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W2NCl7 has been prepared by the reaction of tungsten pentachloride with the bromide of Millon's base, [Hg2N]Br, in boiling CCl4. The product forms a dark brown, moisture sensitive crystal powder (μeff = 0.7 B.M. at 21 °C). With phosphoryl chloride, the complex W2NCl7·2 POCl3 is formed. The reaction with chlorine leads to the mixed-valenced W(V)/W(VI) complex W2NCl8 (μeff = 0.5 B.M. at 22 °C), which reacts with tetraphenylphosphonium chloride in CH2Cl2 to form (PPh4)2[W2NCl10] ·2CH2Cl2. The reactions of W2NCl7 with PPh4Cl in molar ratios in CH2Cl2 solution lead to several complexes; one of them was identified bv X-ray diffraction methods to be (PPh4)2[W3Cl9(μ3-N)(0)(μ2-NCl)]2 ·1,5 CH2Cl2, which forms black crystals. The compound crystallizes monoclinically in the space group P21/n with two formula units per unit cell (7318 observed, independent reflexions, R = 0.083). The lattice dimensions are (20 °C): a = 994.4; b = 2673; c = 1518.2 pm; β = 101.00°. The compound consists of PPh4⊕ cations and centrosymmetric anions [W3Cl9(μ3-N)(O)(μ2-NCl)]22⊕. The tungsten atoms form a scalene triangle with WW bond lengths of 282 and 278 pm, respectively. The hypothenuse of this triangle is a nearly linear W - N -W bridge with WN distances of 199 and 182 pm. One of the WW edges is bridged by a μ-NCI group with WN bond lengths of 196 und 189 pm. respectively.
Carbene transfer from aliphatic diazoalkanes upon coordinatively unsaturated metal centers is a general synthetic concept that provides straight-forward routes into organo-metallic hydrocarbon chemistry. A comparison focussing on several key reactions of general applicability demonstrates that mononuclear organometal substrates add carbenes that may act as bridging ligands (e.g., compound 6) if they arise from ω,ω'-bisdiazoalkanes. By way of contrast, metal-metal double bonds cleanly form dimetallacyclo-propane-type derivatives under very mild conditions (7-9). The broadest variety of structures is finally encountered with metal-metal triply bonded precursors such as the molybdenum compounds 3: here, the initial diazoalkane adducts are subject to further rearrangement processes commonly leading to metal-metal single bonds (11) or causing irreversible cleavage of the dinuclear metal systems (10).
The syntheses of the dibenzoquinolizinium-salts 3, 13, 16, 20 and 25 which are of spectroscopic interest are described. Their electronic excitation spectra will be published later by Perkampus and coworkers in this journal.
Über Reaktionen von 3-trifluormethylphenylsubstituierten silicium-und zinnorganischen Verbindungen
(1978)
Several routes were investigated for the preparation of 3-CF3C6H4N[Si(CH3)3]2 2 and 3-CF3C6H4N[Sn(CH3)3]2 3. The latter compound reacts with 3-CF3C6H4NCO to yield [3-CF3C6H4(CH3)3SnN]2CO 4. A substituted urea 5 is also formed from [(CH3)3Si]2NCH3 and 3-CF3C6H4NCO. 5 is used for the preparation of cyclic compounds, with S2Cl2 the ten-membered ring (3-CF3C6H4NCONCH3S2)2 6 is formed. 5 and HN(SO2Cl)2 yield the six-membered ring 3-CF3C6H4NCONCH3(SO2)2NH 7. SeOCl2 and 5 react under formation of a spiro compound (S-CF3C6H4NCONCH3)2Se 8. The compounds were characterized on the basis of mass and 19F NMR spectra.
Interactions of eosin with three different substrates, β-lactoglobuline, bovine serum albumin and cysteine, in aqueous solutions of pH 7 under illumination with light of wavelengths 5200—5400 Å are investigated by changes in absorption spectrum characteristics, SH-group activities and phosphorescence intensities.
Only with bovine serum albumin the major part of protein conversion, as shown by spectral changes and diminution of SH-groups due to eosin-sensitized photo-oxidation. In β-lactoglobuline an oxidizing photoreaction occurs, by which eosin is vanishing to the same degree as the protein shows loss of SH-groups and spectral alterations indicating attack on aromatic amino acid residues. There is no red shift of the eosin absorption band at 5170 Å as is observed in solutions of bovine serum albumin, where the intensity of phosphorscence is about 100 fold compared with the intensity obtained by solutions of β-lactoglobulin.
