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Projections of future changes in runoff can have important implications for water resources and flooding. In this study, runoff projections from ISI-MIP (Inter-sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project) simulations forced with HadGEM2-ES bias-corrected climate data under the Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5 have been analysed. Projections of change from the baseline period (1981–2010) to the future (2070–2099) from a number of different ecosystems and hydrological models were studied. The differences between projections from the two types of model were looked at globally and regionally. Typically, across different regions the ecosystem models tended to project larger increases and smaller decreases in runoff than the hydrological models. However, the differences varied both regionally and seasonally. Sensitivity experiments were also used to investigate the contributions of varying CO2 and allowing vegetation distribution to evolve on projected changes in runoff. In two out of four models which had data available from CO2 sensitivity experiments, allowing CO2 to vary was found to increase runoff more than keeping CO2 constant, while in two models runoff decreased. This suggests more uncertainty in runoff responses to elevated CO2 than previously considered. As CO2 effects on evapotranspiration via stomatal conductance and leaf-area index are more commonly included in ecosystems models than in hydrological models, this may partially explain some of the difference between model types. Keeping the vegetation distribution static in JULES runs had much less effect on runoff projections than varying CO2, but this may be more pronounced if looked at over a longer timescale as vegetation changes may take longer to reach a new state.
Nach dem Reaktorunfall in Fukushima im März 2011 und dem darauf folgendem Beschluss in Deutschland, den Atomausstieg zu vollziehen, wird dort – sowohl auf nationaler, als auch auf regionaler Ebene – über eine alternative Energieversorgung diskutiert. Für die vorliegende Arbeit stellten sich die Fragen, wie die energiepolitische Ausgangssituation in Hessen aussieht und welche Potenziale erneuerbarer Energien in Hessen vorhanden sind. Mit einer Politikfeldanalyse wurde untersucht, welche Akteure am Ausbau erneuerbarer Energien beteiligt sind, wie diese interagieren, welche Instrumente zur Förderung erneuerbarer Energien in Hessen existieren und welche Erfolgsbedingungen und Restriktionen sich daraus ergeben. Ferner wurde anhand der jeweiligen Energiekonzepte die Frage verfolgt, welche Zukunftspotenziale für erneuerbare Energien die relevanten Akteure sehen und welche energiepolitischen Maßnahmen getroffen werden müssen, um den Ausbau zu forcieren. Bei einem Vergleich des Bundeslandes Hessen mit den Ländern Niedersachsen, Nordrhein-Westfalen und Sachsen-Anhalt wurde festgestellt, welche energiepolitischen Maßnahmen in diesen Bundesländern erfolgreich waren und auf Hessen übertragbar sind. Einerseits wurde aufgezeigt, dass Bemühungen den Ausbau erneuerbarer Energien zu forcieren erkennbar sind. Anderseits konnten ebenso die restriktiven Rahmenbedingungen dargestellt werden, die einen durchschlagenden Erfolg des Ausbaus erneuerbarer Energien bisher behindern. Die Untersuchung der Energiekonzepte hat ergeben, dass die Akteure die Zukunftspotenziale erneuerbarer Energien sehr unterschiedlich sehen und gewichten – sowohl was das zeitliche Ausbauziel als auch die Potenziale der jeweiligen erneuerbaren Energieträger betrifft.
Community trait assembly in highly diverse tropical rainforests is still poorly understood. Based on more than a decade of field measurements in a biodiversity hotspot of southern Ecuador, we implemented plant trait variation and improved soil organic matter dynamics in a widely used dynamic vegetation model (the Lund-Potsdam-Jena General Ecosystem Simulator, LPJ-GUESS) to explore the main drivers of community assembly along an elevational gradient. In the model used here (LPJ-GUESS-NTD, where NTD stands for nutrient-trait dynamics), each plant individual can possess different trait combinations, and the community trait composition emerges via ecological sorting. Further model developments include plant growth limitation by phosphorous (P) and mycorrhizal nutrient uptake. The new model version reproduced the main observed community trait shift and related vegetation processes along the elevational gradient, but only if nutrient limitations to plant growth were activated. In turn, when traits were fixed, low productivity communities emerged due to reduced nutrient-use efficiency. Mycorrhizal nutrient uptake, when deactivated, reduced net primary production (NPP) by 61–72% along the gradient. Our results strongly suggest that the elevational temperature gradient drives community assembly and ecosystem functioning indirectly through its effect on soil nutrient dynamics and vegetation traits. This illustrates the importance of considering these processes to yield realistic model predictions.
Climatology of morphology and cloud-radiative properties of marine low-level mixed-phase clouds
(2023)
Marine stratocumuli cover about 40 - 60% of the ocean surface. They self-organize into different morphological regimes. The two organized cellular regimes are called open and closed mesoscale-cellular convective (MCC) clouds. In mid-to-high latitudes, open and closed cells are the two most frequent types of MCC clouds. In particular, many MCC clouds consist of a mixture of vapor, liquid droplets, and ice particles, referred to as mixed-phase clouds (MPCs). Even for the same cloud fraction, the albedo of open cells is, on average, lower than that of closed MCC clouds. Cloud phase and morphology individually influence the cloud radiative effect. Thus, this thesis investigates the relationships between the cloud phase, MCC organization, cell size, and differences regarding the cloud-radiative effect.
This thesis focuses on space-borne retrievals to achieve extensive temporal and spatial coverage. The liDAR-raDAR (DARDAR) version 2 product collocates two active and one passive satellite: CloudSat, Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations (CALIPSO), and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). The cloud phase of DARDAR is vertically integrated to establish a single cloud phase at each data point. The MCC classification data set based on the liquid water path (LWP) of MODIS scenes is collocated with the DARDAR product to determine the MCC organization. Cell-size statistics of both MCC clouds are obtained using a marker-based image segmentation method on MODIS reflectance scenes. In addition, based on MODIS reflectance scenes, a convolutional neural network (CNN) is developed to classify open and closed MCC scenes to avoid missing mature MPCs with a low LWP.
The first part of this thesis explores the relationships between cloud phase, morphology, and cloud albedo in the Southern Ocean (SO). At a given cloud-top temperature (CTT), seasonal changes in the mixed-phase fraction, defined as the number of MPCs divided by the sum of MPC and supercooled liquid cloud (SLC) pixels, are stronger than the morphological changes. Therefore, external factors seem to influence these changes instead of morphology. The dependence of cloud phase on cloud-top height (CTH) is more substantial than on CTT in clouds with CTHs below 2.5 km. The previously observed acceleration of closed-to-open transition in MPCs, known as preconditioning, is not the primary driver of climatological cloud morphology statistics in the SO. The morphological differences in cloud albedo are more pronounced in SLCs than in MPCs. This change in albedo alters the cloud radiative effect in the SO by 21Wm−2 to 39Wm−2 depending onseason and cloud phase.
Open and closed MCC clouds exhibit larger equivalent cell diameters in the MPCs than in SLCs in austral summer, whereas, in austral winter, the SLCs are larger. The cell’s aspect ratio accounts for varying CTHs. Closed cells have smaller aspect ratios than open cells, so their cell diameter is smaller, independent of CTH. While the seasonal differences in closed cells are due to changes in CTH, the seasonal aspect ratio differences in open cells are mainly caused by MPCs. With increasing aspect ratios, the cloud albedo decreases in both open and closed MCC clouds, with the most substantial decrease in open MPCs clouds. This leads to cloud-radiative changes of 60 - 75Wm−2 in the SO, depending on cloud phase and aspect ratio.
The established CNN exhibits a good accuracy of 80.6%, with even higher accuracies in the Open (85.5%) and Closed (87.3%) categories. The global MCC climatology based on the CNN generally agrees well with previous MCC distributions. The most notable difference occurs in the Northern Hemisphere (NH) in boreal winter, with a higher occurrence frequency of closed and open MCC clouds. This might indicate missing MPCs in previous studies based on the LWP and some restricted to warm cloud scenes. Thus, the developed CNN seems to better represent the different morphologies in MPCs than in previous classifications.
In conclusion, this thesis shows that understanding the dependencies of cloud phase, cloud morphology, and cell size is important to enhance predictions of the cloud-radiative effect and thus, it is important to evaluate how cloud phase, cloud morphology, and cellsize change in a warming climate.
Ziel dieser Arbeit, die im Rahmen der Ice Nuclei Research Unit (INUIT) Forschergruppe erstellt wurde, war ursprünglich die saisonale und geographische Variabilität von bodennahen Eiskeimen zu untersuchen. Die Konzentrationen, Quellen und Zusammensetzung der Eisnuklei (ice nuclei, IN) sollte als Basis für Parametrisierungen dienen. Das Verständnis von Eiskeimen und deren Einfluss auf Wetter und Klima sind nur zum Teil bekannt und bedürfen daher noch weitgehender Forschung. Auch die Änderung der Eiskeimkonzentration mit der Zeit kann von Bedeutung sein, diese sollte durch die Fortführung einer Langzeitmessreihe untersucht werden. Durch Hinzuziehen von lokalen Parametern und Trajektorien sollten Proxies für die IN Konzentration ermittelt werden.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit taten sich jedoch Probleme am Messverfahren auf, weshalb die ursprünglichen Ziele in den Hintergrund gerieten und die Verbesserung und Neuaufnahme des Messverfahrens in den Vordergrund trat. Anhand von zielgerichteten Experimenten wurde ein Messfehler ermittelt, der durch die vorherige Fehlinterpretation von deliqueszierenden Partikeln und von Tröpfchen als vermeintliche Eiskristalle entstand. Dieser Fehler wurde charakterisiert und durch optische Analysen dessen Ursprung ermittelt. Datensätze, die durch diese hygroskopischen Partikel fehlerbehaftet waren, wurden korrigiert und reanalysiert. Ein in früheren Arbeiten am Taunus Observatorium/Kleiner Feldberg ermittelter Jahresgang in der Eiskeimkonzentration mit einem Maximum im Sommer und einem Minimum im Winter konnte bestätigt werden, die Absolutzahlen sind jedoch deutlich geringer als bisher angenommen. Lokale Parameter sowie Trajektorien wurden zur weiteren Analyse hinzugezogen.
Die Reevaluierung der Datensätze vom Taunus Observatorium führte zu keinem abschließenden Ergebnis. Ein allgemein gültiger Zusammenhang zwischen Eiskeimkonzentration und Parametern, welche das Staubvorkommen in der Atmosphäre quantifizieren (PM10 und Aerosol Optische Dicke), konnte nicht festgestellt werden. Da die Messungen bei relativ warmen Bedingungen (≥-18°C) durchgeführt wurden, Staub aber erst bei kälteren Temperaturen als effektiver Eiskeim gilt, ist dieses Ergebnis jedoch zu erwarten gewesen.
Auch die Luftmassenherkunft scheint keinen eindeutigen Einfluss zu haben. Betrachtungen der Bodenfeuchte lieferten signifikante Korrelationen, welche jedoch monatsabhängig positiv oder negativ ausfallen können. Im Frühling ist eine hohe Bodenfeuchte mit einer erhöhten Konzentration von IN in Verbindung zu bringen, im Sommer liegt bei niedriger Bodenfeuchte eine tendenziell höhere Eiskeimkonzentration vor. Die Windrichtung hat für die Eiskeimkonzentration einen Einfluss, wenn der Wind aus Südost zum Taunus Observatorium strömt. Anthropogenes Aerosol aus Frankfurt am Main hemmt hier vermutlich die Eisbildung, was zu einer signifikant niedrigeren mittleren Konzentration aus dieser Richtung führt.
Da das Messverfahren noch nicht in seinem vollen Potential genutzt wurde, wurde es um eine Analysemethode erweitert. Mittels Tröpfchengefrierexperimenten konnte ein weiterer Gefriermodus betrachtet werden. Nun deckt das hier genutzte Messverfahren drei der vier bekannten Gefriermoden ab. Anhand von Testsubstanzen wurde die Zuverlässigkeit der neu eingeführten Methode überprüft und nachgewiesen.
Erste Parallelproben der korrigierten Depositions- und Kondensationsgefriermessmethode und der neu eingeführten Immersionsgefriermessung wurden am Taunus Observatorium/Kleiner Feldberg genommen. Dabei wurde auch ein Staubereignis beprobt und detailliert ausgewertet. Zwischen lokalen Parametern und Eiskeimkonzentration fanden sich Zusammenhänge. Bei Messbedingungen <-20°C konnte ein signifikanter Zusammenhang zwischen PM10 und Eiskeimkonzentration im Immersions- und Kondensationsmodus gefunden werden. Der Depositionsgefriermodus blieb unauffällig. Zwischen Bodenfeuchte und IN-Konzentration konnten ebenfalls wie bei der Reevaluierung der alten Messdaten Signifikanzen festgestellt werden.
Die neu eingeführte Immersionsmessmethode und die korrigierte Methode zur Bestimmung von Depositions- und Kondensationsgefrierkernen liefern Messdaten, welche im Bereich anderer Eiskeimzähler liegen. Vergleiche mit Parametrisierungen zeigen, dass die Messwerte dem aktuellen Stand der Forschung entsprechen und davon ausgegangen werden kann, dass sie vertrauenswürdig und belastbar sind.
