intend to show how a number of problems receive a natural explanation in a unified treatment on the basis of earlier studies. The theory presented here is not revolutionary, but aims at integrating earlier findings into a coherent whole. There is no reason to give a detailed account of the scholarly literature, which is easily accessible (cf. Tops 1974, Bammesberger 1986).
Polabian accentuation
(2007)
From a synchronic point of view, the accentuation of Late Polabian has been clarified by Trubetzkoy (1929) and Olesch (1973, 1974). The stress fell on the last full vowel of a word form, which was found either in the final or in the penulti-mate syllable. In the latter instance, the final syllable contained a reduced vowel. This rule was challenged by Kurylowicz (1955), who maintained that the stress was fixed on the initial syllable of the word. The latter theory has the advantage of accounting for the absence of reduced vowels in initial syllables.
Eine Einführung in eine Reihe von linguistischen Phänomenen von Phonetik bis Pragmatik, einige theoretische Ansätze zur Beschreibung/für diese Phänomene, mit einem Blick auf Phänomene und Ansätze, die für kognitive Linguisten und Neurologen interessant sind. Der Begriff "Schnittstelle" ist in der Linguistik ein technischer Terminus, der beschreibt, wie verschiedene Typen von Phänomenen miteinander in einer Beziehung stehen, aber der Terminus soll auch beschreiben, wie linguistische und außerlinguistische Phänomene ineinandergreifen.
Ein zentrales Thema in den Arbeiten Klaus Welkes ist die Analyse formal bestimmter Relationen, die semantisch interpretierbar sind (vgl. etwa WELKE 1988, 1992, 1994, 2001, 22005). Wichtige Fragestellungen sind hier insbesondere: Wie ist die Hierarchie logisch-pragmatischer Rollen, wie die syntaktischer Funktionen? Wie hängen die beiden Bereiche zusammen? Wie können wir dies mit Hilfe von Argumentstrukturen erfassen? Der vorliegende Beitrag wird sich mit dem hierfür zentralen Aspekt der Verknüpfung syntaktischer und semantischer Relationen aus einer evolutionären Perspektive befassen. In Übereinstimmung mit WELKE (22005) gehe ich davon aus, „daß es neben einer Syntax formaler Strukturen auch eine Syntax semantischer Strukturen gibt“ (WELKE 22005, 4) und untersuche vor diesem Hintergrund, wie eine Entstehung dieser beiden Domänen und die Verknüpfung der betreffenden Strukturen im Rahmen der Evolution menschlicher Sprache aussehen könnte.
A two-week perturbation EMA-experiment was carried out with palatal prostheses. Articulatory effort for five speakers was assessed by means of peak acceleration and jerk during the tongue tip gestures from /t/ towards /i, e, o, y, u/. After a period of no change speakers showed an increase in these values. Towards the end of the experiment the values decreased. The results are interpreted as three phases of carrying out changes in the internal model. At first, the complete production system is shifted in relation to the palatal change, afterwards speakers explore different production mechanisms which involves more articulatory effort. This second phase can be seen as a training phase where several articulatory strategies are explored. In the third phase speakers start to select an optimal movement strategy to produce the sounds so that the values decrease.
"Anything which focusses the attention is an index", schreibt Charles Sanders Peirce, der Begründer des amerikanischen Pragmatismus und Vater der modernen Semiotik in einem 1893 verfassten Kapitel seines geplanten Buches "The Art of Reasoning". Alles, was die Aufmerksamkeit ausrichtet oder erzeugt, ist ein Index. Aber was heißt hier Aufmerksamkeit? Was ist mit "ausrichten oder erzeugen" - der von mir gewählten Übersetzung für den Ausdruck "focusses" - gemeint. Und, last but not least, wie soll man den Begriff des Index fassen?