The aerobic eosin photoreaction in solutions of β-lactoglobulin is faster than aerobic photobleaching of the dye. Still faster is its bleaching photoreaction with cysteine, which is nearly independent of oxygen.
Über Natriumhexaoxometallate
(1969)
Über Lithiumhexaoxometallate
(1969)
Über Li6ReO6
(1969)
Es werden Schwingkreismodelle angegeben, deren Säkulargleichungen mit denen formal identisch sind, die sich bei der Anwendung der Methode der Moleküleigenfunktionen auf das Problem der π -Elektronenzustände in Molekülen ungesättigter und aromatischer Kohlenwasserstoffe ergeben. Damit ergibt sich die Möglichkeit, die quantenmechanischen Säkularprobleme durch Messung der Eigenfrequenzen der Modelle zu bestimmen.
The current definitions of isosterism are incomplete if excited species are considered; here any reasonable definition must include the specification of the valence state too. Implications of this are discussed. A criterion for the selection of consistent valence state energies is developed.
Die Resultate des vorstehend 1 veröffentlichten Näherungsverfahrens zur quanten-mechanischen Berechnung der Energie des π-Elektronensystems aromatischer Kohlen-wasserstoffe werden mit denen des Hückel sehen Näherungsverfahrens verglichen. Bei den 18 Molekülen, die zum Vergleich herangezogen werden konnten, ergab sich sehr gute Übereinstimmung.
Wäßrige Sephadex-Gele nehmen Vielfache der in Wasser gelösten Anteile polycyclischer, aromatischer Kohlenwasserstoffe auf, wenn diese als Suspension vorliegen. Beobachtbar ist dieser Effekt an der Erhöhung der Fluoreszenzintensität des gelösten Anteils der Aromaten bei Zugabe von Sephadex-Körnern und anschließender kräftiger Rührung. Verwertbar ist dieses Phänomen zumindest für die Ermittlung der Lage der Emissionsbanden der Kohlenwasserstoffe in Wasser, denn es bestehen nur geringe Unterschiede zwischen den Fluoreszenzsprektren in Sephadex und Wasser. Weiterhin ist beachtlich, daß die carcinogenen Kohlenwasserstoffe nach diesen ersten orientierenden Versuchen, zu einer Gruppe gehören, die eine geringe Diffusionsgeschwindigkeit in das Sephadex-Gel, bei gleichzeitigem Erreichen relativ hoher Endkonzentrationen, besitzen. Der Quotient aus beiden Größen wird daher für die Carcinogene maximal. Nach Desoxycholsäure, Detergentien, Purinen, Desoxynucleinsäuren, Adenosintriphosphat 24 und Proteinen wurde damit gefunden, daß auch Polysaccharid-artige Systeme in der Lage sind, Lösungs-vermittelnd auf Kohlenwasserstoffe in wäßriger Phase zu wirken.
Es verspricht daher, interessant zu werden, an Sephadex, als primitivem Modell von Zellbestandteilen, in der Zukunft standartisierte Kohlenwasserstoff-Suspensionen in dieser Weise zu untersuchen und gleiche Experimente mit stärker hydrophobiertem Gel durchzuführen.
1) Es wurde gezeigt, daß die Zersetzungstension des ZnCO3 viel höher liegt, als es Centnerszwer und Hüttig angenommen haben. Die nach der Nernst´schen Formel berechneten Werte entsprechen, wie es scheint, ziemlich gut den wirklichen Gleichgewichtsdrucken.
2) Eine experimentelle Bestimmung des Gleichgewichtsdruckes bei der Zersetzung des ZnCO3 ist sehr schwer, da bei niedrigen Temperaturen die Reaktionsgeschwindigkeit zu gering ist, dagegen bei höheren die Zersetzungstension so hoch liegt, daß die üblichen Meßmethoden versagen.
3) Die Annahme, daß ZnCO3 unter Bildung von festen Lösungen dissoziiert, entspricht nicht dem wirklichen Verhalten des Systems.
4) Bei Einwirkung von CO2 entsteht kein ZnCO3, es findet nur eine Sorption statt.