Beiträge zur spät- und postglazialen Fluß- und Landschaftsgeschichte im nördlichen Oberrheingraben
(2005)
Die spät- und postglaziale Fluß- und Landschaftsgeschichte im nördlichen Oberrheingraben ist durch einen mehrmaligen Wandel der fluvialen Geomorphodynamik gekennzeichnet. Im Rahmen dieser Studie waren unterschiedliche Entwicklungsphasen der Landschaft mit Hilfe verschiedener Methoden (14C-AMS, IR-OSL, Pollen- und Schwermineralanalysen) erstmals präziser zu datieren. Ab dem Spätglazial entwickelte der nördliche Oberrhein drei Mäandergenerationen. Die Entstehung der Älteren Mäandergeneration setzte vor dem Spät-Allerød ein und dauerte bis in das Atlantikum an, ehe im späten Atlantikum ein flußdynamischer Umbruch die Bildung der Mittleren Mäandergeneration einleitete. Damit begann eine Phase mit vorwiegend toniger Auensedimentation („Schwarze Tone“). Es ist nicht auszuschließen, daß dieses Geschehen teilweise durch die Effekte neolithischer Landnutzung beeinflußt war. Auch der Umbruch zur Jüngsten Mäandergeneration im Übergang vom Subboreal zum Subatlantikum war sicherlich nicht rein klimatisch gesteuert. Wahrscheinlich ist das nun wieder stärker furkativ geprägte Fließmuster und die einhergehende Vergröberung der Auenfazies auf die Überlagerung von natürlichen Abläufen mit anthropogenen Beeinflussungen zurückzuführen. Dafür spricht, daß die Landschaft während der Eisen- und der Römerzeit weitgehend entwaldet war. Die parallel dazu durchgeführten Untersuchungen am spätglazialen Bergstraßen-Neckar erlauben die zeitliche Trennung eines älteren Mäanderkurses, der in der Jüngeren Dryas verlandete, von einem jungdryaszeitlichen Verlauf. In der Paläorinne dieses jüngsten Laufes setzte im frühen Präboreal das Wachstum von Niedermootorfen ein. Das dokumentiert, daß der Bergstraßen-Neckar spätestens im beginnenden Holozän vollständig deaktiviert war. Die Abschnürung des Bergstraßenlaufes erfolgte vermutlich im Anschluß an die letzte würmzeitliche Flugsandphase, die nach schwermineralogischen und tephrostratigraphischen Befunden im Untersuchungsgebiet in die Jüngere Dryas zu stellen ist. Dabei wurde das auf der Oberen Niederterrasse existierende, endpleni- bis frühspätglaziale, zwischenzeitlich vom Bergstraßen-Neckar teilweise fluvial umgelagerte, ältere Dünenrelief überweht, während auf der Unteren Niederterrasse lokale Dünenvorkommen entstanden. Möglicherweise dauerte die Flugsandbildung örtlich bis in das früheste Präboreal an, bevor in den späteren Zeiten des Holozän ein anthropogen induziertes Aufleben der Flugsandaktivität zu beobachten ist.
This article presents a multiscale approach for detecting and monitoring soil erosion phenomena (i.e. gully erosion) in the agro-industrial area around the city of Taroudannt, Souss basin, Morocco. The study area is characterized as semi-arid with an annual average precipitation of 200 mm. Water scarcity, high population dynamics and changing land use towards huge areas of irrigation farming present numerous threats to sustainability. The agro-industry produces citrus fruits and vegetables in monocropping, mainly for the European market. Badland areas strongly affected by gully erosion border the agricultural areas as well as residential areas. To counteract the significant loss of land, land-leveling measures are attempted to create space for plantations and greenhouses. In order to develop sustainable approaches to limit gully growth the detection and monitoring of gully systems is fundamental. Specific gully sites are monitored with unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) taking small-format aerial photographs (SFAP). This enables extremely high-resolution analysis (SFAP resolution: 2-10 cm) of the actual size of the gully channels as well as a detailed continued surveillance of their growth. Transferring the methodology on a larger scale using Quickbird satellite data (resolution: 60 cm) leads to the possibility of a large-scale analysis of the whole area around the city of Taroudannt (Area extent: ca. 350 km²). The results will then reveal possible relationships of gully growth and agro-industrial management and may even illustrate further interdependencies. The main objective is the identification of areas with high gully-erosion risk due to non-sustainable land use and the development of mitigation strategies for the study area.
This article presents an environmental remote sensing application using a UAV that is specifically aimed at reducing the data gap between field scale and satellite scale in soil erosion monitoring in Morocco. A fixed-wing aircraft type Sirius I (MAVinci, Germany) equipped with a digital system camera (Panasonic) is employed. UAV surveys are conducted over different study sites with varying extents and flying heights in order to provide both very high resolution site-specific data and lower-resolution overviews, thus fully exploiting the large potential of the chosen UAV for multi-scale mapping purposes. Depending on the scale and area coverage, two different approaches for georeferencing are used, based on high-precision GCPs or the UAV’s log file with exterior orientation values respectively. The photogrammetric image processing enables the creation of Digital Terrain Models (DTMs) and ortho-image mosaics with very high resolution on a sub-decimetre level. The created data products were used for quantifying gully and badland erosion in 2D and 3D as well as for the analysis of the surrounding areas and landscape development for larger extents.
This study reports and discusses new radiometric ages, petrographical and volcanological observations and whole rock geochemical data of the rocks of the Rudnik Mts. volcano-intrusive complex. The complex hosts a Pb-Zn-Ag deposit and belongs to the Serbo-Macedonian metallogenetic belt. Two distinct igneous events are distignuished. The first occurred >30 Ma and was mainly characterized by extrusive and shallow intrusive dacites and andesites and was unrelated to mineralization. The second igneous event occurred <23 Ma and was highly heterogeneous in terms of volcanic products and petrographic varieties, but with predominance of quartzlatites. The dacite-andesites (first event) and the quartzlatites (second event) are geochemically similar and display a calc-alkaline affinity and highly incompatible element enriched patterns on spider diagrams, but the younger quartzlatites are richer in K2O, Rb and Ba and poorer in Sr. This is taken as evidence that mixing between an ultrapotassic lamprophyre/lamproite magma and an acid calc-alkaline (dacite-like) magma was essential petrogenetic processes during the second event. The proposed simplified volcanological model suggests that this mixing was responsible for triggering strongly explosive volcanic activity as well as for providing conditions for active hydrothermal and mineralization processes. The observed link between a specific magmatic phase and ore deposit formation can be a general phennomenon in the Balkans, and must be addressed by further and more advanced studies.
Number concentrations of total and non-volatile aerosol particles with size diameters >0.01 µm as well as particle size distributions (0.4–23 µm diameter) were measured in situ in the Arctic lower stratosphere (10–20.5 km altitude). The measurements were obtained during the campaigns European Polar Stratospheric Cloud and Lee Wave Experiment (EUPLEX) and Envisat-Arctic-Validation (EAV). The campaigns were based in Kiruna, Sweden, and took place from January to March 2003. Measurements were conducted onboard the Russian high-altitude research aircraft Geophysica using the low-pressure Condensation Nucleus Counter COPAS (COndensation PArticle Counter System) and a modified FSSP 300 (Forward Scattering Spectrometer Probe). Around 18–20 km altitude typical total particle number concentrations nt range at 10–20 cm−3 (ambient conditions). Correlations with the trace gases nitrous oxide (N2O) and trichlorofluoromethane (CFC-11) are discussed. Inside the polar vortex the total number of particles >0.01 µm increases with potential temperature while N2O is decreasing which indicates a source of particles in the above polar stratosphere or mesosphere. A separate channel of the COPAS instrument measures the fraction of aerosol particles non-volatile at 250°C. Inside the polar vortex a much higher fraction of particles contained non-volatile residues than outside the vortex (~24% outside vortex). This is most likely due to a strongly increased fraction of meteoritic material in the particles which is transported downward from the mesosphere inside the polar vortex. The high fraction of non-volatile residual particles gives therefore experimental evidence for downward transport of mesospheric air inside the polar vortex. It is also shown that the fraction of non-volatile residual particles serves directly as a suitable experimental vortex tracer. Nanometer-sized meteoritic smoke particles may also serve as nuclei for the condensation of gaseous sulfuric acid and water in the polar vortex and these additional particles may be responsible for the increase in the observed particle concentration at low N2O. The number concentrations of particles >0.4 µm measured with the FSSP decrease markedly inside the polar vortex with increasing potential temperature, also a consequence of subsidence of air from higher altitudes inside the vortex. Another focus of the analysis was put on the particle measurements in the lowermost stratosphere. For the total particle density relatively high number concentrations of several hundred particles per cm3 at altitudes below ~14 km were observed in several flights. To investigate the origin of these high number concentrations we conducted air mass trajectory calculations and compared the particle measurements with other trace gas observations. The high number concentrations of total particles in the lowermost stratosphere are probably caused by transport of originally tropospheric air from lower latitudes and are potentially influenced by recent particle nucleation.
Number concentrations of total and non-volatile aerosol particles with size diameters >0.01 μm as well as particle size distributions (0.4–23 μm diameter) were measured in situ in the Arctic lower stratosphere (10–20.5 km altitude). The measurements were obtained during the campaigns European Polar Stratospheric Cloud and Lee Wave Experiment (EUPLEX) and Envisat-Arctic-Validation (EAV). The campaigns were based in Kiruna, Sweden, and took place from January to March 2003. Measurements were conducted onboard the Russian high-altitude research aircraft Geophysica using the low-pressure Condensation Nucleus Counter COPAS (COndensation PArticle Counter System) and a modified FSSP 300 (Forward Scattering Spectrometer Probe). Around 18–20 km altitude typical total particle number concentrations nt range at 10–20 cm−3 (ambient conditions). Correlations with the trace gases nitrous oxide (N2O) and trichlorofluoromethane (CFC-11) are discussed. Inside the polar vortex the total number of particles >0.01 μm increases with potential temperature while N2O is decreasing which indicates a source of particles in the above polar stratosphere or mesosphere. A separate channel of the COPAS instrument measures the fraction of aerosol particles non-volatile at 250°C. Inside the polar vortex a much higher fraction of particles contained non-volatile residues than outside the vortex (~67% inside vortex, ~24% outside vortex). This is most likely due to a strongly increased fraction of meteoric material in the particles which is transported downward from the mesosphere inside the polar vortex. The high fraction of non-volatile residual particles gives therefore experimental evidence for downward transport of mesospheric air inside the polar vortex. It is also shown that the fraction of non-volatile residual particles serves directly as a suitable experimental vortex tracer. Nanometer-sized meteoric smoke particles may also serve as nuclei for the condensation of gaseous sulfuric acid and water in the polar vortex and these additional particles may be responsible for the increase in the observed particle concentration at low N2O. The number concentrations of particles >0.4 μm measured with the FSSP decrease markedly inside the polar vortex with increasing potential temperature, also a consequence of subsidence of air from higher altitudes inside the vortex. Another focus of the analysis was put on the particle measurements in the lowermost stratosphere. For the total particle density relatively high number concentrations of several hundred particles per cm3 at altitudes below ~14 km were observed in several flights. To investigate the origin of these high number concentrations we conducted air mass trajectory calculations and compared the particle measurements with other trace gas observations. The high number concentrations of total particles in the lowermost stratosphere are probably caused by transport of originally tropospheric air from lower latitudes and are potentially influenced by recent particle nucleation.
Wolken haben einen maßgeblichen Einfluss auf den Wasserhaushalt der Erde, das Wettergeschehen und das Klima. Sie wissenschaftlich zu beschreiben, ist schwierig – und das erschwert die Niederschlagsvorhersage ebenso wie die Klimamodellierung. Wichtig für die Entstehung von Regen in unseren Breiten sind Eispartikel. Sie machen einen großen Teil der Wolken aus. Doch wie bilden sie sich, und warum sind sie für viele physikalische Prozesse in den Wolken unentbehrlich? Und schließlich: Wirkt sich menschliches Handeln auf die Wolken aus?
Two types of particles exist in the atmosphere, primary and secondary particles. While primary particles such as soot, mineral dust, sea salt particles or pollen are introduced directly as particles into the atmosphere, secondary particles are formed in the atmosphere by condensation of gases. The formation of such new aerosol particles takes place frequently and at a broad variety of atmospheric conditions and geographic locations. A considerable fraction of the atmospheric particles is formed by such nucleation processes. The newly formed particles may grow by condensation to sizes where they are large enough to act as cloud condensation nuclei and therefore may affect cloud properties. The fundamental processes of aerosol nucleation are described and typical atmospheric observations are discussed. Two recent studies are introduced that potentially change our current understanding of atmospheric nucleation substantially.
Non-forest ecosystems, dominated by shrubs, grasses and herbaceous plants, provide ecosystem services including carbon sequestration and forage for grazing, and are highly sensitive to climatic changes. Yet these ecosystems are poorly represented in remotely sensed biomass products and are undersampled by in situ monitoring. Current global change threats emphasize the need for new tools to capture biomass change in non-forest ecosystems at appropriate scales. Here we developed and deployed a new protocol for photogrammetric height using unoccupied aerial vehicle (UAV) images to test its capability for delivering standardized measurements of biomass across a globally distributed field experiment. We assessed whether canopy height inferred from UAV photogrammetry allows the prediction of aboveground biomass (AGB) across low-stature plant species by conducting 38 photogrammetric surveys over 741 harvested plots to sample 50 species. We found mean canopy height was strongly predictive of AGB across species, with a median adjusted R2 of 0.87 (ranging from 0.46 to 0.99) and median prediction error from leave-one-out cross-validation of 3.9%. Biomass per-unit-of-height was similar within but different among, plant functional types. We found that photogrammetric reconstructions of canopy height were sensitive to wind speed but not sun elevation during surveys. We demonstrated that our photogrammetric approach produced generalizable measurements across growth forms and environmental settings and yielded accuracies as good as those obtained from in situ approaches. We demonstrate that using a standardized approach for UAV photogrammetry can deliver accurate AGB estimates across a wide range of dynamic and heterogeneous ecosystems. Many academic and land management institutions have the technical capacity to deploy these approaches over extents of 1–10 ha−1. Photogrammetric approaches could provide much-needed information required to calibrate and validate the vegetation models and satellite-derived biomass products that are essential to understand vulnerable and understudied non-forested ecosystems around the globe.
We combine structural analysis of fractures with 22 U–Pb dates measured in fracture-filling carbonate cements from bed-parallel fibrous calcite veins (beef), conjugated veins and faults within the Vaca Muerta Formation along the Andean fold and thrust belt in the Neuquén Basin. The measured ages constrain accurately the relationships between overpressures caused by hydrocarbon generation and Andean compression as mechanisms for natural fracturing and vein formation. Two generations of fibres have been identified in beef. The first one, consists of dark fibres from the inner zones, which are perpendicular to bedding and contain abundant cone-in-cone structures and hydrocarbon inclusions. U–Pb dating of these fibres yielded Early to Late Cretaceous ages from 116.7 ± 17.7 to 78.8 ± 10.2 Ma. The second generation of fibres corresponds to the outer zones and consists of white fibres oblique to bedding, indicating growth during layer-parallel shortening. Bed-perpendicular veins cutting beef yielded Late Cretaceous-late Palaeocene dates from 72.8 ± 22.4 to 60.9 ± 10.4 Ma. Eocene ages from 52.0 ± 2.9 to 42.2 ± 18.9 Ma were measured in bed-parallel slip surfaces and reverse and strike-slip faults, whereas Miocene dates from 13.9 ± 2.6 to 6.2 ± 1.1 Ma were measured in E-W calcite veins. U–Pb dating of veins, structural analysis of fractures and subsidence curves, indicate that beef inner zones formed in the oil window during burial of the Neuquén basin, and that tectonic stresses could enhance their formation. Beef outer zones and bed-perpendicular veins formed during E-W Late Cretaceous-late Palaeocene layer-parallel shortening. Contrarily, late Palaeocene-late Eocene bed-parallel slip surfaces and faults and Miocene E-W veins formed during NE-SW and E-W syn-to post-folding deformation, respectively. In both cases, syn-to post-folding compression occurred synchronously with forelandward migration of magmatic activity attributed to flat subduction of the Pacific slab beneath the Andes.
