540 Chemie und zugeordnete Wissenschaften
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Im Rahmen dieser Doktorarbeit wurde eine wirksame synthetische und spektroskopische Methode entwickelt, um Abstände in DNA- und RNA-Duplexen mittels Elektronen-Paramagnetische-Resonanz (EPR) zu messen und um in Zukunft die dreidimensionale Struktur biologisch relevanter RNAs bestimmen zu können. Die Synthese von iodierten Nukleotid-Bausteinen für die Oligonukleotidsynthese, an denen mit Hilfe der Palladium katalysierten Sonogashira-Kreuzkupplung sich EPR-aktive Nitroxid-Acetylene einführen lassen, wurde erfolgreich durchgeführt. Diese Phosphoramidite sollten die folgenden Kriterien erfüllen: Alle vier Basen (A, C, G und U) sollten modifiziert werden und das eingeführte Spinlabel 2,2,5,5- Tetramethyl-3-ethinyl-pyrrolin-N-oxyl (TPA) sollte entweder in die minor oder die major groove hineinragen. Im Falle der Pyrimidine (U und C) war nur die Orientierung in die major groove möglich, da das Iodid nur am C5 eingeführt werden kann. Obwohl 5-Iodo-desoxyuridin- und 5-Iodo-uridin-phosphoramidit käuflich sind, wurden diese Bausteine selber hergestellt, wobei die iodierten Bausteine mit hohen Ausbeuten erhalten wurden. Die Synthese von 5-Iodo-cytidin erfolgte aus Cytidin, insbesondere durch die Iodierung mit Iod, Iodsäure in Essigsäure und Tetrachlorkohlenstoff. Die einzige Möglichkeit, dass das Nitroxid eine Orientierung innerhalb der minor groove annimmt, war die Derivatisierung am C2 der Purine. Der Austausch von Iodo gegen eine Aminofunktion für Guanosin war wegen des Verschwindens einer potentiellen Wasserstoffbrücke ungünstig, im Gegensatz zu Adenosin. Die Synthese von 2-Iodo-adenosin-phosphoramidit wurde durchgeführt, wobei die Amino-Gruppe am C2 eines modifizierten Guanosins durch Iod mittels einer radikalischen Reaktion mit Iod, Iodmethan und Kupferiodid substituiert wurde. Die Synthese von 7-Deaza-adenosin (7-Iodo-tubercidin) und von 7-Deaza-guanosin wurde durch eine Lewissäure katalysierte Vorbrüggen-Glykosylierung zwischen der geschützen Nukleobase und der acetylierten Ribofuranose erzielt. Die Iodierung erfolgte für das geschützte Tubercidin mit N-Iodsuccinimid, während sie für Guanosin trotz zahlreicher Versuche leider scheiterte. Da natürlich vorkommende DNA und RNA nicht paramagnetisch sind, müssen sie durch die Einführung eines Spinlabels EPR-fähig gemacht werden. Dafür wurde das Spinlabel TPA ausgewählt, da es sich mit einer hohen Stabilität und Starrheit auszeichnet. Dafür wurde zuerst die Palladium(II) katalysierte Sonogashira-Kupplung in DNA-Strängen wärend der Oligonukleotidsynthese für 5-Iodo-desoxy-uridin optimiert: Sehr reine Proben mit einem oder zwei Spinlabels in einem Strang konnten hergestellt werden. Diese Methode wurde anschließend erfolgreich auf RNA mit geringfügigen Änderungen für U, C und A übertragen, um die Ausbeute der Kupplung zu verbessern. Die benutzte Chemie hat sich als entscheidend erwiesen, da es zu berücksichtigen gilt, wie sich die Reagenzien, die bei der RNA-Festphasensynthese eingesetzt werden, auf das Spinlabel auswirken. Es wurde festgestellt, dass die Oxidationsstufe des klassischen TBDMS-Festphasenzyklus mit Iod, Pyridin und Wasser für die Reduktion eines beträchtlichen Teils des Nitroxids verantwortlich ist, insbesondere im Falle von 2-Iodo-adenosin. Deshalb wurde beschlossen, die patentierte ACE-Chemie zu verwenden, in der das Phosphor-Atom während des Festphasenzyklus mit tert-Butylperoxid in Toluol oxidiert wird. Die Synthese der geeigneten Bausteine wurde hierfür durchgeführt, 5-Iodo-uridin-phosphoramidit ist bei Dharmacon kommerziell erhältlich. Leider scheiterte die Synthese von 