Die Kohlensäure wird bei Zimmertemperatur zum Teil sehr schnell gebunden; dieser Teil des aufgenommenen CO2 wird beim Erwärmen leicht abgegeben. Die Aufnahme des anderen Teiles ist als eine stark aktivierte Sorption aufzufassen, welche zum Teil erst bei hohen Temperaturen zustande kommt. Es entstehen dabei sehr stabile Gebilde, welche erst bei sehr hohen Temperaturen wieder zersetzt werden. An verschiedenen Sorptionsstellen entstehen Gebilde von verschiedener Stabilität. Diese aktivierte Sorption ist vom Druck nur wenig abhängig: es tritt eine Sättigungsgrenze auf. Ein in diesem anderen Sinn gesättigtes Präparat kann weitere CO2-Mengen in loser Form aufnehmen; die neu aufgenommenen Mengen sind vom Druck sehr stark abhängig, beim Erwärmen und Abkühlen eines bestimmten Systems werden umkehrbar dieselben Drucke (Gleichgewichtsdrucke) gefunden. Die Zersetzuugsgeschwindigkeit des ZnCO3 ist sehr gering, es ist eine bestimmte Temperatur notwendig, um die Reaktion auszulösen. Während des Erhitzens des Präparats treten Strukturänderungen auf, welche die Reaktionsgeschwindigkeit ungünstig beeinflussen (Abnahme der aktiven Stellen). Aus demselben Grund kann ZnCO3 aus ZnO und CO2 nicht hergestellt werden. Das Studium des Verlaufs der Zersetzung von ZnCO3 und des Verhaltens eines zum Teil zersetzten ZnCO3 wird durch die Sorption und Desorption von CO2 getrübt. Eine Aufnahme von CO2 wird in der Regel durch Sorption von CO2 verursacht, aber auch eine Entwickelung von CO2 kann als Folge der Desorption und nicht nur der Zersetzung von ZnCO3 zustande kommen. Nach einer von Zawadzki und Bretsznajder ausgearbeiteten Theorie werden die beschriebenen Erscheinungen durch die Schwierigkeit der Bildung der Keime der neuen Phasen im System ZnO + CO2 erklärt. Diese geringe Keimbildungsgeschwindigkeit ermöglicht das Studium der Sorptionserscheinungen. Die schwach aktivierte Sorption (Adsorption) ist als ein der Elementarprozesse der Reaktion der ZnOOs-Zersetzung und Bildung, die stark aktivierte Sorption als ein Nebenprozeß aufzufassen.
In wäßrig gepufferten Mitochondrien-Suspensionen konnte ein selektives Lösungsvermögen für carcinogene Kohlenwasserstoffe mit Hilfe fluoreszenz-spektroskopischer Messungen festgestellt werden. Gleichzeitig wird eine starke Verminderung der Atmung der Mitochondrien durch die Einwirkung der gelösten, polycyclischen Aromaten beobachtet. Nicht carcinogene Kohlenwasserstoffe werden weder gelöst, noch zeigen sie einen Einfluß auf die Atmung. Sehr schwer lösliche Carcinogene und schwächer wirksame Kohlenwasserstoffe werden in den angewandten Versuchszeiten weder gelöst, noch vermindern sie die Geschwindigkeit des Sauerstoffverbrauchs.
Mitochondrien älterer, oder mit Vitamin B2-Mangel behafteter Tiere zeigen erhöhte Depression der Atmung bei Zugabe von DMBA bzw. 3.4-Benzpyren.
Es wird versucht, diese Effekte einer reinen Promotor-Aktivität der polycyclischen, aromatischen Kohlenwasserstoffe zuzuschreiben, die an den Strukturelementen der Zellatmung (Mitochondrien) einsetzt.
Kristallisierte Lactat-Dehydrogenasen aus Schweineherz, Kaninchenskelettmuskel, Rattenherz und Rattenskelettmuskel wurden mit Trypsin abgebaut und die durch Hochspannungs-Elektrophorese der Verdauungsansätze erhaltenen Peptidmuster nach Anfärbung mit Ninhydrin und diazotierter Sulfanilsäure miteinander verglichen. Es ergaben sich die in den Abb. 1-4 dargestellten Unterschiede.