A new, two-channel instrument for simultaneous NO3 and N2O5 monitoring was used to make the first comprehensive set of nocturnal NOx measurements (NO, NO2, NO3 and N2O5) at the Taunus Observatory, a rural mountain site (Kleiner Feldberg) in South-western Germany. In May 2008, NO3 and N2O5 mixing ratios were well above the instrumental detection limit (a few ppt) on all nights of the campaign and were characterised by large variability resulting from inhomogeneously distributed sinks. The concentrations of NO3, N2O5 and NO2 were consistent with the equilibrium constant, K2, defining the rates of formation and thermal dissociation of N2O5. A steady-state lifetime analysis showed that nocturnal NOx losses were generally dominated by reaction of NO3 with volatile organic compounds in this forested region, with N2O5 uptake to aerosols of secondary importance. Analysis of a limited dataset obtained at high relative humidity indicated that the loss of N2O5 by reaction with water vapour is less efficient (> factor 3) than derived using laboratory kinetic data. The fraction of NOx present as NO3 and N2O5 reached ≈20% on some nights, with night-time losses of NOx competing with daytime losses.
A new, two-channel instrument for simultaneous NO3 and N2O5 monitoring was used to make the first comprehensive set of nocturnal NOx measurements (NO, NO2, NO3 and N2O5) at the Taunus Observatory, a rural mountain site (Kleiner Feldberg) in South-western Germany. In May 2008, NO3 and N2O5 mixing ratios were well above the instrumental detection limit (a few ppt) on all nights of the campaign and were characterised by large variability. The concentrations of NO3, N2O5 and NO2 were consistent with the equilibrium constant, K2, defining the rates of formation and thermal dissociation of N2O5. A steady-state lifetime analysis is consistent with the loss of nocturnal NOx being dominated by the reaction of NO3 with volatile organic compounds in this forested region, with N2O5 uptake to aerosols of secondary importance. Analysis of a limited dataset obtained at high relative humidity indicated that the loss of N2O5 by reaction with water vapour is less efficient (>factor 3) than derived using laboratory kinetic data. The fraction of NOx present as NO3 and N2O5 reached ~20% on some nights, with night-time losses of NOx competing with daytime losses.
Global warming, changes in the hydrological cycle and enhanced marine primary productivity all have been invoked to have contributed to the occurrence of widespread ocean anoxia during the Cenomanian-Turonian Oceanic Anoxic Event (OAE2; ~ 94 Ma), but disentangling these factors on a regional scale has remained problematic. We generated palynological and organic geochemical records that allow the separation of these forcing factors in a core spanning the OAE2 from Wunstorf, Lower Saxony Basin (LSB; North Gemany), which exhibits cyclic black shale–marl alternations related to the orbital precession cycle.
Despite the widely varying depositional conditions complicating the interpretation of the obtained records, TEX86H indicates that sea-surface temperature (SST) evolution in the LSB during OAE2 resembles that of previously studied sites throughout the proto-North Atlantic. Cooling during the so-called Plenus Cold Event interrupted black shale deposition during the early stages of OAE2. However, TEX86 does not vary significantly across marl–black shale alternations, suggesting that temperature variations did not force the formation of the cyclic black shale horizons. Relative (i.e., with respect to marine palynomorphs) and absolute abundances of pollen and spores are elevated during phases of black shale deposition, indicative of enhanced precipitation and run-off. High abundances of cysts from inferred heterotrophic and euryhaline dinoflagellates supports high run-off, which likely introduced additional nutrients to the epicontinental shelf resulting in elevated marine primary productivity.
We conclude that orbitally-forced enhanced precipitation and run-off, in tandem with elevated marine primary productivity, were critical in cyclic black shale formation on the northwest European epicontinental shelf and potentially for other OAE2 sections in the proto-Atlantic and Western Interior Seaway at similar latitudes as well.
Reconstructing the early Paleogene climate dynamics of terrestrial settings in the high southern latitudes is important to assess the role of high-latitude physical and biogeochemical processes in the global climate system. However, whereas a number of high-quality Paleogene climate records has become available for the marine realm of the high southern latitudes over the recent past, the long-term evolution of coeval terrestrial climates and ecosystems is yet poorly known. We here explore the climate and vegetation dynamics on Tasmania from the middle Paleocene to the early Eocene (60.7–54.2 Ma) based on a sporomorph record from Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Site 1172 on the East Tasman Plateau. Our results show that three distinctly different vegetation types thrived on Tasmania under a high-precipitation regime during the middle Paleocene to early Eocene, with each type representing different temperature conditions: (i) warm-temperate forests dominated by gymnosperms that were dominant during the middle and late Paleocene; (ii) cool-temperate forests dominated by southern beech (Nothofagus) and araucarians across the middle/late Paleocene transition interval (~59.5 to ~59.0 Ma); and (iii) paratropical forests rich in ferns that were established during and in the wake of the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM). The transient establishment of cool-temperate forests lacking any frost-sensitive elements (i.e., palms and cycads) across the middle/late Paleocene transition interval indicates markedly cooler conditions, with the occurrence of frosts in winter, on Tasmania during that time. The integration of our sporomorph data with previously published TEX86-based sea-surface temperatures from ODP Site 1172 documents that the vegetation dynamics on Tasmania were closely linked with the temperature evolution in the Tasman sector of the Southwest Pacific region. Moreover, the comparison of our season-specific climate estimates for the sporomorph assemblages from ODP Site 1172 with the TEX86L- and TEX86H-based temperature data suggests a warm-season bias of both calibrations for the early Paleogene of the high southern latitudes.
Terrestrial climate and ecosystem evolution during ‘Greenhouse Earth’ phases of the early Paleogene remain incompletely known. Particularly, paleobotanical records from high southern latitudes are giving only limited insights into the Paleocene and early Eocene vegetation of the region. Hence, data from continuous well-calibrated sequences are required to make progress with the reconstruction of terrestrial climate and ecosystem dynamics from the southern latitudes during the early Paleogene.
In order to elucidate the terrestrial conditions from the high southern latitudes during the early Paleogene, terrestrial palynology was applied in the present study to two well-dated deep-marine sediment cores located at the Australo-Antarctic region: (i) IODP Site U1356 (Wilkes Land margin, East Antarctica) and (ii) ODP Site 1172 (East Tasman Plateau, southwest Pacific Ocean). The studied sequence from IODP Site U1356 comprises mid-shelfal sediments from the early to middle Eocene (53.9 – 46 million years ago [Ma]). For the ODP Site 1172, the studied succession is characterized by sediments deposited in shallow marine environments of the middle Paleocene to the early Eocene (60.7 – 54.2 Ma).
Based on the obtained pollen and spores (sporomorphs) results from the studied sequences of Site U1356 and Site 1172, this study aims to: (1) decipher the terrestrial climate conditions along the Australo-Antarctic region from the middle Paleocene to the middle Eocene; (2) evaluate the structure, diversity and compositional patterns of forests that throve in the Australo-Antarctic region during the early Paleogene; (3) understand the response of forests from the high southern latitudes to the climate dynamics from the early Paleogene; (4) establish a connection between the generated terrestrial palynomorph data and published Sea Surface Temperatures (SSTs) from the same cores.
To decipher the terrestrial climatic conditions on the Australo-Antarctic region, this study relies on the nearest living relative (NLR) concept that assumes that fossil taxa have similar climate requirements as their modern counterparts. This approach was applied to the sporomorph results of Site U1356 and Site 1172, following mainly the bioclimatic analysis. With regard to the structure and diversity patterns of the vegetation from the same region, the present study presents combined qualitative (i.e., reconstruction of the vegetation based mainly on the habitats of the known living relatives) and quantitative (i.e., application of ordination techniques, rarefaction and diversity indices) analyses of the fossil sporomorphs results.
The overall results from the paleoclimatic and vegetation reconstruction approaches applied in the present study, indicate that temperate and paratropical forests during the early Paleogene throve under different climatic conditions on the Wilkes Land margin and on Tasmania, at paleolatitudes of ∼70°S and ∼65°S, respectively.
Specifically, the sporomorph results from Site U1356, suggest that a highly diverse forest similar to present-day forests from New Caledonia was thriving on Antarctica during the early Eocene (53.9 – 51.9 Ma). These forests were characterized by the presence of termophilous taxa that are restricted today to tropical and subtropical settings, notably Bombacoideae, Strasburgeria, Beauprea, Spathiphyllum, Anacolosa and Lygodium. In combination with MBT/CBT paleotemperature results, they provide strong evidence for near-tropical warmth at least in the coastal lowlands along the Wilkes Land margin. The coeval presence of frost tolerant taxa such as Nothofagus, Araucariaceae and Podocarpaceae during the early Eocene on the same record suggests that paratropical forests were thriving along the Wilkes Land margin. Due to the presence of this kind of vegetation, it is possible to suggest that forests in this region were subject to a climatic gradient related to differences in elevation and/or the proximity to the coastline.
By the middle Eocene, the paratropical forests that characterized the vegetation of the early Eocene on the Wilkes Land margin were replaced by low diversity temperate forests dominated by Nothofagus, and similar to present-day cool-temperate forests from New Zealand. The dominance of these forests and the absence of thermophilous elements together with the lower temperatures suggested by the MBT/CBT and the sporomorph-based temperatures indicate consistently cooler conditions during this time interval.
With regard to the sporomorph results of Site 1172, this study suggests that three vegetation types were thriving on Tasmania from the middle Paleocene to the early Eocene under different climatic conditions. During the middle to late Paleocene, warm-temperate forests dominated by Podocarpaceae and Araucariaceae were the prevailing vegetation on Tasmania. The dominance of these forests was interrupted by the transient predominance of cool-temperate forests dominated by Nothofagus and Araucariaceae across the middle/late Paleocene transition interval (~59.5 to ~59.0 Ma). This cool-temperate forest was characterized by a lack of frost-sensitive elements (i.e., palms and cycads) indicating cooler conditions with harsher winters on Tasmania during this time interval. By the early Eocene, and linked with the Paleocene Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), Paleocene temperate forests dominated by gymnosperms were replaced by paratropical rainforests with the remarkable presence of the tropical mangrove palm Nypa during the PETM and the earliest Eocene. The overall results from Site U1356 and Site 1172, provide a new assessment of the terrestrial climatic conditions in the Australo-Antarctic region for validating climate models and understanding the response of high-latitude terrestrial ecosystems to the climate dynamics of the early Paleogene on southern latitudes.
The climatic conditions in the higher latitudes during the early Paleogene were further unravelled by comparing the obtained terrestrial and marine results. The integration of the obtained sporomorph data with previously published TEX86-based SSTs from Site 1172 documents that the vegetation dynamics were closely linked with the temperature evolution from the Australo-Antarctic region. Moreover, the comparison of TEX86-based SSTs and sporomorph-based climatic estimations from Site 1172 suggests a warm-season bias of both calibrations of TEX86 (i.e., TEX86Hand TEX86H), when this proxy is applied to high southern latitudes records of the early Paleogene.
The mechanisms of transfer of crustal material from the subducting slab to the overlying mantle wedge are still debated. Mélange rocks, formed by mixing of sediments, oceanic crust, and ultramafics along the slab-mantle interface, are predicted to ascend as diapirs from the slab-top and transfer their compositional signatures to the source region of arc magmas. However, the compositions of melts that result from the interaction of mélanges with a peridotite wedge remain unknown. Here we present experimental evidence that melting of peridotite hybridized by mélanges produces melts that carry the major and trace element abundances observed in natural arc magmas. We propose that differences in nature and relative contributions of mélanges hybridizing the mantle produce a range of primary arc magmas, from tholeiitic to calc-alkaline. Thus, assimilation of mélanges into the wedge may play a key role in transferring subduction signatures from the slab to the source of arc magmas.
Talc formation via silica-metasomatism of ultramafic rocks is believed to play key roles in subduction zone processes. Yet, the conditions of talc formation remain poorly constrained. We used thermodynamic reaction-path models to assess the formation of talc at the slab-mantle interface and show that it is restricted to a limited set of pressure–temperature conditions, protolith, and fluid compositions. In contrast, our models predict that chlorite formation is ubiquitous at conditions relevant to the slab-mantle interface of subduction zones. The scarcity of talc and abundance of chlorite is evident in the rock record of exhumed subduction zone terranes. Talc formation during Si-metasomatism may thus play a more limited role in volatile cycling, strain localization, and in controlling the decoupling-coupling transition of the plate interface. Conversely, the observed and predicted ubiquity of chlorite corroborates its prominent role in slab-mantle interface processes that previous studies attributed to talc.
Key Points:
Limited talc formation by Si-metasomatism of ultramafic rocks in subduction zones
Chlorite formation is likely pervasive at the slab-mantle interface
Preferential formation of chlorite has wide-ranging chemical and physical implications for subduction zone processes
Plain Language Summary: In subduction zones, talc can form during chemical reactions of mantle rocks with silica-enriched fluids at the interface between descending oceanic plates and the overriding mantle. Its formation and distribution in subduction zones are believed to affect the volatile budget, rheological properties, and the down-dip limit of the decoupling of the slab-mantle interface. Therefore, illuminating the conditions that facilitate talc formation at high pressure-temperature conditions is key in assessing its roles in fundamental subduction zone processes. Using thermodynamic reaction-path models, we show that the formation of talc at the slab-mantle interface is restricted to a limited set of environmental conditions, because its formation is highly sensitive to the compositions of the mantle rocks and reactant fluids. Contrary to common belief, talc is unlikely to form in high abundance in ultramafic rocks metasomatized by Si-rich slab-derived fluids. Rather, our models predict the ubiquitous formation of chlorite along with other silicate minerals during Si-metasomatism due to the competing effects from other dissolved components that favor their formation over talc. This study calls into question the importance of talc during Si-metasomatism in subduction zones but highlights the more predominant role of chlorite.