7-Iodo-tubercidin-phosphoramidit auf der Stufe der Einführung des Orthoesters. Auf diese Weise wurden sehr reine doppelgelabelte DNA und RNA Duplexe erhalten, deren Stabilität durch UV-Spektroskopie überprüft wurde. Der Unterschied in den Tm-Werten überstieg nicht 3,2°C für DNA und 5,1°C für RNA im Vergleich zu den unmodifizierten Duplexen. CD-Spektren wurden ebenso aufgenommen und zeigten, dass die B- bzw. A-Form erhalten blieb. In Zusammenarbeit mit dem Arbeitskreis Prisner wurden die Abstände zwischen den zwei Nitroxiden in den synthetisierten fünf DNA- und sechs RNA-Duplexen mit Puls-Elektron-Doppel-Resonanz (PELDOR) gemessen. Diese experimentellen Werte wurden mit den theoretischen Werten verglichen, die mit Molecular Dynamics Simulationen erhalten wurden (Arbeitskreis Stock). Die mit beiden Methoden erhaltenen Ergebnisse stimmen überein. Erfolgreich wurde auch die Synthese von reinen spingelabelten biologisch relevanten RNAs wie TAR-RNA, der vier-Wege Kreuzung IIIa,b,c des Hepatitis C Virus und dem U4-U6 Komplex des Spleißosoms im Rahmen dieser Arbeit durchgeführt. Die größte synthetisierte RNA betrug 65 Nukleobasen. Leider konnten wegen zu hoher Flexibilität oder nicht richtiger Faltung der RNA keine definierten Abstände gefunden werden.
Translational riboswitches are cis-acting RNA regulators that modulate the expression of genes during translation initiation. Their mechanism is considered as an RNA-only gene-regulatory system inducing a ligand-dependent shift of the population of functional ON- and OFF-states. The interaction of riboswitches with the translation machinery remained unexplored. For the adenine-sensing riboswitch from Vibrio vulnificus we show that ligand binding alone is not sufficient for switching to a translational ON-state but the interaction of the riboswitch with the 30S ribosome is indispensable. Only the synergy of binding of adenine and of 30S ribosome, in particular protein rS1, induces complete opening of the translation initiation region. Our investigation thus unravels the intricate dynamic network involving RNA regulator, ligand inducer and ribosome protein modulator during translation initiation.
We present the rapid biophysical characterization of six previously reported putative G‐quadruplex‐forming RNAs from the 5′‐untranslated region (5′‐UTR) of silvestrol‐sensitive transcripts for investigation of their secondary structures. By NMR and CD spectroscopic analysis, we found that only a single sequence—[AGG]2[CGG]2C—folds into a single well‐defined G‐quadruplex structure. Sequences with longer poly‐G strands form unspecific aggregates, whereas CGG‐repeat‐containing sequences exhibit a temperature‐dependent equilibrium between a hairpin and a G‐quadruplex structure. The applied experimental strategy is fast and provides robust readout for G‐quadruplex‐forming capacities of RNA oligomers.
In der vorgelegten kumulativen Arbeit wurden strukturelle und funktionale Untersuchungen an Nukleinsäuren durchgeführt, hauptsächlich, aber nicht ausschließlich unter Verwendung von NMR-Spektroskopie (Kernspin Resonanzspektroskopie) als Analysemethode. Die untersuchten Biomoleküle umfassten kleinere und größere biologisch relevante RNAs sowie einen artifiziellen DNA G-Quadruplex. Hierbei konnten Ergebnisse im Bereich der Bestimmung der molekularen Struktur, der Aufklärung der biologischen Funktion und der Wirkstoffentwicklung gewonnen werden, die in sechs verschiedenen Publikationen dargelegt sind, an deren Erstellung der Autor maßgeblich oder hauptverantwortlich beteiligt war. Des Weiteren wird in einem mehrgliedrigen Einleitungssegment auf den Stand der aktuellen Forschung in den jeweiligen Teilgebieten eingegangen.