Humans possess a number concept that differs from its predecessors in animal cognition in two crucial respects: (1) it is based on a numerical sequence whose elements are not confined to quantitative contexts, but can indicate cardinal/quantitative as well as ordinal and even nominal properties of empirical objects (e.g. ‘five buses’: cardinal; ‘the fifth bus’: ordinal; ‘the #5 bus’: nominal), and (2) it can involve recursion and, via recursion, discrete infinity. In contrast to that, the predecessors of numerical cognition that we find in animals and human infants rely on finite and iconic representations that are limited to cardinality and do not support a unified concept of number. In this paper, I argue that the way such a unified number concept could evolve in humans is via verbal sequences that are employed as numerical tools, that is, sequences of words whose elements are associated with empirical objects in number assignments. In particular, I show that a certain kind of number words, namely the counting sequences of natural languages, can be characterised as a central instance of verbal numerical tools. I describe a possible scenario for the emergence of such verbal numerical tools in human history that starts from iconic roots and that suggests that in a process of co-evolution, the gradual emergence of counting sequences and the development of an increasingly comprehensive number concept supported each other. On this account, it is language that opened the way for numerical cognition, suggesting that it is no accident that the same species that possesses the language faculty as a unique trait, should also be the one that developed a systematic concept of number.
Sätze mit Verberststellung können im Deutschen eine kausale Bedeutung haben, wobei sie jedoch eine Besonderheit aufweisen. In diesen Sätzen tritt immer unbetontes doch auf, dem der Status einer Modalpartikel zugeschrieben werden kann. Dabei handelt es sich um eine Randerscheinung, die in den Grammatiken häufig vernachlässigt wird.
Semantic form as interface
(2007)
The term interface had a remarkable career over the past several decades, motivated largely by its use in computer science. Although the concept of a "surface common to two areas" (Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, 1980) is intuitively clear enough, the range of its application is not very sharp and well defined, a "common surface" is open to a wide range of interpretations.
This paper reconciles the standpoint that language users do not aim at improving their sound systems with the observation that languages seem to improve their sound systems. Computer simulations of inventories of sibilants show that Optimality-Theoretic learners who optimize their perception grammars automatically introduce a so-called prototype effect, i.e. the phenomenon that the learner’s preferred auditory realization of a certain phonological category is more peripheral than the average auditory realization of this category in her language environment. In production, however, this prototype effect is counteracted by an articulatory effect that limits the auditory form to something that is not too difficult to pronounce. If the prototype effect and the articulatory effect are of a different size, the learner must end up with an auditorily different sound system from that of her language environment. The computer simulations show that, independently of the initial auditory sound system, a stable equilibrium is reached within a small number of generations. In this stable state, the dispersion of the sibilants of the language strikes an optimal balance between articulatory ease and auditory contrast. The important point is that this is derived within a model without any goal-oriented elements such as dispersion constraints.
In Ocotepec Mixe, the stem-initial sibilants /s tÉs ß/ undergo a palatalization process when the prefix /j/ is added. Descriptions of other Mixe languages report that this palatalization is realized either as addition of a glide (in the case of the alveolar and retroflex sibilants) or as a change in the primary place of articulation (in the case of the affricate). The acoustic measurements in the present study indicate that all palatalized sibilants in Ocotepec have an additional glide, unless they are followed by the high front vowel(s) /i (e)/, and that both the affricate and retroflex fricative show a consistent change in primary place of articulation under palatalization.
The Inuit inhabit a vast area of--from a European point of view--most inhospitable land, stretching from the northeastern tip of Asia to the east coast of Greenland. Inuit peoples have never been numerous, their settlements being scattered over enormous distances. But nevertheless, from an ethnological point of view, all Inuit peoples shared a distinct culture, featuring sea mammal and caribou hunting, sophisticated survival skills, technical and social devices, including the sharing of essential goods and strategies for minimizing and controlling aggression.
Sprache als kranker Organismus : linguistische Anmerkungen zum Spiegel-Titel "Rettet dem Deutsch!"
(2007)
Introduction
(2007)
Semantics
(2007)
Morphology
(2007)
Introduction
(2007)
The annotation guidelines introduced in this chapter present an attempt to create a unique infrastructure for the encoding of data from very different languages. The ultimate target of these annotations is to allow for data retrieval for the study of information structure, and since information structure interacts with all levels of grammar, the present guidelines cover all levels of grammar too. After introducing the guidelines, the current chapter also presents an evaluation by means of measurements of the inter-annotator agreement.
Information structure
(2007)
Traces
(2007)
Presupposition
(2007)
We consider evidentials embedded in complement clauses with new data from Bulgarian. For Tibetan, Garrett has shown that embedded evidentials are always shifted to the perspective of the reported speech. In Bulgarian, we show that such a shift is almost never possible. This shows that Bulgarian evidentials should not be analyzed as modals, but rather as presuppositional.