Metasomatic reaction zones between mafic and ultramafic rocks exhumed from subduction zones provide a window into mass-transfer processes at high pressure. However, accurate interpretation of the rock record requires distinguishing high-pressure metasomatic processes from inherited oceanic signatures prior to subduction. We integrated constraints from bulk-rock geochemical compositions and petrophysical properties, mineral chemistry, and thermodynamic modeling to understand the formation of reaction zones between juxtaposed metagabbro and serpentinite as exemplified by the Voltri Massif (Ligurian Alps, Italy). Distinct zones of variably metasomatized metagabbro are dominated by chlorite, amphibole, clinopyroxene, epidote, rutile, ilmenite, and titanite between serpentinite and eclogitic metagabbro. Whereas the precursor serpentinite and oxide gabbro formed and were likely already in contact in an oceanic setting, the reaction zones formed by diffusional Mg-metasomatism between the two rocks from prograde to peak, to retrograde conditions in a subduction zone. Metasomatism of mafic rocks by Mg-rich fluids that previously equilibrated with serpentinite could be widespread along the subduction interface, within the subducted slab, and the mantle wedge. Furthermore, the models predict that talc formation by Si-metasomatism of serpentinite in subduction zones is limited by pressure-dependent increase in the silica activity buffered by the serpentine-talc equilibrium. Elevated activities of aqueous Ca and Al species would also favor the formation of chlorite and garnet. Accordingly, unusual conditions or processes would be required to stabilize abundant talc at high P-T conditions. Alternatively, a different set of mineral assemblages, such as serpentine- or chlorite-rich rocks, may be controlling the coupling-decoupling transition of the plate interface.
Small-scale thermal upwellings under the northern East African Rift from S travel time tomography
(2016)
There is a long-standing debate over how many and what types of plumes underlie the East African Rift and whether they do or do not drive its extension and consequent magmatism and seismicity. Here we present a new tomographic study of relative teleseismic S and SKS residuals that expands the resolution from previous regional studies below the northern East African Rift to image structure from the surface to the base of the transition zone. The images reveal two low-velocity clusters, below Afar and west of the Main Ethiopian Rift, that extend throughout the upper mantle and comprise several smaller-scale (about 100 km diameter), low-velocity features. These structures support those of our recent P tomographic study below the region. The relative magnitude of S to P residuals is around 3.5, which is consistent with a predominantly thermal nature of the anomalies. The S and P velocity anomalies in the low-velocity clusters can be explained by similar excess temperatures in the range of 100–200°C, consistent with temperatures inferred from other seismic, geochemical, and petrological studies. Somewhat stronger VS anomalies below Afar than west of the Main Ethiopian Rift may include an expression of volatiles and/or melt in this region. These results, together with a comparison with previous larger-scale tomographic models, indicate that these structures are likely small-scale upwellings with mild excess temperatures, rising from a regional thermal boundary layer at the base of the upper mantle.
Die Meteor-Reise 60 besteht aus 5 Fahrtabschnitten im subtropischen Wirbel des Nordatlantiks von den Azoren bzw. Madeira bis zum tropischen Westatlantik. Fahrtabschnitt 1 konzentriert sich auf die Ökologie und Biogeochemie von sogenannten „Seamounts“ im östlichen Atlantik im Rahmen eines EU-Projektes; Fahrtabschnitt 2 umfasst, in Zusammenarbeit mit französischen Kollegen, detailierte seismische und geophysikalische Untersuchungen eines aktiven Segments des Mittelatlantischen Rückens; Fahrtabschnitt 3 ist eine multidisziplinäre (geologisch, biologisch und chemisch) Untersuchung über die Auswirkungen der hydrothermalen Zirkulation am Mittelatlantischen Rücken im Rahmen eines DFG-Schwerpunkt-programms; Fahrtabschnitt 4 ist einer physikalisch-ozeanographische Studie der langfristigen Variation der thermohalien Zirkulation in westlichen Becken des Atlantiks im Kontext des BMBF-CLIVAR programms gewidmet; und Fahrtabschnitt 5 schließlich, ist eine multidisziplinäre (chemisch/biologisch) Untersuchung über die CO2-Aufnahme und die biologische Pumpe in der Wassersäule des nordatlantischen Subtropenwirbels (DFG-Sonderforschungsbereich 460). Der erste Fahrtabschnitt der Reise M 60 dient der physikalischen, biogeochemischen und biologischen Probengewinnung im Rahmen des EU- Projektes OASIS (OceAnic Seamounts: an Integrated Study). OASIS ist ein interdisziplinäres Projekt mit 9 Partnern aus 5 europäischen Ländern und untersucht die funktionale Charakteristik von Seamount-Ökosystemen. Basierend auf 2 Fallstudien werden die Prozesse, die Seamount-Ökosysteme charakterisieren, und ihre Einflüsse auf den umgebenden Ozean beschrieben. Die wissenschaftlichen Ergebnisse, zusammengeführt in einem konzeptionellen Ökosystemmodell, werden Ausgangsbasis für die Entwicklung von generellen und ortspezifischen Managementplänen sein. Das primäre Ziel von OASIS, eine holistische Erfassung von Seamount-Ökosystemen, wird durch die Integration folgender Sachgebiete erreicht: a) Identifikation und Beschreibung der physikalischen Einflußkräfte auf Seamount-Ökosysteme b) Erfassung der Herkunft, Qualität und Dynamik partikulärer organischer Substanz in der Wassersäule und an der Sedimentoberfläche c) Beschreibung von Aspekten der Biodiversität und Ökologie von Seamount-Lebensgemeinschaften und Erfassung ihrer Dynamik und Produktionsmechanismen d) Modellierung der trophischen Ökologie von Seamount-Ökosystemen e) Anwendung der wissenschaftlichen Ergebnisse auf den Naturschutz. Ein weiteres Ziel der Fahrt ist die Erprobung eines neu entwickelten Drucklabors zur Untersuchung von Tiefseeorganismen unter in situ-Druckbdingenungen von bis zu 500 bar.
140 Liter Wasser werden für die Herstellung einer Tasse Kaffee benötigt, 1.300 Liter Wasser für ein Kilo Gerste und 3.400 Liter Wasser für ein Kilo Reis. Diese Zahlen mögen im ersten Moment unglaubwürdig erscheinen, doch sie entsprechen der Wirklichkeit. Für die Herstellung von nahezu allen Produkten wird Wasser in teils sogar sehr großen Mengen benötigt. In dem Endprodukt jedoch findet sich meist nur ein kleiner Teil des ursprünglich eingesetzten Wassers in seiner physischen Form wieder. Der überwiegende Anteil wurde während des Produktionsprozesses verdunstet oder zur Kühlung eingesetzt und wird daher als „virtuelles Wasser“ bezeichnet. Aufgrund des Exports und Imports von Produkten im Zuge des internationalen Handels kommt es somit auch zu Strömen von virtuellem Wasser zwischen den einzelnen Ländern. In dieser Bachelorarbeit wird der virtuelle Wasserhandel mit 23 verschiedenen Feldfrüchten mit dem Fokus auf Deutschland für den Zeitraum von 1998 bis 2002 untersucht. In die Berechnung dieser virtuellen Wasserströme ist ein neuartiges Modell eingegangen, das Global Crop Water Model (GCWM), welches den virtuellen Wassergehalt für unterschiedliche Feldfruchtgruppen global für jede 5-Minuten-Zelle auf Basis detaillierter Daten berechnet. Dank dieses Modells ist es möglich, eine Trennung zwischen dem virtuellen Wasser, welches aus der Nutzung des Niederschlagswassers und dem virtuellen Wasser, welches aus der Bewässerung von Ackerflächen resultiert, vorzunehmen und diese getrennt von einander zu analysieren. Mittels der Verwendung der Handelsstatistik Comtrade der Vereinten Nationen lässt sich aus den Ergebnissen des GCWM der virtuelle Wasserhandel darstellen. Es zeigt sich, dass Deutschland das meiste Wasser in seiner virtuellen Form nach Algerien, Saudi-Arabien, Belgien und in die Niederlande exportiert, wohingegen aus Brasilien, den USA, Frankreich und der Elfenbeinküste die größten virtuellen Wassermengen importiert werden.
First-principles modeling techniques offer the ability to simulate a wide range of systems under different physical conditions, such as temperature, pressure, and composition, without relying on empirical knowledge. Density functional theory (DFT), a quantum mechanical method, has become an exceptionally successful framework for materials science modeling. Employing DFT makes it possible to gain valuable insights into the fundamental state of a system, enabling the reliable determination of equilibrium crystal structures. Over time, DFT has become an essential tool that can be incorporated into various schemes for predicting the properties of a material related to its structure, insulating/metallic behavior, magnetism, and optics. DFT is regularly applied in numerous fields, spanning from fundamental subjects in condensed matter physics to the study of large-scale phenomena in geosciences. In the latter, the effectiveness of DFT stems from its ability to simulate the properties found on the Earth, other planets, and meteorites, which may pose challenges for their direct study or laboratory investigation.
In this thesis, a comprehensive examination of a family of monosulfides and a perovskite heterostructure was conducted. These materials are relevant for their potential applications in technology, energy harvesting, and in the case of monosulfides, their speculated abundance on the planet Mercury.
Firstly, a DFT approach was used to analyze two non-magnetic monosulfides, CaS and MgS. We determined their structural properties and then focused on the modeling of their reflectivity in the infrared region. The calculation of the reflectivity considered both harmonic and anharmonic contributions. In the harmonic limit, the non-analytic correction was employed to accurately determine the LO/TO splitting, which is necessary to delimit the retstrahlend band, that is, the maximum of the reflectivity. The anharmonic effects given by up to three-phonon and isotopic scatterings, which were included using perturbation theory, primarily smeared the reflectivity spectra edges in the high-wave region.
Secondly, four polymorphs of MnS were studied using a combination of first-principles methods to simulate their antiferromagnetic (AFM) and paramagnetic (PM) states. The integration of DFT+$U$ with special quasirandom structures (SQS) supercells, and occupation matrix control techniques was crucial for achieving convergence, structural optimization accuracy, and obtaining finite energy band gaps and local magnetic moments in the PM phases. The addition of the Hubbard $U$ correction was necessary to treat the highly-correlated Mn $d$-electrons. The success of our approach was clear based on our electronic structure predictions for the PM rock-salt B1-MnS polymorph. Experimentally this phase has been observed to be an insulator, but multiple \emph{ab initio} works resulted previously in metallic behavior. Our computations, on the other hand, predicted insulating and magnetic properties that compare well with available measurements. Additionally, the pressure-field stability of the four MnS polymorphs was studied. In the case of the PM phases, B1-MnS was identified to be the most stable up to about 21 GPa, then transforming into the B31-MnS polymorph. This finding was in close agreement with high-pressure experiments reporting a similar phase transformation. The optical properties of B1-, B4-, and B31-MnS were also simulated. The SQS technique was used to obtain soft-mode-free phonon band structures within the harmonic approximation. Then, the anharmonic effects were included, and the reflectivity was calculated for B1-MnS and B4-MnS. In both cases, a good agreement for the LO/TO splitting was achieved in comparison to experimental results.
Lastly, the oxygen-deficient heterostructure of LaAlO$_{3-\delta}$ /SrTiO$_{3-\delta}$ was investigated also employing DFT+$U$, with a particular emphasis on the potential impact of vacancy clustering at the interface. Six distinct configurations of pairs of vacancies were studied and their energies were compared to find the most stable one. The orbital reconstruction of Ti orbitals was also examined based on their location with respect to the vacancies and the local magnetic moments were calculated. The final results showed that linearly arranged vacancies located opposite to Ti ions give the most energetically stable configuration.
We report on HCFC-22 data acquired by the Michelson Interferometer for Passive Atmospheric Sounding (MIPAS) in the reduced spectral resolution nominal observation mode. The data cover the period from January 2005 to April 2012 and the altitude range from the upper troposphere (above cloud top altitude) to about 50 km. The profile retrieval was performed by constrained nonlinear least squares fitting of modelled spectra to the measured limb spectral radiances. The spectral ν4-band at 816.5 ± 13 cm−1 was used for the retrieval. A Tikhonov-type smoothing constraint was applied to stabilise the retrieval. In the lower stratosphere, we find a global volume mixing ratio of HCFC-22 of about 185 pptv in January 2005. The rate of linear growth in the lower latitudes lower stratosphere was about 6 to 7 pptv year−1 in the period 2005–2012. The profiles obtained were compared with ACE-FTS satellite data v3.5, as well as with MkIV balloon profiles and cryosampler balloon measurements. Between 13 and 22 km, average agreement within −3 to +5 pptv (MIPAS – ACE) with ACE-FTS v3.5 profiles is demonstrated. Agreement with MkIV solar occultation balloon-borne measurements is within 10–20 pptv below 30 km and worse above, while in situ cryosampler balloon measurements are systematically lower over their full altitude range by 15–50 pptv below 24 km and less than 10 pptv above 28 km. MIPAS HCFC-22 time series below 10 km altitude are shown to agree mostly well to corresponding time series of near-surface abundances from the NOAA/ESRL and AGAGE networks, although a more pronounced seasonal cycle is obvious in the satellite data. This is attributed to tropopause altitude fluctuations and subsidence of polar winter stratospheric air into the troposphere. A parametric model consisting of constant, linear, quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) and several sine and cosine terms with different periods has been fitted to the temporal variation of stratospheric HCFC-22 for all 10°-latitude/1-to-2-km-altitude bins. The relative linear variation was always positive, with relative increases of 40–70 % decade−1 in the tropics and global lower stratosphere, and up to 120 % decade−1 in the upper stratosphere of the northern polar region and the southern extratropical hemisphere. Asian HCFC-22 emissions have become the major source of global upper tropospheric HCFC-22. In the upper troposphere, monsoon air, rich in HCFC-22, is instantaneously mixed into the tropics. In the middle stratosphere, between 20 and 30 km, the observed trend is inconsistent with the trend at the surface (corrected for the age of stratospheric air), hinting at circulation changes. There exists a stronger positive trend in HCFC-22 in the Southern Hemisphere and a more muted positive trend in the Northern Hemisphere, implying a potential change in the stratospheric circulation over the observation period.