Die thermische Zersetzung von Vitriolen MIISO4 H2O (M = Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, Zn und Mg) und von anderen Sulfathydraten wurde untersucht, um zu klären, ob sie für die Entdeckung der Schwefelsäure und deren Gewinnung nach dem früher üblichen Verfahren der Vitriolbrennerei in Betracht kommen. Eisenvitriol wird beim Erhitzen entwässert, durch Luft oxidiert und zerfällt bei etwa 550°C in ein Eisen(III)-oxidsulfat der wahrscheinlichen Zusammensetzung Fe16O9(SO4)15, aus dem bis 650°C alles Schwefeltrioxid abgespalten wird. Bei diesen Temperaturen zerfällt nur ein kleiner Teil des Schwefeltrioxids in Schwefeldioxid und Sauerstoff. Alle anderen Vitriole zersetzen sich erst bei 800-850°C vollständig, d.h. unter Bedingungen, unter denen überwiegend Schwefeldioxid gebildet wird. Die partielle Oxidation von Mangan und Cobalt, durch die Mn3O4 bzw.Co3O4 entstehen, findet ebenfalls bei 600-700°C statt. Die Zersetzung von Aluminium- und Eisen(III)-sulfat beginnt bei niedrigen Temperaturen und ist beim Eisen(III)-sulfat bei 600-700°C abgeschlossen. Aluminiumsulfat wird aber erst bei über 800°C vollständig zersetzt. Die Untersuchung der Zersetzungsreaktionen ließ verschiedene Zwischenprodukte erkennen, insbesondere Oxidsulfate, von denen einige – wie Fe16O9(SO4)15 – näher charakterisiert wurden. Die Schwefelsäure ist wahrscheinlich beim Erhitzen von Eisenvitriol entdeckt worden, der schon seit der Antike bekannt war. Mehrere Vorschriften zum Erhitzen von Eisenvitriol allein oder im Gemisch mit anderen Sulfaten sind aus der arabischen Alchemie des frühen Mittelalters bekannt. In Europa erscheinen solche Vorschriften im 13. Jahrhundert. Auch dem frühen technischen Verfahren seit dem 17. Jahrhundert lag die Zersetzung von Eisenvitriol unter Luftzutritt zu Grunde. Verunreinigungen durch andere Vitriole, insbesondere des Zinks und Mangans, haben vermutlich die Ausbeute verringert. Das neuere technische Verfahren, das bis 1900 betrieben wurde, ging von „Vitriolstein“ aus. Dieses Gemisch von Eisen(III)- und Eisen(II)-sulfat mit wenig Aluminiumsulfat und sehr geringen Mengen anderer Sulfate wurde durch Auslaugen von Vitriol- bzw. Alaunschiefer gewonnen. Welche Eisenverbindungen es enthielt, ist nicht sicher. Ihre Zersetzung lief aber wahrscheinlich ähnlich ab wie die von Eisen(III)-sulfat. Auch bei diesem Verfahren war der Eisensulfatgehalt des Rohstoffes entscheidend für den Erfolg.
Li6UO6 has a reversible phase transformation at 680°C and decomposes above about 850°C. At high pressure the low temperature modification becomes unstable because of an invariant point in the system Li2O—Li4UO5 at approximately 13 Kb and 620°C. β-Li6UO6 has a triclinic unit cell with a = 5.203, b= 5.520, c = 5.536 Å, α = 114.7, β = 120.7 and γ = 75.5°. The close relationship between the crystal structures of Li6TeO6 and Li6UO6 is also suggested from similar infrared spectra and from partial solid solution Li6UO6—Li6TeO6.
Following treatment with the β-galactosidase inducer [methyl-3H] -thiogalactoside, an induceracceptor-complex was isolated from extracts of E. coli K 12 using DEAE cellulose chromatography. Enzymatic digestion with trypsin suggested that the inducer was bound to a protein component.
Specific radioactive peaks demonstrated acceptor activity in the inducible strains E. coli K 12 and ML 3, but different results were obtained using the non-inducible mutants ML 35, ML 308 and ML 309.
The potent inhibitor of TMG-induction, o-nitrophenylfucoside, reduced the radioactive acceptor peak and caused a similar inhibition of β-galactosidase synthesis, p-nitrophenylfucoside was ineffective.
Further evidence is presented for the in vitro formation of an inducer-acceptor-complex in cell free extracts of E. coli K 12.
The trifluoroacetylation of thymidine at room temperature was performed using trifluoroacetic acid phenylester in pyridine. A selective protection of the 5′-position was not possible: Even low molar quantities of the trifluoroacetylating agent gave rise to bis-trifluoroacetylation. The bis-trifluoroacetyl derivatives of thymidine and 5-bromo-deoxyuridine were purified by vacuum sublimation. The completely trifluoroacetylated deoxyribosides of uracil, 5-iodouracil and adenine underwent decomposition during sublimation.