This thesis describes the structural characterization of interactions between biological relevant ribonucleic acid biomacromolecules (RNAs) and selected ligands to optimize the methodologies for the design of pharmacological lead compounds. To achieve this aim, not only the structures of the RNA, the ligand and their complexes need to be known, but also information about the inherent dynamics, especially of the target RNA, are necessary. To determine the structure and dynamics of these molecules and their complexes, liquid state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) is a suitable and powerful method. The necessity for these investigations arises from the lack of knowledge in RNA-ligand interactions, e.g. for the development of new medicinal drugs targeting crucial RNA sequences. In the first chapters of this thesis (Chapters II to IV), an introduction into RNA research is given with a focus on RNA structural features (Chapter II), into the interacting molecules, the biology of the specific RNA targets and the further development of their ligands (Chapter III) and into the NMR theory and methodologies used within this thesis (Chapter IV). Chapter II begins with a description of RNA characteristics and functions, placing the focus on the increasing attention that these biomacromolecules have attracted in recent years due to their diverse biological functionalities. This is followed by a detailed description of general structural features of RNA molecules. The biological functions of the RNAs investigated in this thesis (Human immunodeficiency virus PSI- and TAR-RNA and Coxsackievirus B3 Stemloop D in the 5’-cloverleaf element), together with their known structural characteristics are introduced in Chapter III. Furthermore, a description of the investigated ligands is given, focusing on the methods how their affinity and specificity were determined. The introduction is completed in Chapter IV, where the relevant NMR theory and methodologies are explained. First, kinetics and thermodynamics of ligand binding are summarized from an NMR point of view. Subsequently, a detailed description of the resonance assignment procedures for RNAs and peptidic ligands is given. This procedure mainly concentrates on the assignment of the proton resonances, which are essential for the later structure calculation from NMR restraints. The procedure for NMR structure calculation of RNA and its complexes follows with a short introduction into the programs ARIA and HADDOCK. The final part of this chapter explains the relaxation theory and the methodology to extract dynamic information from autocorrelated relaxation rates via the model-free formalism. In the Chapters V to VII of this thesis, the original publications are included and grouped into three topics. Chapter V comprehends the publications on the investigations of HIV PSI-RNA and its hexapeptidic ligand. These three publications[1-3] focus on the characterization of the ligand and its binding properties, its structure and the optimization of its composition aiming to improve its usage for further spectroscopic investigations.
The combination of high-throughput sequencing and in vivo crosslinking approaches leads to the progressive uncovering of the complex interdependence between cellular transcriptome and proteome. Yet, the molecular determinants governing interactions in protein-RNA networks are not well understood. Here we investigated the relationship between the structure of an RNA and its ability to interact with proteins. Analysing in silico, in vitro and in vivo experiments, we find that the amount of double-stranded regions in an RNA correlates with the number of protein contacts. This relationship —which we call structure-driven protein interactivity— allows classification of RNA types, plays a role in gene regulation and could have implications for the formation of phase-separated ribonucleoprotein assemblies. We validate our hypothesis by showing that a highly structured RNA can rearrange the composition of a protein aggregate. We report that the tendency of proteins to phase-separate is reduced by interactions with specific RNAs.
NMR spectroscopy is a potent method for the structural and biophysical characterization of RNAs. The application of NMR spectroscopy is restricted in RNA size and most often requires isotope‐labeled or even selectively labeled RNAs. Additionally, new NMR pulse sequences, such as the heteronuclear‐detected NMR experiments, are introduced. We herein provide detailed protocols for the preparation of isotope‐labeled RNA for NMR spectroscopy via in vitro transcription. This protocol covers all steps, from the preparation of DNA template to the transcription of milligram RNA quantities. Moreover, we present a protocol for a chemo‐enzymatic approach to introduce a single modified nucleotide at any position of any RNA. Regarding NMR methodology, we share protocols for the implementation of a suite of heteronuclear‐detected NMR experiments including 13C‐detected experiments for ribose assignment and amino groups, the CN‐spin filter heteronuclear single quantum coherence (HSQC) for imino groups and the 15N‐detected band‐selective excitation short transient transverse‐relaxation‐optimized spectroscopy (BEST‐TROSY) experiment.
Basic Protocol 1: Preparation of isotope‐labeled RNA samples with in vitro transcription using T7 RNAP, DEAE chromatography, and RP‐HPLC purification
Alternate Protocol 1: Purification of isotope‐labeled RNA from in vitro transcription with preparative PAGE
Alternate Protocol 2: Purification of isotope‐labeled RNA samples from in vitro transcription via centrifugal concentration
Support Protocol 1: Preparation of DNA template from plasmid
Support Protocol 2: Preparation of PCR DNA as template
Support Protocol 3: Preparation of T7 RNA Polymerase (T7 RNAP)
Support Protocol 4: Preparation of yeast inorganic pyrophosphatase (YIPP)
Basic Protocol 2: Preparation of site‐specific labeled RNAs using a chemo‐enzymatic synthesis
Support Protocol 5: Synthesis of modified nucleoside 3′,5′‐bisphosphates
Support Protocol 6: Preparation of T4 RNA Ligase 2
Support Protocol 7: Setup of NMR spectrometer for heteronuclear‐detected NMR experiments
Support Protocol 8: IPAP and DIPAP for homonuclear decoupling
Basic Protocol 3: 13C‐detected 3D (H)CC‐TOCSY, (H)CPC, and (H)CPC‐CCH‐TOCSY experiments for ribose assignment
Basic Protocol 4: 13C‐detected 2D CN‐spin filter HSQC experiment
Basic Protocol 5: 13C‐detected C(N)H‐HDQC experiment for the detection of amino groups
Support Protocol 9: 13C‐detected CN‐HSQC experiment for amino groups
Basic Protocol 6: 13C‐detected “amino”‐NOESY experiment
Basic Protocol 7: 15N‐detected BEST‐TROSY experiment
The SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid (N) protein is crucial for the highly organized packaging and transcription of the genomic RNA. Studying atomic details of the role of its intrinsically disordered regions (IDRs) in RNA recognition is challenging due to the absence of structure and to the repetitive nature of their primary sequence. IDRs are known to act in concert with the folded domains of N and here we use NMR spectroscopy to identify the priming events of N interacting with a regulatory SARS-CoV-2 RNA element. 13C-detected NMR experiments, acquired simultaneously to 1H detected ones, provide information on the two IDRs flanking the N-terminal RNA binding domain (NTD) within the N-terminal region of the protein (NTR, 1–248). We identify specific tracts of the IDRs that most rapidly sense and engage with RNA, and thus provide an atom-resolved picture of the interplay between the folded and disordered regions of N during RNA interaction.
Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation serves as an important and widely used computational tool to study molecular systems at an atomic resolution. No experimental technique is capable of generating a complete description of the dynamical structure of the biomolecules in their native solution environment. MD simulations allow us to study the dynamics and structure of the system and, moreover, helps in the interpretation of experimental observations. MD simulation was first introduced and applied by Alder and Wainwright in 1957 \cite{Alder57}. However, the first MD simulation of a macromolecule of biological interest was published 28 years ago \cite{McCammon77}. The simulation was concerned with the bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (BPTI) protein, which has served as the hydrogen molecule'' of protein dynamics because of its small size, high stability, and relatively accurate X-ray structure available in 1977 \cite{Deisenhofer75}. This method is now widely used to tackle larger and more complex biological systems \cite{Groot01,Roux02} and has been facilitated by the development of fast and efficient methods for treating the long-range electrostatic interactions \cite{Essmann95}, the availability of faster parallel computers, and the continuous development of empirical molecular mechanical force fields \cite{Langley98,Cheatham99,Foloppe00}. It took several years until the first MD simulations of nucleic acid systems were performed \cite{Levitt83,Tidor83,Prabhakaran83,Nilsson86}. These investigations, which were also performed in vacuo, clearly demonstrated the importance of proper handling of electrostatics in a highly charged nucleic acid system, and different approaches, such as reduction of the phosphate charges and addition of hydrated counterions, have been applied to remedy this shortcoming and to maintain stable DNA structures. A few years later, the first MD simulation of a DNA molecule, including explicit water molecules and counterions was published \cite{Seibel85}. Various MD simulations on fully solvated RNA molecules with explicit inclusion of mobile ions indicated the importance of proper treatment of the environment of highly charged nucleic acids \cite{Lee95,Zichi95,Auffinger97,Auffinger99}. Given the central roles of RNA in the life of cells, it is important to understand the mechanism by which RNA forms three dimensional structures endowed with properties such as catalysis, ligand binding, and recognition of proteins. Furthermore, the increasing awareness of the essential role of RNA in controlling viral replication and in bacterial protein synthesis emphazises the potential of ribonucleicacids as targets for developing new antibacterial and new antiviral drugs. Driven by fruitful collaborations in the Sonderforschungsbereich RNA-Ligand interactions" the model RNA systems in this study include various RNA tetraloops and HIV-1 TAR RNA. For the latter system, the binding sites of heteroaromatic compounds have been studied employing automated docking calculations \cite{Goodsell90}. The results show that it is possible to use this tool to dock small rigid ligands to an RNA molecule, while large and flexible molecules are clearly problematic. The main part of this work is focused on MD simulations of RNA tetraloops.
2D NOESY plays a central role in structural NMR spectroscopy. We have recently discussed methods that rely on solvent-driven exchanges to enhance NOE correlations between exchangeable and non-exchangeable protons in nucleic acids. Such methods, however, fail when trying to establish connectivities within pools of labile protons. This study introduces an alternative that also enhances NOEs between such labile sites, based on encoding a priori selected peaks by selective saturations. The resulting selective magnetization transfer (SMT) experiment proves particularly useful for enhancing the imino–imino cross-peaks in RNAs, which is a first step in the NMR resolution of these structures. The origins of these enhancements are discussed, and their potential is demonstrated on RNA fragments derived from the genome of SARS-CoV-2, recorded with better sensitivity and an order of magnitude faster than conventional 2D counterparts.