We report on HCFC-22 data acquired by the Michelson Interferometer for Passive Atmospheric Sounding (MIPAS) in reduced spectral resolution nominal mode in the period from January 2005 to April 2012 from version 5.02 level-1b spectral data and covering an altitude range from the upper troposphere (above cloud top altitude) to about 50 km. The profile retrieval was performed by constrained nonlinear least squares fitting of measured limb spectral radiances to modelled spectra. The spectral v4-band at 816.5 ± 13 cm-1 was used for the retrieval. A Tikhonov-type smoothing constraint was applied to stabilise the retrieval. In the lower stratosphere, we find a global volume mixing ratio of HCFC-22 of about 185 pptv in January 2005. The linear growth rate in the lower latitudes lower stratosphere was about 6 to 7 pptv yr-1 in the period 2005–2012. The obtained profiles were compared with ACE-FTS satellite data v3.5, as well as with MkIV balloon profiles and in situ cryosampler balloon measurements. Between 13 and 22 km, average agreement within -3 to +5 pptv (MIPAS–ACE) with ACE-FTS v3.5 pro files is demonstrated. Agreement with MkIV solar occultation balloon-borne measurements is within 10–20 pptv below 30 km and worse above, while in situ cryosampler balloon measurements are systematically lower over their full altitude range by 15– 50 pptv below 24 km and less than 10 pptv above 28 km. Obtained MIPAS HCFC-22 time series below 10 km altitude are shown to agree mostly well to corresponding time series of near-surface abundances from NOAA/ESRL and AGAGE networks, although a more pronounced seasonal cycle is obvious in the satellite data, probably due to tropopause altitude fluctuations and subsidence of polar winter stratospheric air into the troposphere. A parametric model consisting of constant, linear, quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) and several sine and cosine terms with different periods has been fitted to the temporal variation of stratospheric HCFC-22 for all 10° latitude/1 to 2 km altitude bins. The relative linear variation was always positive, with relative increases of 40–70%decade-1 in the tropics and global lower stratosphere, and up to 120%decade-1 in the upper stratosphere of the northern polar region and the southern extratropical hemisphere. In the middle stratosphere between 20 and 30 km, the observed trend is not consistent with the age of stratospheric air-corrected trend at ground, but stronger positive at the Southern Hemisphere and less strong increasing in the Northern Hemisphere, hinting towards changes in the stratospheric circulation over the observation period.
Highlights
• Constrictional structures range from dome-and-basin folds to coeval folds and boudins.
• Under bulk constriction, the competent layer rotates slower than a passive plane.
• Extension-parallel and –perpendicular folds grow simultaneously.
• Extension-perpendicular folds affect previous boudins.
Abstract
We conducted scaled analogue modelling to show the influence of varying single layer initial orientation on the geometry of folds and boudins in a bulk constrictional strain field. The initial angle between the plane of shortening and the competent layer (θZ(i)) was incrementally increased from 0° to 90° by multiples of 11.25°. While the amount of layer thickening decreased with increasing θZ(i), the deformation structures produced range from pure dome-and-basin folds to coeval folds and boudins. Based on the attitude of fold axes, there are extension-parallel (FEPR) and extension-perpendicular (FEPP) folds, with axes subparallel and subperpendicular to the principal stretching axis (X), respectively. Coeval growth of FEPR folds and boudins occurred when θZ(i) > ca. 25°. The FEPP folds can be subdivided into a first type which affect the entire layer (if θZ(i) ranges between 11.25 and 78.75°) and a second type, referred to as FBEPP folds, which are affecting pre-existing boudins if θZ(i) > 45°. The interlimb angle of all types of folds increases with increasing θZ(i). Folds and boudins similar to the ones produced in this study can be found in salt domes and in tectonites of subduction zones.
Current atmospheric models do not include secondary organic aerosol (SOA) production from gas-phase reactions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Recent studies have shown that primary semivolatile emissions, previously assumed to be inert, undergo oxidation in the gas phase, leading to SOA formation. This opens the possibility that low-volatility gas-phase precursors are a potentially large source of SOA. In this work, SOA formation from gas-phase photooxidation of naphthalene, 1-methylnaphthalene (1-MN), 2-methylnaphthalene (2-MN), and 1,2-dimethylnaphthalene (1,2-DMN) is studied in the Caltech dual 28-m3 chambers. Under high-NOx conditions and aerosol mass loadings between 10 and 40 microg m-3, the SOA yields (mass of SOA per mass of hydrocarbon reacted) ranged from 0.19 to 0.30 for naphthalene, 0.19 to 0.39 for 1-MN, 0.26 to 0.45 for 2-MN, and constant at 0.31 for 1,2-DMN. Under low-NOx conditions, the SOA yields were measured to be 0.73, 0.68, and 0.58, for naphthalene, 1-MN, and 2-MN, respectively. The SOA was observed to be semivolatile under high-NOx conditions and essentially nonvolatile under low-NOx conditions, owing to the higher fraction of ring-retaining products formed under low-NOx conditions. When applying these measured yields to estimate SOA formation from primary emissions of diesel engines and wood burning, PAHs are estimated to yield 3–5 times more SOA than light aromatic compounds. PAHs can also account for up to 54% of the total SOA from oxidation of diesel emissions, representing a potentially large source of urban SOA.
Current atmospheric models do not include secondary organic aerosol (SOA) production from gas-phase reactions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Recent studies have shown that primary semivolatile emissions, previously assumed to be inert, undergo oxidation in the gas phase, leading to SOA formation. This opens the possibility that low-volatility gas-phase precursors are a potentially large source of SOA. In this work, SOA formation from gas-phase photooxidation of naphthalene, 1-methylnaphthalene (1-MN), 2-methylnaphthalene (2-MN), and 1,2-dimethylnaphthalene (1,2-DMN) is studied in the Caltech dual 28-m3 chambers. Under high-NOx conditions and aerosol mass loadings between 10 and 40 μg m, the SOA yields (mass of SOA per mass of hydrocarbon reacted) ranged from 0.19 to 0.30 for naphthalene, 0.19 to 0.39 for 1-MN, 0.26 to 0.45 for 2-MN, and constant at 0.31 for 1,2-DMN. Under low-NOx conditions, the SOA yields were measured to be 0.73, 0.68, and 0.58, for naphthalene, 1-MN, and 2-MN, respectively. The SOA was observed to be semivolatile under high-NOx conditions and essentially nonvolatile under low-NOx conditions, owing to the higher fraction of ring-retaining products formed under low-NOx conditions. When applying these measured yields to estimate SOA formation from primary emissions of diesel engines and wood burning, PAHs are estimated to yield 3–5 times more SOA than light aromatic compounds. PAHs can also account for up to 54% of the total SOA from oxidation of diesel emissions, representing a potentially large source of urban SOA.
PolarCAP – A deep learning approach for first motion polarity classification of earthquake waveforms
(2022)
Highlights
• We present PolarCAP, a deep learning model that can classify the polarity of a waveform with a 98% accuracy.
• The first-motion polarity of seismograms is a useful parameter, but its manual determination can be laborious and imprecise.
• We demonstrate that in several cases the model can assign trace polar-ity more accurately than a human analyst.
Abstract
The polarity of first P-wave arrivals plays a significant role in the effective determination of focal mechanisms specially for smaller earthquakes. Manual estimation of polarities is not only time-consuming but also prone to human errors. This warrants a need for an automated algorithm for first motion polarity determination. We present a deep learning model - PolarCAP that uses an autoencoder architecture to identify first-motion polarities of earth-quake waveforms. PolarCAP is trained in a supervised fashion using more than 130,000 labelled traces from the Italian seismic dataset (INSTANCE) and is cross-validated on 22,000 traces to choose the most optimal set of hyperparameters. We obtain an accuracy of 0.98 on a completely unseen test dataset of almost 33,000 traces. Furthermore, we check the model generalizability by testing it on the datasets provided by previous works and show that our model achieves a higher recall on both positive and negative polarities.
The Weissert Event ~133 million years ago marked a profound global cooling that punctuated the Early Cretaceous greenhouse. We present modelling, high-resolution bulk organic carbon isotopes and chronostratigraphically calibrated sea surface temperature (SSTs) based on an organic paleothermometer (the TEX86 proxy), which capture the Weissert Event in the semi-enclosed Weddell Sea basin, offshore Antarctica (paleolatitude ~54 °S; paleowater depth ~500 meters). We document a ~3–4 °C drop in SST coinciding with the Weissert cold end, and converge the Weddell Sea data, climate simulations and available worldwide multi-proxy based temperature data towards one unifying solution providing a best-fit between all lines of evidence. The outcome confirms a 3.0 °C ( ±1.7 °C) global mean surface cooling across the Weissert Event, which translates into a ~40% drop in atmospheric pCO2 over a period of ~700 thousand years. Consistent with geologic evidence, this pCO2 drop favoured the potential build-up of local polar ice.
Biogenic organic precursors play an important role in atmospheric new particle formation (NPF). One of the major precursor species is α-pinene, which upon oxidation can form a suite of products covering a wide range of volatilities. Highly oxygenated organic molecules (HOMs) comprise a fraction of the oxidation products formed. While it is known that HOMs contribute to secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formation, including NPF, they have not been well studied in newly formed particles due to their very low mass concentrations. Here we present gas- and particle-phase chemical composition data from experimental studies of α-pinene oxidation, including in the presence of isoprene, at temperatures (−50 and −30 ∘C) and relative humidities (20 % and 60 %) relevant in the upper free troposphere. The measurements took place at the CERN Cosmics Leaving Outdoor Droplets (CLOUD) chamber. The particle chemical composition was analyzed by a thermal desorption differential mobility analyzer (TD-DMA) coupled to a nitrate chemical ionization–atmospheric pressure interface–time-of-flight (CI-APi-TOF) mass spectrometer. CI-APi-TOF was used for particle- and gas-phase measurements, applying the same ionization and detection scheme. Our measurements revealed the presence of C8−10 monomers and C18−20 dimers as the major compounds in the particles (diameter up to ∼ 100 nm). Particularly, for the system with isoprene added, C5 (C5H10O5−7) and C15 compounds (C15H24O5−10) were detected. This observation is consistent with the previously observed formation of such compounds in the gas phase. However, although the C5 and C15 compounds do not easily nucleate, our measurements indicate that they can still contribute to the particle growth at free tropospheric conditions. For the experiments reported here, most likely isoprene oxidation products enhance the growth of particles larger than 15 nm. Additionally, we report on the nucleation rates measured at 1.7 nm (J1.7 nm) and compared with previous studies, we found lower J1.7 nm values, very likely due to the higher α-pinene and ozone mixing ratios used in the present study.
Biogenic organic precursors play an important role in atmospheric new particle formation (NPF). One of the major precursor species is α-pinene, which upon oxidation can form a suite of products covering a wide range of volatilities. Highly oxygenated organic molecules (HOMs) comprise a fraction of the oxidation products formed. While it is known that HOMs contribute to secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formation, including NPF, they have not been well studied in newly formed particles due to their very low mass concentrations. Here we present gas- and particle-phase chemical composition data from experimental studies of α-pinene oxidation, including in the presence of isoprene, at temperatures (−50 and −30 ∘C) and relative humidities (20 % and 60 %) relevant in the upper free troposphere. The measurements took place at the CERN Cosmics Leaving Outdoor Droplets (CLOUD) chamber. The particle chemical composition was analyzed by a thermal desorption differential mobility analyzer (TD-DMA) coupled to a nitrate chemical ionization–atmospheric pressure interface–time-of-flight (CI-APi-TOF) mass spectrometer. CI-APi-TOF was used for particle- and gas-phase measurements, applying the same ionization and detection scheme. Our measurements revealed the presence of C8−10 monomers and C18−20 dimers as the major compounds in the particles (diameter up to ∼ 100 nm). Particularly, for the system with isoprene added, C5 (C5H10O5−7) and C15 compounds (C15H24O5−10) were detected. This observation is consistent with the previously observed formation of such compounds in the gas phase. However, although the C5 and C15 compounds do not easily nucleate, our measurements indicate that they can still contribute to the particle growth at free tropospheric conditions. For the experiments reported here, most likely isoprene oxidation products enhance the growth of particles larger than 15 nm. Additionally, we report on the nucleation rates measured at 1.7 nm (J1.7 nm) and compared with previous studies, we found lower J1.7 nm values, very likely due to the higher α-pinene and ozone mixing ratios used in the present study.
Atmospheric particles play an important role in the radiative balance of the Earth, as well as they affect human health and air quality. Hence, the chemical characterization constitutes a crucial task to determinate their properties, sources and fate. Particularly, the analysis of nanoparticles (d<100 nm) represents an analytical challenge, since these particles are abundant in number but have very little mass.
This accumulative thesis focuses on the chemical characterization of nanoparticles, performed in both laboratory and field studies. Here, I present four manuscripts, two of which are my main project as a lead author.
The first manuscript (Caudillo et al., 2021) focuses on the gas and the particle phase originated from biogenic precursor gases (α-pinene and isoprene). The experiments were performed in the CLOUD chamber at CERN to simulate pure biogenic new particle formation. Both gas and particle phases are measured with a nitrate CI-APi-TOF mass spectrometer, while the TD-DMA is coupled to it for particle-phase measurements, this setup allows a direct comparison as both measurements use the identical chemical ionization and detector. This study demonstrates the suitability of the TD-DMA for measuring newly formed nanoparticles and it confirms that isoprene suppresses new particle formation but contributes to the growth of newly formed particles.
The second manuscript (Caudillo et al., 2022) presents an intercomparison of four different techniques (including the TD-DMA) for measuring the chemical composition of SOA nanoparticles. The measurements were conducted in the CLOUD chamber. The intercomparison was done by contrasting the observed chemical composition, the calculated volatility, and the thermal desorption behavior (for the thermal desorption techniques). The methods generally agreed on the most important compounds that are found in the nanoparticles. However, they did see different parts of the organic spectrum. Potential explanations for these differences are suggested.