Unter Marktmilch versteht man bekanntlich die zusammengegossene Milch vieler Kühe, ganzer Stallungen. Während die Milch einzelner Kühe je nach der Fütterung, der Laktationsperiode und dem Gesundheitszustand derselben in ihrer chemischen Zusammensetzung verhältnismäßig großen Schwankungen unterworfen ist, zeigt diese Marktmilch derselben Gegend und in derselben Jahreszeit eine annähernd gleiche chemische Beschaffenheit. Zur Einführung und Aufrechterhaltung einer polizeilichen Milchkontrolle der in den Städten von den umliegenden Ökonomen in den Handel gebrachten Milch ist es nun dringend notwendig, zunächst die für eine normale Marktmilch noch zulässigen Grenzwerte der Hauptbestandteile derselben: Rahm, Butterfett, Trockensubstanz und Asche mit aller Sicherheit festzustellen. Der Artikel beinhaltet auch Tabellen über die durchgeführten Kontrollen.
Über die Messung und die Bedeutung der Wasserstoffionenkonzentration bei enzymatischen Prozessen
(1909)
Die Lichtabsorptionseigenschaften einer Reihe von Lösungen der Komplexionen des dreiwertigen Vanadins vom Typus [V A6]3+, wo A H2O, CH3OH, C2H5OH sowie iso-C4H9OH ist, wurden gemessen. Ferner wurden die Absorptionsspektren von kristallisiertem Ammonium-sowie Caesiumvanadin(III)-alaun aufgenommen.
Intensitätsverhältnisse und spektrale Lage der in allen Spektren auftretenden langwelligen Banden stehen in guter Übereinstimmung mit den Aussagen der Theorie für den Fall eines Zentralions mit zwei d-Elektronen bei Oh-Symmetrie des Komplexfeldes.
Aus den angestellten Untersuchungen dürften folgende allgemeine Schlüsse gezogen werden können: Der Hydrodiffusionskoeffizient steigt bei allen untersuchten Elektrolyten mit der Verdünnung von einer gewisssn Normalität an, ungleich für ungleiche Substanzen. Er steigt auch mit zunehmender Konzentration und wird daher ein Minimum durchlaufen, falls Bildungen von Molekülkomplexen bei höhern Konzentrationsgraden nicht den Diffusionsverlauf stören. Der Diffusionstemperaturkoeffizient hat ungleiche Werte für verschiedene Substanzen und ist gleich der Summe der Temperaturkoeffizienten des osmotischen Druckes und des elektrolytischen Leitvermögens. Nernsts Theorie und Formel für Berechnung der Koeffizienten bei unendlicher Verdünnung und Arrhenius´ Hypothese über den Gang der Diffusiollskurve bei Elektrolyten sind durch die Versuche bestätigt worden. Die innere Reibung f´ des Moleküls ist etwas kleiner als die Summe der Reibungen von dessen Ionen f, und das Verhältnis f´/f wird desto grösser, je höher das elektrolytische Leitvermögen des Salzes ist.
Die Ergebnisse quantentheoretischer Modellrechnungen zur Deutung der von WALDEN sowie von STRAUSS und DÜTZMANN beobachteten elektrolytischen Dissoziation organischer Chlorverbindungen in flüssigem SO2 werden mitgeteilt. Anschließend werden die Ergebnisse von Leitfähigkeitsmessungen an Tritylchlorid in SO2-Lösung dargestellt.
In order to determine the influence of OH and O2H-radicals on proteins, bovine serum albumin (BSA) in aqueous solution was treated with Fenton’s reagent [Fe(II)SO4+EDTA+H2O2] and with ultraviolet light (λ > 2800 Å) in the presence of H2O2. The action of free radicals produced in this way did not change the properties of the native protein with respect to the sedimentation in the ultracentrifuge or optical rotatory dispersion and electrophoresis under normal conditions. Ampèrometric titration indicated partial oxidation of SH-groups and of 3—5 SS-groups which are not reducible by NaBH4.
Heat aggregation investigated by means of light-scattering was suppressed at pH 7.5 and strongly accelerated at pH 4.6 (range of coagulation), the latter being a result of increased entropy of activation of coagulation velocity.
The difference spectrum against native BSA had positive values of Δε and two maxima at 2480 and 2950 Å.
Ultracentrifugation at room temperature in phosphate buffer (pH 7.3, μ=0.18) furnishes a molecular weight of 63 300. In a solution of 8 M urea and borate buffer (pH 9, μ=0.05) fragments with molecular weights between 25 000 and 37 000 were observed while in phosphate buffer (pH 7.3, without urea) at temperatures higher than 46 °C an anomalous behaviour of the concentration gradient indicated an effect which possibly depends on a dissociation equilibrium.