The third manuscript (Ungeheuer al., 2022) presents both laboratory and ambient measurements to investigate the ability of lubricant oil to form new particles. These new particles are an important source of ultrafine particles in the areas nearby large airports. The ambient measurements were performed downwind of Frankfurt International Airport, and it was found that the fraction of lubricant oil is largest in the smallest particles. In the laboratory, the main finding was that evaporated lubricant oil nucleates and forms new particles rapidly. The results suggest that nucleation of lubricant oil and subsequent particle growth can occur in the cooling exhaust plumes of aircraft-turbofans.
The fourth manuscript (Wang et al., 2022) is a new particle formation study in the CLOUD chamber at CERN. This study shows that nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and ammonia interact synergistically and rapidly form particles under upper free tropospheric conditions. These particles can grow by condensation (driven by the availability of ammonia) up to CCN sizes and INP particles. The ability of these particles to act as a CCN and INP was also investigated and it was found to be as efficient as for desert dust. This mechanism constitutes an important finding and it can account for previous observations of high concentrations of ammonia and ammonium nitrate over the Asia monsoon region.
Forests are important components of the greenhouse gas balance of Europe. There is considerable uncertainty about how predicted changes to climate and nitrogen deposition will perturb the carbon and nitrogen cycles of European forests and thereby alter forest growth, carbon sequestration and N2O emission. The present study aimed to quantify the carbon and nitrogen balance, including the exchange of greenhouse gases, of European forests over the period 2010–2030, with a particular emphasis on the spatial variability of change. The analysis was carried out for two tree species: European beech and Scots pine. For this purpose, four different dynamic models were used: BASFOR, DailyDayCent, INTEGRATOR and Landscape-DNDC. These models span a range from semi-empirical to complex mechanistic. Comparison of these models allowed assessment of the extent to which model predictions depended on differences in model inputs and structure. We found a European average carbon sink of 0.160 ± 0.020 kgC m−2 yr−1 (pine) and 0.138 ± 0.062 kgC m−2 yr−1 (beech) and N2O source of 0.285 ± 0.125 kgN ha−1 yr−1 (pine) and 0.575 ± 0.105 kgN ha−1 yr−1 (beech). The European average greenhouse gas potential of the carbon source was 18 (pine) and 8 (beech) times that of the N2O source. Carbon sequestration was larger in the trees than in the soil. Carbon sequestration and forest growth were largest in central Europe and lowest in northern Sweden and Finland, N. Poland and S. Spain. No single driver was found to dominate change across Europe. Forests were found to be most sensitive to change in environmental drivers where the drivers were limiting growth, where changes were particularly large or where changes acted in concert. The models disagreed as to which environmental changes were most significant for the geographical variation in forest growth and as to which tree species showed the largest rate of carbon sequestration. Pine and beech forests were found to have differing sensitivities to environmental change, in particular the response to changes in nitrogen and precipitation, with beech forest more vulnerable to drought. There was considerable uncertainty about the geographical location of N2O emissions. Two of the models BASFOR and LandscapeDNDC had largest emissions in central Europe where nitrogen deposition and soil nitrogen were largest whereas the two other models identified different regions with large N2O emission. N2O emissions were found to be larger from beech than pine forests and were found to be particularly sensitive to forest growth.
Environmental change impacts on the C- and N-cycle of European forests: a model comparison study
(2013)
Forests are important components of the greenhouse gas balance of Europe. There is considerable uncertainty about how predicted changes to climate and nitrogen deposition will perturb the carbon and nitrogen cycles of European forests and thereby alter forest growth, carbon sequestration and N2O emission. The present study aimed to quantify the carbon and nitrogen balance, including the exchange of greenhouse gases, of European forests over the period 2010–2030, with a particular emphasis on the spatial variability of change. The analysis was carried out for two tree species: European beech and Scots pine. For this purpose, four different dynamic models were used: BASFOR, DailyDayCent, INTEGRATOR and Landscape-DNDC. These models span a range from semi-empirical to complex mechanistic. Comparison of these models allowed assessment of the extent to which model predictions depended on differences in model inputs and structure. We found a European average carbon sink of 0.160 ± 0.020 kgC m−2 yr−1 (pine) and 0.138 ± 0.062 kgC m−2 yr−1 (beech) and N2O source of 0.285 ± 0.125 kgN ha−1 yr−1 (pine) and 0.575 ± 0.105 kgN ha−1 yr−1 (beech). The European average greenhouse gas potential of the carbon sink was 18 (pine) and 8 (beech) times that of the N2O source. Carbon sequestration was larger in the trees than in the soil. Carbon sequestration and forest growth were largest in central Europe and lowest in northern Sweden and Finland, N. Poland and S. Spain. No single driver was found to dominate change across Europe. Forests were found to be most sensitive to change in environmental drivers where the drivers were limiting growth, where changes were particularly large or where changes acted in concert. The models disagreed as to which environmental changes were most significant for the geographical variation in forest growth and as to which tree species showed the largest rate of carbon sequestration. Pine and beech forests were found to have differing sensitivities to environmental change, in particular the response to changes in nitrogen and precipitation, with beech forest more vulnerable to drought. There was considerable uncertainty about the geographical location of N2O emissions. Two of the models BASFOR and LandscapeDNDC had largest emissions in central Europe where nitrogen deposition and soil nitrogen were largest, whereas the two other models identified different regions with large N2O emission. N2O emissions were found to be larger from beech than pine forests and were found to be particularly sensitive to forest growth.
During the APE-THESEO mission in the Indian Ocean the Myasishchev Design Bureau stratospheric research aircraft M55 Geophysica performed a flight over and within the inner core region of tropical cyclone Davina. Measurements of total water, water vapour, temperature, aerosol backscattering, ozone and tracers were made and are discussed here in comparison with the averages of those quantities acquired during the campaign time frame.
Temperature anomalies in the tropical tropopause layer (TTL), warmer than average in the lower part and colder than average in the upper TTL were observed. Ozone was strongly reduced compared to its average value, and thick cirrus decks were present up to the cold point, sometimes topped by a layer of very dry air. Evidence for meridional transport of trace gases in the stratosphere above the cyclone and the perturbed water distribution in the TTL is illustrated and discussed.
During the APE-THESEO mission in the Indian Ocean the Myasishchev Design Bureau stratospheric research aircraft M55 Geophysica performed a flight over and within the inner core region of tropical cyclone Davina. Measurements of total water, water vapour, temperature, aerosol backscattering, ozone and tracers were made and are discussed here in comparison with the averages of those quantities acquired during the campaign time frame. Temperature anomalies in the tropical tropopause layer (TTL), warmer than average in the lower part and colder than average in the upper TTL were observed. Ozone was strongly reduced compared to its average value, and thick cirrus decks were present up to the cold point, sometimes topped by a layer of very dry air. Evidence for meridional transport of trace gases in the stratosphere above the cyclone was observed and perturbed water distribution in the TTL was documented. The paper discuss possible processes of dehydration induced by the cirrus forming above the cyclone, and change in the chemical tracer and water distribution in the lower stratosphere 400–430 K due to meridional transport from the mid-latitudes and link with Davina. Moreover it compares the data prior and after the cyclone passage to discuss its actual impact on the atmospheric chemistry and thermodynamics.
Meteorologie
(2016)
Die Wetterkunde setzt sich aus vier Tätigkeitsfeldern zusammen: Datensammlung, Modellentwicklung, Prognostik und Wettersteuerung. Die Vorhersage zukünftiger Wetterereignisse stellt mithin nur eines von mehreren Aufgabengebieten dar. In ihrer Geschichte verlief die Entwicklung der vier Felder lange Zeit weitgehend separat. In den Agrar- und Seefahrergesellschaften der Antike führten Stadtverwaltungen und Tempel kalendarische Aufzeichnungen über alle Arten von Himmelsereignissen. Kosmologische Modelle wurden in der Naturphilosophie entworfen. Aristoteles unterschied dabei den Gegenstandbereich der 'Uranologie', die sich mit feststehenden Körpern wie Fixsternen und sich regelmäßig bewegenden Körpern wie Planeten beschäftigt, von dem der 'Meteorologie', die es mit singulären oder unregelmäßigen Ereignissen wie den Witterungserscheinungen zu tun hat. Für Prognosen in diesem Bereich stützte man sich auf Erfahrungswerte und ein Denken in Wenn-dann-Strukturen: Das Auftreten oder Ausbleiben von Himmelsphänomenen oder ihrer Kombination und das Verhalten von Pflanzen und Tieren zu bestimmten Tageszeiten wurde als Anzeichen für zukünftige Wetterereignisse gedeutet. Dieses Wissen bezog sich allein auf die alltägliche Nutzanwendung und war nicht an Erklärungen interessiert. In der Antike muss deshalb nicht die Meteorologie, sondern die Wetterprophetie als das wetterkundliche Zukunftswissen gelten. Die Mittel zur Beeinflussung des Wetters schließlich bestanden in Zaubern und Gebeten.1 An dieser Trennung der verschiedenen Tätigkeitsfelder der Wetterkunde änderte sich im Mittelalter und in der frühen Neuzeit kaum etwas.
The complete elastic stiffness tensor of thiourea has been determined from thermal diffuse scattering (TDS) using high-energy photons (100 keV). Comparison with earlier data confirms a very good agreement of the tensor coefficients. In contrast with established methods to obtain elastic stiffness coefficients (e.g. Brillouin spectroscopy, inelastic X-ray or neutron scattering, ultrasound spectroscopy), their determination from TDS is faster, does not require large samples or intricate sample preparation, and is applicable to opaque crystals. Using high-energy photons extends the applicability of the TDS-based approach to organic compounds which would suffer from radiation damage at lower photon energies.
The seasonality of transport and mixing of air into the lowermost stratosphere (LMS) is studied using distributions of mean age of air and a~mass balance approach, based on in-situ observations of SF6 and CO2 during the SPURT (Spurenstofftransport in der Tropopausenregion, trace gas transport in the tropopause region) aircraft campaigns. Combining the information of the mean age of air and the water vapour distributions we demonstrate that the tropospheric air transported into the LMS above the extratropical tropopause layer (ExTL) originates predominantly from the tropical tropopause layer (TTL). The concept of our mass balance is based on simultaneous measurements of the two passive tracers and the assumption that transport into the LMS can be described by age spectra which are superposition of two different modes. Based on this concept we conclude that the stratospheric influence on LMS composition is strongest in April with tropospheric fractions (α1) below 20% and that the strongest tropospheric signatures are found in October with (α1 greater than 80%. Beyond the fractions, our mass balance concept allows to calculate the associated transit times for transport of tropospheric air from the tropics into the LMS. The shortest transit times (<0.3 years) are derived for the summer, continuously increasing up to 0.8 years by the end of spring. These findings suggest that strong quasi-horizontal mixing across the weak subtropical jet from summer to mid of autumn and the considerably shorter residual transport time-scales within the lower branch of the Brewer-Dobson circulation in summer than in winter dominates the tropospheric influence in the LMS until the beginning of next year's summer.
The seasonality of transport and mixing of air into the lowermost stratosphere (LMS) is studied using distributions of mean age of air and a mass balance approach, based on in-situ observations of SF6 and CO2 during the SPURT (Spurenstofftransport in der Tropopausenregion, trace gas transport in the tropopause region) aircraft campaigns. Combining the information of the mean age of air and the water vapour distributions we demonstrate that the tropospheric air transported into the LMS above the extratropical tropopause layer (ExTL) originates predominantly from the tropical tropopause layer (TTL). The concept of our mass balance is based on simultaneous measurements of the two passive tracers and the assumption that transport into the LMS can be described by age spectra which are superposition of two different modes. Based on this concept we conclude that the stratospheric influence on LMS composition is strongest in April with extreme values of the tropospheric fractions (alpha1) below 20% and that the strongest tropospheric signatures are found in October with alpha1 greater than 80%. Beyond the fractions, our mass balance concept allows us to calculate the associated transit times for transport of tropospheric air from the tropics into the LMS. The shortest transit times (<0.3 years) are derived for the summer, continuously increasing up to 0.8 years by the end of spring. These findings suggest that strong quasi-horizontal mixing across the weak subtropical jet from summer to mid of autumn and the considerably shorter residual transport time-scales within the lower branch of the Brewer-Dobson circulation in summer than in winter dominates the tropospheric influence in the LMS until the beginning of next year's summer.
In this paper we present evidence that the observed increase in tropical upwelling after the year 2000 may be attributed to a change in the Brewer-Dobson circulation pattern. For this purpose, we use the concept of transit times derived from residual circulation trajectories and different in-situ measurements of ozone and nitrous dioxide. Observations from the Canadian midlatitude ozone profile record, probability density functions of in-situ N2O observations and a shift of the N2O-O3 correlation slopes, taken together, indicate that the increased upwelling in the tropics after the year 2000 appears to have triggered an intensification of tracer transport from the tropics into the extratropics in the lower stratosphere below about 500 K. This finding is corroborated by the fact that transit times along the shallow branch of the residual circulation into the LMS have decreased for the same time period (1993–2003). On a longer time scale (1979–2009), the transit time of the shallow residual circulation branch show a steady decrease of about −1 month/decade over the last 30 years, while the transit times of the deep branch remain unchanged. This highlights the fact that a change in the upwelling across the tropical tropopause is not a direct indicator for changes of the whole Brewer-Dobson circulation.
In this paper we present evidence that the observed increase in tropical upwelling after the year 2000 may be attributed to a change in the Brewer-Dobson circulation pattern. For this purpose, we use the concept of transit times derived from residual circulation trajectories and different in-situ measurements of ozone and nitrous dioxide. Observations from the Canadian midlatitude ozone profile record, probability density functions of in-situ N2O observations and a shift of the N2O-O3 correlation slopes, taken together, indicate that the increased upwelling in the tropics after the year 2000 appears to have triggered an intensification of tracer transport from the tropics into the extratropics in the lower stratosphere below about 500 K. This finding is corroborated by the fact that transit times along the shallow branch of the residual circulation into the LMS have decreased for the same time period (1993–2003). On a longer time scale (1979–2009), the transit time of the shallow residual circulation branch show a steady decrease of about −1 month/decade over the last 30 yr, while the transit times of the deep branch remain unchanged. This highlights that changes in the upwelling across the tropical tropopause are not sufficient as an indicator for changes in the entire Brewer-Dobson circulation.
Im Rahmen des Projektes SPURT (Spurenstofftransport in der Tropopausenregion) als Teil des deutschen Atmosphärenforschungsprogramms AFO 2000 wurden bei 8 Messkampagnen mit insgesamt 36 Flügen innerhalb eines Beobachtungszeitraums von zwei Jahren (Nov. 2001 bis Juli 2003) Spurengasmessungen in dem Breitenbereich zwischen 35°N und 75°N durchgeführt. Für die Messungen der Spurengase N2O, F12, SF6, H2 und CO wurde der vollautomatisierte in-situ GC (Gaschromatograph) GhOST II (Gas Chromatograph for the Observation of Stratospheric Tracers) entwickelt und eingesetzt. Das Ziel dieser Messungen war die Untersuchung der jahreszeitlichen Variabilität der Spurengase in der oberen Troposphäre und untersten Stratosphäre (UT/LMS: Upper Troposphere/Lowermost Stratosphere), um die Transport- und Austauschprozesse in der Tropopausenregion besser zu verstehen. Zur Untersuchung von Transport und Mischung in der UT/LMS wurden die Rückwärtstrajektorien entlang der Flugpfade, die Verteilungen der Tracer N2O, F12, SF6, CO und CO2 (MPI für Chemie in Mainz), die Tracer/Tracer-Korrelationen N2O/F12, N2O/O3 F12/O3 und SF6/O3 und die Verteilungen des aus SF6-Messungen berechnete mittlere Alters der Luft herangezogen. Zusätzlich wurden die simultanen Messungen der beiden Alterstracer CO2 und SF6 genutzt, um die Propagation der Amplitude des troposphärischen CO2-Jahresgangs in die LMS zu bestimmen und daraus mit Hilfe eines empirischen Altersspektrums den Eintrag und die mittlere Transportzeit aus der Troposphäre in die unterste Stratosphäre zu quantifizieren. Grundsätzlich muss die LMS in zwei Bereiche eingeteilt werden – die Übergangsschicht („tropopause following layer“) bis etwa 20-30 K über der potentiellen Temperatur der lokalen Tropopause [Hoor et al., 2004] und die freie LMS oberhalb dieser Schicht. Als wesentliche Unterscheidungsmerkmale beider Bereiche wird die mittlere Transportzeit des Eintrags troposphärischer Luft identifiziert. Aus Trajektorienuntersuchungen und Tracerverteilungen (Kap. 3.4) kann gezeigt werden, dass der Transport in die Übergangsschicht und die Mischungsprozesse in diesem Bereich auf der Zeitskala der mesoskaligen troposphärischen Prozesse ablaufen. Im Gegensatz dazu werden aus der Massenbilanz (Kap. 5.3) mittlere Transportzeiten aus der Troposphäre in die freie LMS von einigen Wochen bis zu mehreren Monaten abgeleitet. Außerdem konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass der troposphärische Eintrag in der freien LMS fast ausschließlich auf quasihorizontale isentrope Einmischung aus den Tropen über die Transportbarriere des Subtropenjets zurückzuführen ist. Nur im Sommer und Herbst konnte auch oberhalb der Übergangsschicht für einzelne Messungen ein Einfluss aus der extratropischen Troposphäre beobachtet werden. Die in dieser Arbeit untersuchten Tracerverteilungen und -korrelationen (Kap. 4) und die Verteilung des mittleren Alters (Kap.5.2) in der LMS zeigen einen Jahresgang mit einem maximalen troposphärischen Einfluss im Oktober und einem maximalen stratosphärischen Einfluss im April. Diese saisonale Charakteristik in der freien LMS kann durch die saisonalen Änderungen des Verhältnisses von Abwärtstransport aus der Overworld und quasihorizontalem Transport aus den Tropen und durch die mit den jeweiligen Transportprozessen assoziierte mittlere Transportzeiten erklärt werden, die aus Massenbilanzrechnungen bestimmt wurden. Es wird gezeigt, dass der überwiegende Eintrag von troposphärischer Luft in die LMS im Sommer und Herbst stattfindet, wobei im Mittel die kürzesten mittleren Transitzeiten (unter 0.3 Jahre) für den August und die längsten Transitzeiten (über 0.6 Jahre) für den Mai berechnet werden. Aus den Ergebnissen wird gefolgert, dass ein ausgeprägter isentroper Austauschprozess über den Subtropenjet im Sommer bis in den Herbst hinein der dominierende troposphärische Einfluss in der LMS bis in den Mai ist. Der Vergleich zwischen SPURT und anderen in der UT/LMS im Zeitraum von 1992 bis 1998 durchgeführten Messkampagnen zeigt einen systematischen Unterschied in den N2O/O3-Korrelationen. Die Zunahme von O3 relativ zu N2O in der LMS ist um etwa 6.5 ppb O3 pro 1 ppb N2O bzw. etwa 40% größer als die Zunahme bei jahreszeitlich vergleichbaren früheren Kampagnen. Durch eine weitergehende Analyse der Messungen, z.B. durch den Vergleich der N2O-Verteilungen in der LMS bei verschiedenen Messkampagnen, und zusätzlichen Informationen aus Satelliten- und Ballonmessungen wird abgeleitet, dass diese Änderung der N2O/O3-Korrelationen im Wesentlichen auf einen im Zeitraum von SPURT stärkeren quasihorizontalen Transport aus den Tropen in die Extratropen im Bereich des so genannten „tropical controlled transition layer“ [Rosenlof et al., 1997] zwischen 16-21 km (bzw. Θ ≈ 380-450 K) zurückzuführen ist. In Kooperation mit B. Bregman wurden mit dem Chemie-Transport-Modell TM5 des KNMI die Verteilungen von SF6 und CO2 in der Troposphäre und Stratosphäre, unter den Zielsetzungen Evaluation des Modelltransports und Erweiterung des Datensatzes von SPURT auf globalen Maßstab, für den Zeitraum 1.1.2000 bis 31.12.2002 modelliert. Dabei konnte gezeigt werden, dass bei Modellstudien zur Evaluation des Transports mit Hilfe von Alterstracern nicht nur troposphärisch monoton steigende Tracer wie SF6 sondern auch saisonal variable Tracer wie CO2 verwendet werden müssen. Bei dem Vergleich der Modellergebnisse des TM5 mit ER2- und SPURTMessungen zeigt sich, dass das Modell zum jetzigen Zeitpunkt in der Lage ist, das mittlere Alter in der unteren Stratosphäre und die SF6- und CO2-Verteilungen in der LMS qualitativ richtig wiederzugeben. Das mittlere Alter in der unteren Stratosphäre wird um etwa 0.5 bis 1 Jahr in den Tropen über- und in den Extratropen unterschätzt. Die vertikalen Gradienten im Modell für SF6 und CO2 in der LMS sind, insbesondere im Winter und Frühjahr, zu gering. Die Amplitude des CO2-Jahresganges in der oberen Troposphäre und in der LMS wird durch das Modell unterschätzt, während der saisonale Verlauf des Jahresganges richtig wiedergegeben wird. Im Moment wird vermutet, dass eine zu starke isentrope Mischung zwischen Tropen und Extratropen und/oder ein zu geringer Aufwärtstransport in der extratropischen Troposphäre im Sommer und Herbst die Ursachen für die beobachteten Abweichungen zwischen Modell und Messung sind.
Am 27. Januar 1981 verstarb an den Folgen eines tragischen Verkehrsunfalls das Ehrenmitglied des Naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins Osnabrück, Prof. Dr. GERHARD KELLER aus Ibbenbüren in seinem 77. Lebensjahr. Der Naturwissenschaftliche Verein Osnabrück gedenkt des Geologen und Naturwissenschaftlers GERHARD KELLER in seinem weit gespannten wissenschaftlichen Wirkungskreis und der besonderen Hinwendung zur Geologie seiner näheren Heimat, dem Osnabrücker Bergland und Teutoburger Wald.
This thesis is focusing on the impact of Paratethys and Mediterranean water bodies over the Eurasian climate and the interplay between climate, tectonics and biosphere during the late Miocene. This target was the interval between 12.7 and 7.65 Ma for Paratethys, following the Eastern Paratethys restriction and isolation, and 7.2−6.5 Ma (the early Messinian) in Mediterranean, zooming on the effects of gateway restrictions over the eastern Mediterranean and the new born Aegean domain. In both cases restriction is overlapping with large scale climatic changes and tectonic reconfiguration, leading a sort of symbiotic relationship.
Paratethys was a giant epicontinental sea that covered a large part of Eurasia since Paleogene. Due to the Eurasia-Afro-Arabia collision and formation of the Alpine-Himalayan belt (Rögl, 1999; Popov et al., 2006), the Paratethys was divided during the late Miocene in smaller basins that in time were isolated of each other. The protracted isolation and intense continentalisation of paratethyan realm led to changes in humidity distribution, basin connectivity, sediment sources and salinity. These changes had in turn major consequences over water circulation, water availability, vegetation cover and biota. These changes are more intense after 11.6 Ma, when the Eastern Paratethys lost any sustained marine connection, evolving into an enclosed system with endemic fauna (Harzhauser and Piller, 2007).
Mediterranean Sea is a Mezozoic oceanic relic squeezed between Africa, Europe, Anatolia and Arabia, as Africa continued to subduct beneath the European plate. As opposed to Paratethys, it maintained the open connection with the ocean until Messinian, when the two Atlantic gateways (Betic and Rifian corridors) closed for a short time, isolating the basin. The cut off resulted in a dramatic drop down and onset of evaporitic precipitation in marginal basins, the event receiving the name of Messinian Salinity Crisis (5.97−5.55). The restriction affected all marine ecosystems, due to changes in salinity and stratification of water column.
The main objectives of this thesis were:
(1) build valid paleo-temperatures records for both basins based on biomarkers;
(2) reconstruct the hydrology for the late Miocene time interval;
(3) identify vegetation composition and changes;
(4) identify paleo-fires in the late Miocene sediment records;
(5) identify the biotic response to the overall climate and tectonic changes.
All the above objectives were attained with results published in specific journals (Chapters 5−7).
Based on Panagia section (Taman Peninsula, Russia) the longest Paratethys temperature record was completed (~5 Myr), covering the interval between 12.7 and 7.65 Ma. A comprehensive SST and MAT records was obtained, as well as soil pH and carbon (δ13C) and hydrogen (δ2H) stable isotopic compositions on n-alkanes and alkenones. The main findings are concentrated around three prolonged periods with severe droughts affecting the late Miocene circum-Paratethys region peaking at 9.65, 9.4 and 7.9 Ma, associated with a transition towards open land vegetation, intensification of fire activity and enhanced evaporation and aridity.
The time intervals with dryer conditions recorded in Panagia coincide with periods of mammal turnover and dispersal in Eurasia indicating that major environmental changes occurred in the circum-Paratethys region and Paratethys fragmentation had a great impact on the terrestrial ecosystems, when periods of prolonged droughts generated biotic crises and animal displacements across the Eurasian continent. The δ13CC29n-alkane values and charcoal morphologies from Panagia indicate an increased contribution of C4 plants adapted to drier conditions at 9.66 Ma. Similarly high δ13CC29n-alkane values continue until 9.4 Ma, when in Western Europe increased seasonality accelerated the demise of the evergreen subtropical woodlands and expansion of grasslands from Anatolia and Middle East to Europe.
As a result of basin fragmentation and climatic stress, the Eastern Paratethys sub-basins progressively lost their marine properties and turned into brackish-fresh water bodies fed primarily by riverine input. The shallower areas became in time emerged, obstructing connections and isolating the biota, inducing rapid adjusting or extinctions. Thus, the Paratethys harbored a highly endemic fauna (Rögl, 1999), such as dwarf whales, dolphins, seals (among mammals), as well as fish and other taxa (mollusks, ostracods, diatoms, foraminifera, algae, etc.).
Collectively the data structured and analyzed in chapter five support a model in which the Eastern Paratethys evolved as a largely (en)closed system, registering paleoenvironmental signals that are governed by interbasinal connectivity (or lack of it) and regional climate changes in the basin catchment. Acting as an important source of humidity for Western and Central Asia, the size and areal extent of the Paratethys water body is likely to have had a major impact on hydroclimate patterns in the Eurasian interior, with the cumulative fluctuations in both hydrology and surface temperature enhancing the aridity and seasonality, with different partition of moisture over the year. Our combined data suggests a decoupling of Paratethys from the global system as isolation advanced, dominated by regional tectonics and ultimately the Paratethys volume and areal extent reduction.
Der oder das (noch nicht im letzten Rechtschreibduden verzeichnete) "Geotop" ist ein erhaltens- und schutzwürdiges Objekt der geologischen Erdgeschichte bzw. "Geotope" sind erdgeschichtliche Bildungen der unbelebten Natur, die Erkenntnisse über die Entwicklung der Erde oder des Lebens vermitteln. Sie umfassen Aufschlüsse von Gesteinen, Böden, Mineralen und Fossilien sowie einzelne Naturschöpfungen oder natürliche Landschaftsteile" (S.ll).
Diamant hat besondere physikalische und optische Eigenschaften sowie eine starke Resistenz gegenüber Strahlenschädigung. Diese Eigenschaften ermöglichen eine vielfältige Anwendung von Diamant in Wissenschaft und Technik, wie zum Beispiel als Sensormaterial in Strahlungsdetektoren.
Kubisches Zirconiumdioxid (ZrO2) wird aufgrund seiner mechanisch und optisch ähnlichen Eigenschaften unter anderem an Stelle von Diamant eingesetzt. Es ist ebenfalls ein geeignetes Material für viele technische Anwendungen und wird durch seine Strahlenresistenz in Strahlungsumgebungen verwendet. Da beide Materialien in diesem Anwendungsbereich hoher energetischer Strahlung ausgesetzt sind, sind Reaktionen auf die Bestrahlung wie etwa strukturelle Veränderungen oder die Änderungen von Materialeigenschaften von großem Interesse.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Morphologie, Struktur und physikalischen Eigenschaften von Diamant und Yttriumoxid-stabilisiertem kubischem ZrO2 nach der Bestrahlung mit 14 MeV Au-Ionen und 1.6 GeV Au-Ionen untersucht. Die durch die Bestrahlung verursachten Veränderungen der Oberflächen und der bestrahlten Volumina wurden mit diversen komplementären analytischen Methoden charakterisiert, bewertet und für die verschiedenen Materialien und Ionenenergien verglichen.