As a consequence oxygen radicals seem to attack not only SH- and SS-groups but at least one covalent bond of the peptide chain. Some experiments of heat aggregation with BSA treated with γ-rays (60Co) gave the same results as BSA treated with Fenton’s reagent or UV-light+H2O2.
S4N3Cl reacts with sulfonic acids and imido- bissulfonyl derivatives under HCl-evolution to the following compounds: S4N3SO3CF3, S4N3N (SO2F)2, S4NSO3CH3HSO3CH3, S4N3N (SO2CF3) SO2Cl and S4N3N (SO2CF3) SO2F, They are yellow solids which decompose when heated below the melting point. The compounds are formed in nearly quantitative yield and have been characterized by elemental analysis, nmr and electronic spectra.
Es wird gezeigt, daß man die langwelligen Absorptionsspektren der magnetisch normalen oktaedrischen Komplexionen mit den Übergangsmetallionen Ti3+, V3+, Cr3+, Mn3+ und Fe3+ verstehen kann, wenn man annimmt, daß die schwachen langwelligen Banden durch Übergänge zwischen den Aufspaltungsprodukten der jeweiligen Grundterme entstehen, wobei die Auf-spaltungen durch das elektrostatische Feld der Liganden zustande kommen.
Über den Einfluß der Kationen auf die Kraftkonstanten der WO-Bindung in den Hexaoxowolframaten (VI)
(1970)
Über das Verhalten von silicium- und zinnorganischen Verbindungen bei der Synthese von Heterocyclen
(1977)
The isocyanates of silicon (CH3)2Si(NCO)2 and Si(NCO)4 react with CH3N[Sn(CH3)3]2 and N[Sn(CH3)3]3 to yield the cyclic derivatives 2a-2b as well as the spiro compound 3. The structures of the compounds are discussed on the basis of 1H NMR and IR data. Mass spectra are not conclusive for assigning a certain structure. SO2(NCO)2 and (CH3)3Si-S-Si(CH3)3 form a cyclic compound 4 which contains two sulfur atoms of coordination number two and four. The results of the mass spectra can be interpreted by assuming that a rearrangement occurred. 4 hydrolyses under formation of 5.
Über das dielektrische Verhalten des Diphenyläthers in Mischungen mit unpolaren Flüssigkeiten
(1949)
The reactions of N,N′ -bis(pentafluorophenyl)sulfurdiimide with [(CH3)3Sn]2NCH3, [(CH3)3Sn]3N and [(CH3)3Sn]2NC6F5 yiels the 1:1 adducts 1-3. 1H and 19 F NMR investigations show, that fluorine atoms in the ortho position of the phenyl ring coordinate to the tin atom. This causes an increase of electron density at tin. A similar interpretation is given for the adduct 4 of N,N′-bis(p-chlorophenylsulfonyl)sulfurdiimide and [(CH3)3Sn]2NCH3, where an oxygen atom of the sulfonyl group is bonded to tin.
Mit Hilfe der quantenmechanischen Theorie der aromatischen Verbindungen wird gezeigt, daß aus den neuen experimentellen Befunden von Gillet über die Addition von Maleinsäureanhydrid an 9.10-Diphenyl-anthracen und 9-Phenylanthracen auf eine Verdrehung der Phenylringe gegen das Anthracenskelett geschlossen werden kann.
Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder marked by progressive loss of memory and cognitive ability. The pathology of AD is characterised by the presence of amyloid plaques, intracellular neurofibrillary tangles and pronounced cell death. The aim of this thesis was to investigate pathways involved in the Aß cascade of neurodegeneration. Since novel findings indicate that already this Aß species exerts neurotoxic effects long before hyperphosphorylated tau, neurofibrillary tangles and extracellular Aß plaques appear, the investigations were accomplished with specific regard to the effects of intracellular Aß. The Swedish double mutation in the APP gene results in six- to eightfold increased Aß production of both Aß1-40 and Aß1-42 compared to human wildtype APP cells (APPwt). Data obtained from PC12 cells indicate that it is possible to specifically increase the Aß load without enhancing APP expression levels. On the basis of these findings, it seemed possible to investigate dose-dependent effects of Aß in multiple experimental designs. These assay designs were created in order to mimick different in-vivo situations that are discussed to occur in AD patients: APPsw PC12 cells exhibit low physiological concentrations of Aß within picomolar range in contrast to APPsw HEK cells, expressing Aß levels within the nanomolar range. Of note, the APPsw HEK cells showed a specific and highly significant increase in the intracellular accumulation of insoluble Aß1-42. Moreover, an intracellular accumulation of Aß and APP was found in the mitochondria of the HEK APPsw cells suggesting a direct impact on mitochondrial function on these cells. This effect might finally lead to disturbances in the energy metabolism of the cell or to increased cell death. Furthermore, baseline g- and ß-secretase activity was assessed since these enzymes represent promising therapeutic targets to slow or halt the disease process. As expected, ß-secretase activity was significantly elevated in all APPsw cell lines. This might be due to the proximity of the Swedish double mutation next to the N-terminus of the Aß sequence. Interestingly, g-secretase activity was similarly increased in PC12 APPsw cells. In addition, the toxicity of different Aß species was investigated in SY5Y and PC12 cells with regard to their effect on cellular viability mirrored by mitochondrial activity using MTT assay. Here, it turned out that not monomers, but already dimers are neurotoxic correlates. Fibrillar Aß species showed the highest toxicity. In the next step, SY5Y cells forming endogenous, dimeric APP and Aß were investigated. In accordance with previous findings, these cells showed a decreased MTT reduction potential in comparison to APPwt and control SY5Y cells reflecting a decrease of cellular viability. The impaired energy metabolism of the cells was even more drastically mirrored by reduced baseline ATP levels. In the second part of this thesis, the expression and intracellular distribution of Bcl-2 family proteins and pro-apoptotic mitochondrial factors under baseline conditions and during oxidative stress were analyzed in the APPwt and APPsw bearing cells. The most prominent finding was the reduction of expression levels of the anti-apoptotic factor Bcl-xL in the cytosolic fractions of APPwt and APPsw PC12 cells. This might indicate that a lack of anti-apoptotic factors or their altered intracellular distribution, rather than an increase in caspase-dependent pro-apoptotic factors, could be responsible for the increased vulnerability of APPwt- and APPsw-transfected PC12 cells against oxidative stress. Since total Bcl-xL expression was unaffected in PC12 cells, in contrast to APPwt and APPsw-expressing SY5Y and HEK cells revealing significantly decreased Bcl-xL expression levels. Thus, alterations in Bcl-xL distribution seem to be an early event in the disease process. Increasing Bcl-xL expression might potentially be one promising strategy for AD modification. PC12 and HEK cells bearing APPsw or APPwt were treated with the potent g-secretase inhibitor DAPT. Of note, DAPT did not only efficiently block Aß production, but additionally led to an elevation of the MTT reduction potential, reflecting an increase in cellular viability. As another disease-modifying strategy, several efforts are undertaken to ameliorate AD-relevant symptoms by the treatment with nerve growth factor (NGF). Generally, it is known that substituted pyrimidines have modest growth-promoting effects. Here, KP544, a novel substituted pyrimidine, was characterised. This drug increased MTT reduction potential in terminally differentiated and undifferentiated PC12 cells. Furthermore, treatment with KP544 led to a reduction in Aß1-40 secretion. Thus, one may conclude that the target of KP544, GSK-3ß, represents a connecting link between the two main pathological hallmarks of AD and might thus be a very promising therapeutic target for AD.
Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die Zytotoxizität von Treosulfan und Busulfan auf Leukämiezellen von pädiatrischen Patienten mit Akuten Leukämien zu untersuchen. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden in vitro und erste in vivo Untersuchungen durchgeführt: 1. In vitro Untersuchungen Zuerst wurde eine durchflusszytometrische Methode optimiert zum Nachweis der Zytotoxizität von Treosulfan und Busulfan auf maligne Zellen pädiatrischer Patienten mit Akuten Leukämien. Mit diesem durchflusszytometrischen Assay war es möglich, die Zytotoxizität auf maligne von der auf nicht maligne Zellen zu unterscheiden. Dies war unerlässlich, da in den frisch isolierten Leukämiezellen der Patienten bis zu 55% normale Lymphozyten enthalten waren. Darüber hinaus erlaubte diese Methode die simultane Bestimmung der Zell-Apoptose in jeder Probe. An Leukämie-Zelllinien wurde dieser multiparametrische Assay anschließend mit dem MTT-Assay verglichen. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Bestimmung von Zytotoxizitäten mit beiden Methoden an den Zelllinien Molt 4/8 und H9 gut korrelierte (r≥0,95). Für das Arbeiten mit Patientenmaterial wurde ausschließlich die durchflusszytometrische Methode angewendet, da in den Proben der Patienten die Differenzierung zwischen leukemischen Zellen und normalen Lymphozyten essentiell war. In den Leukämie-Zelllinien Molt4/8, H9 und K562 zeigte sich, dass Treosulfan eine stärkere Zytotoxizität zeigte als Busulfan. In die Untersuchungen frischer Leukämiezellen pädiatrischer Patienten mit Akuten Leukämien konnten 24 Proben unterschiedlicher Leukämien (cALL, reife B-ALL, reife TALL, AML) und unterschiedlicher Erkrankungszeitpunkte (bei Diagnose oder bei Rezidiv) eingeschlossen werden. In diesen Proben zeigte Treosulfan eine deutlich bessere Wirkung als Busulfan. Es wurde trotz des kleinen Patientenkollektivs deutlich, dass die T-ALL gegenüber der cALL sensitiver auf Treosulfan reagiert. Außerdem war die Zytotoxizität von Treosulfan und Busulfan gegenüber der T-ALL signifikant höher als gegenüber c-ALL (Treosulfan: p=0,02, Busulfan: p=0,03). Die IC50-Werte stiegen vom Zeitpunkt der Diagnose (Median: Treosulfan: 11,45 μM, Busulfan: 96,45 μM) über die Progression (Median: Treosulfan: 45,95 μM, Busulfan: 253,75 μM) bis zum Rezidiv (Median: Treosulfan: 153,15 μM, Busulfan: 223,3 μM) hin an, und zwar um das 8-fache bei Treosulfan und das 2,5-fache bei Busulfan. Der Unterschied der Zytotoxizität von Treosulfan auf Leukämieproben zum Zeitpunkt der Diagnose gegenüber dem Rezidiv war statistisch signifikant (p=0,02). Für Busulfan ergab sich für diese Untersuchungszeitpunkte keinen signifikanten Unterschied (p=0,13). Vergleichend zu den Ergebnissen an frisch isolierten Leukämiezellen wurde die Wirkung von Treosulfan und Busulfan auf normale Lymphozytensubpopulationen und Stammzellen untersucht. Auch hier zeigte Treosulfan eine stärkere Zytotoxizität im Vergleich zu Busulfan. Insgesamt reagierten normale Lymphozyten sensitiver auf die Alkylanzien im Vergleich zu den Leukämiezellen (Mediane IC50-Werte für Treosulfan und Busulfan auf Lymphozyten: 12,3 μM und 89,9 μM, auf Leukämieproben: 30,6 μM und 133 μM mit p=0,03 und p=0,02). In einem weiteren Experiment sollte die Interaktion von Treosulfan und Busulfan mit Fludarabin untersucht werden. Fludarabin ist ein Purin-Analogon, das in der Pädiatrie in Kombination mit Alkylanzien zur Chemo-Konditionierung eingesetzt wird. Bei der Inkubation von Fludarabin mit Treosulfan-Konzentration größer 1 μM war ein deutlicher Synergismus zu verzeichnen. Die Kombination von Fludarabin mit Busulfan ergab Antagonismus. 2. In vivo Untersuchungen Es wurde die zelluläre Immunrekonstitution bei pädiatrischen Patienten mit AML (n=9) nach allogener Knochenmarktransplantation überwacht. Ein Patient wurde mit Treosulfan konditioniert (n=1), die anderen Patienten (n=8) erhielten Busulfan zur Konditionierung. Die Rekonstitution der Leukozyten, B-Zellen, NK-Zellen und T-Helferzellen verlief in beiden Gruppen ähnlich. Ein signifikanter Unnterschied konnte für die Rekonstitution der CD3+CD8+ zytotoxischen T-Zellen gezeigt werden, die bei dem Patienten, der mit Treosulfan konditioniert wurde, signifikant niedriger war im Vergleich zur Busulfangruppe. Da bei dem Patienten, der Treosulfan erhielt, die CRP-Werte über einen längeren Zeitraum erhöht waren und Infektionen die Rekonstitution von zytotoxischen T-Zellen maßgeblich beeinflussen, bietet dies eine mögliche Erklärung für diesen Unterschied. Aussagen können jedoch nur mit einem größeren Patientenkollektiv getroffen werden.