Mittels Röntgenfluoreszenzmessungen wurde die Verteilung und Menge an implantiertem Au semi-quantitativ ermittelt. Die Oberflächen der Proben wurden mit optischer Mikroskopie, Rasterkraftmikroskopie, Rasterelektronenmikroskopie, Röntgenreflektometrie und Elektronenrückstreubeugung untersucht. Strukturelle Veränderungen wurden mit Raman-Spektroskopie analysiert. Der elektrische Widerstand, die Dichte, die Härte sowie das Ätzverhalten der bestrahlten Proben wurden ermittelt und geben Auskunft über die Änderung physikalischer Eigenschaften der Materialien.
Diamant und kubisches ZrO2 reagieren sehr unterschiedlich auf die Bestrahlung mit Au-Ionen gleicher Energien und Fluenzen. Die Diamantproben zeigen nach der Bestrahlung mit 14 MeV Au-Ionen deutliche Veränderungen und Schädigungen der Oberfläche sowie des bestrahlten Volumens. Es wird eine Änderung der Struktur, der Dichte, der Härte, des elektrischen Widerstands sowie des Ätzverhaltens der Proben beobachtet, was auf die Amorphisierung von Diamant zurückgeführt wird. Kubisches ZrO2 ist deutlich strahlungsresistenter gegenüber der Bestrahlung mit 14 MeV Au-Ionen. Es werden keine signifikanten strukturellen Änderungen im getesteten Fluenzbereich beobachtet.
Die mit 1.6 GeV Au-Ionen bestrahlten Diamanten zeigen nur geringe Schädigungen und keine deutliche Änderung der Struktur oder der physikalischen Eigenschaften. Die kubischen ZrO2 Proben sind als Folge der Bestrahlung mit 1.6 GeV Au-Ionen zerbrochen, was auf hohe interne Spannung durch Defektbildung zurückgeführt wird.
Development of a Bioaerosol single particle detector (BIO IN) for the Fast Ice Nucleus CHamber FINCH
(2010)
In this work we present the setup and first tests of our new BIO IN detector. This detector was constructed to classify atmospheric ice nuclei (IN) for their biological content. It is designed to be coupled to the Fast Ice Nucleus CHamber FINCH. If one particle acts as an ice nucleus, it will be at least partly covered with ice at the end of the development section of the FINCH chamber. The device combines an auto-fluorescence detector and a circular depolarization detector for simultaneous detection of biological material and discrimination between water droplets, ice crystals and non activated large aerosol particles. The excitation of biological material with UV light and analysis of auto-fluorescence is a common principle used for flow cytometry, fluorescence microscopy, spectroscopy and imaging. The detection of auto-fluorescence of airborne single particles demands some more experimental effort. However, expensive commercial sensors are available for special purposes, e.g. size distribution measurements. But these sensors will not fit the specifications needed for the FINCH IN counter (e.g. high sample flow of up 10 LPM). The newly developed -low cost- BIO IN sensor uses a single high-power UV LED for the electronic excitation instead of much more expensive UV lasers. Other key advantages of the new sensor are the low weight, compact size, and the little effect on the aerosol sample, which allows it to be coupled with other instruments for further analysis. The instrument will be flown on one of the first missions of the new German research aircraft "HALO" (High Altitude and LOng range).
In this work we present the setup and first tests of our new BIO IN detector. This detector is designed to classify atmospheric ice nuclei (IN) for their biological content. Biological material is identified via its auto-fluorescence (intrinsic fluorescence) after irradiation with UV radiation. Ice nuclei are key substances for precipitation development via the Bergeron–Findeisen process. The level of scientific knowledge regarding origin and climatology (temporal and spatial distribution) of IN is very low. Some biological material is known to be active as IN even at relatively high temperatures of up to –2°C (e.g. pseudomonas syringae bacteria). These biological IN could have a strong influence on the formation of clouds and precipitation. We have designed the new BIO IN sensor to analyze the abundance of IN of biological origin. The instrument will be flown on one of the first missions of the new German research aircraft ''HALO'' (High Altitude and LOng Range).
Das Ziel dieser Arbeit wurde eingangs über den Begriff der erweiterten Schließung der optischen und mikrophysikalischen Eigenschaften der Partikel definiert. Hierunter versteht man das Zusammenfügen von verschiedenen Messungen zu einem konsistenten Bild der betrachteten Partikeleigenschaften. Darüber hinaus sollen die Messungen auch in anderen Teilgebieten der Aerosolphysik verwendbar sein, um so das konsistente Bild zu erweitern. Dieses so umschriebene Ziel konnte für die mikrophysikalischen und optischen Messergebnisse, die während des LACE 98 Experimentes, einem vom Bundesministerium für Forschung und Bildung (Bmb f) geförderten Schließungsexperiment, in Lindenberg (Brandenburg) rund 50 km südöstlich von Berlin im Juli und August 1998 erfasst wurden, erreicht werden. Die Messungen wurden erfolgreich zu einem konsistenten Datensatz und einem "Bild" der Partikeleigenschaften zusammengefügt. Unter dem Begriff "Bild" subsummiert sich hierbei nicht nur eine Charakterisierung der Variabilität und Abhängigkeit der Partikeleigenschaften, z.B. von der rel. Luftfeuchte, sondern darüber hinaus auch eine Charakterisierung der Beeinflussung verschiedener von den Eigenschaften der Partikel abhängiger Größen. Hierzu zählen Strahlungshaushaltsgrößen (Erwärmungsrate der Luft durch Absorption solarer Strahlung und die Volumenabsorption solarer Strahlung durch Partikel), wolkenphysikalische Größen (maximale Übersättigung der Wolkenluft während der Wolkenentstehung und Anzahlkonzentration der wachsenden Wolkentropfen), die massengewichtete mittlere Sedimentationsgeschwindigkeit von Partikeln und nicht zuletzt gesundheitsrelevante Größen, wie z.B. die vom Menschen beim Atmen aufgenommene und eingelagerte Partikelmasse. Nachfolgende Zusammenstellung soll nochmals die erzielten Ergebnisse zusammenfassen. Für eine detaillierte Darstellung der in den einzelnen Kapiteln erzielten Ergebnisse soll hier nur auf die jeweiligen Zusammenfassungen der einzelnen Kapitel verwiesen werden. . Im Rahmen der direkten Schließung, wurden unterschiedliche Verfahren zur Bestimmung der optischen Eigenschaften der Partikel erfolgreich miteinander verglichen. Beteiligt waren bei diesem Vergleich folgende Methoden: Partikel im trockenen Zustand: -- Aerosolphotometer (alle optischen Eigenschaften, ) -- Nephelometer (Streukoeffizient) -- PSAP (Absorptionskoeffizient) -- IPMethode (Absorptionskoeffizient) -- Telephotometer (Extinktionskoeffizient) Partikel bei Umgebungsfeuchte: -- Telephotometer (Extinktionskoeffizient) -- horizontales Lidar (Extinktionskoeffizient) Es zeigte sich, dass sich das Aerosolphotometer mit seinem schon aus der Theorie des Messverfahrens her begründeten konsistenten Satz aller optischen Eigenschaften als Referenzmethode während LACE 98 bewährte. Mit seiner Hilfe konnte nun auch die Gültigkeit einer empirischen Korrektur des PSAP nach Bond et al. [1999] für natürliche Aerosolpartikel bestätigt werden. Dem Anwender dieses Gerätes, das mit einer hervorragenden zeitlichen Auflösung von wenigen Minuten den Absorptionskoeffizienten bestimmt, stehen somit zwei unabhängig voneinander gewonnene Kalibrierungsfunktionen zur Verfügung, die innerhalb der Fehlergrenzen auch mit einander im Einklang stehen. . Im Rahmen der indirekten Schließung wurde ein Modell entwickelt, mit dem auf Basis eines Kugelschalenmodells der Partikel aus Messungen der mikrophysikalischen Eigenschaften der Partikel den Extinktions, den Streu- und den Absorptionskoeffizienten sowie die Single Scattering Albedo berechnet wurden. Mit Hilfe dieses Modells wurde der Feuchteeffekt der oben genannten optischen Eigenschaften berechnet. Mit diesen Ergebnissen konnten dann die Messwerte des Telephotometers feuchtekorrigiert, und mit den Messungen des Aerosolphotometers verglichen werden, wo bei eine gute Übereinstimmung der Messreihen festgestellt werden konnte. Die beobachteten Unterschiede konnten auf Ernteaktivitäten, die nur die Messungen des Telephotometers beeinflussten, zurückgeführt werden. Ein Vergleich der mit Hilfe des Modells auch direkt berechenbaren optischen Eigenschaften mit den direkten Messwerten der beteiligten Verfahren fiel ebenfalls positiv aus. Anhand aller Modellrechnungen wurde eine physikalisch motivierte Näherungsfunktion für den Feuchteeffekt des Extinktions- und des Streukoeffizienten als Funktion des Aktivierungsparameters bereit gestellt. In Klimamodellen kann mit Hilfe der vorgestellten Näherungsfunktionen der Feuchteeffekt auf einfache Weise parametrisiert werden. Wenn man allerdings konkrete Messergebnisse miteinander vergleichen möchte, ist man auf eine vollständige Erfassung der mikrophysikalischen Eigenschaften der Partikel angewiesen. . Im Teil IV der Arbeit wurden auf der Basis des zuvor vorgestellten Datensatzes und der hierfür entwickelten Verfahren (Algorithmen) weitere Auswertungen zu unterschiedlichen, für die Meteorologie interessanten Themengebieten, vorgestellt und ihre Ergebnisse charakterisiert. . In Kapitel 6.1 wurde mit Hilfe von Auswertegleichungen aus den in dieser Arbeit erstellten Messungen des Sieben-Sensor-Bilanzphotometers und den Messungen des Aerosolphotometers die Volumenabsorptionsrate solarer Strahlung der bodennahen Partikel und die daraus resultierende Erwärmungsrate der Luft berechnet. Die Ergebnisse wurden mit Literaturwerten anderer Messkampagnen verglichen. Insbesondere konnte ein interessantes Ergebnis von Hänel
Soil water potential is crucial to plant transpiration and thus to carbon cycling and biosphere–atmosphere interactions, yet it is difficult to measure in the field. Volumetric and gravimetric water contents are easy and cheap to measure in the field, but can be a poor proxy of plant-available water. Soil water content can be transformed to water potential using soil moisture retention curves. We provide empirically derived soil moisture retention curves for seven soil types in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Site-specific curves produced excellent estimates of soil water potential from soil water content values. Curves from soils derived from the same geological substrate were similar, potentially allowing for the use of one curve for basalt soils and another for granite soils. It is anticipated that this dataset will help hydrologists and ecophysiologists understand water dynamics, carbon cycling and biosphere–atmosphere interactions under current and changing climatic conditions in the region.
The timing and duration of leaf deployment strongly regulate earth-atmosphere interactions and biotic processes. Leaf dynamics therefore have major implications for life on earth, including the global energy balance, carbon and water cycles, feedbacks to climate, species extinction risk and agriculture. Evidence of shifts in the timing of leaf deployment and senescence (leaf phenology) as a result of climate change has been accumulating over the past decades, particularly in relation to spring phenology in the northern hemisphere. However, leaf phenological change in other parts of the world has received less attention. This thesis quantifies global phenological change over the past three decades using remotely sensed data. Phenological change was found to be widespread and severe, also in the southern hemisphere. While the detected change testifies of the phenological plasticity of many plant species, it is not clear if the duration of leaf deployment (leaf habit) is equally sensitive to environmental change. Since evergreen and deciduous leaf habits are often distinctly sorted along environmental gradients, ecologists have hypothesised that these patterns result from natural selection for an optimal leaf habit, under a given environmental regime. Such evolutionary convergence can be examined by testing if the physiological niche that is occupied by a particular leaf habit (evergreen or deciduous) is similar among regions with distinct evolutionary histories. Using a process-based model of plant growth and a constructed map of evergreen and deciduous vegetation, the physiological niche of leaf habits was quantified in four global biogeographic realms. Substantial niche overlap was found between the same leaf habit in different realms, suggesting evolutionary convergence of the physiological niche. This implies a sensitivity of leaf habit to environmental change, as environmental variables determine the geographic space where the physiological niche allows a positive carbon balance, and therefore occurrence of the leaf habit. Since the physiological niche consists of the integrated effects of physiological traits and trade-offs, environmental dependencies and leaf habit and phenology, an understanding of the carbon economy of individual plants requires decomposing the physiological niche into its components. Using empirical data on leaf phenology, leaf habit and physiological processes from woody species in a seasonally dry African savanna, a simple carbon balance model was parametrised. Carbon gain varied considerably between species as a result of substantial variation in leaf habit, leaf phenology and physiological traits. The multiple lines of evidence in this thesis therefore suggest that, while convergent selective forces may determine the dominant leaf habit in a particular environment, inter-specific variation is substantial, potentially as a consequence of historical contingencies or competitive interactions.
Als Voraussetzung für die experimentellen Arbeiten wurde am Mineralogischen Institut in Frankfurt eine Hochdruckpresse mit einer Multi-Anvil-Apparatur vom Walker-Typ aufgebaut und kalibriert. Diese Arbeiten nahmen einen beträchtlichen Teil der Promotionszeit ein. In einer Reihe von Hochdruck-Experimenten wurde dann die maximale Löslichkeit von Aluminium und den Seltenerd-Elementen Lanthan, Gadolinium und Lutetium in den Phasen des CaSiO3-Systems im Druckbereich zwischen 2.0 und 13.0 GPa untersucht. Unsere Experimente ergaben eine Zunahme der maximalen Löslichkeit mit steigendem Druck, von Wollastonit über Ca-Walstromit, Larnit + Si-Titanit bis Ca-Perowskit. Ca-Perowskit zeigt extrem hohe SEE-Konzentrationen mit einem Maximum bei den mittleren SEE. In den anderen Phasen nimmt die Löslichkeit mit zunehmender Kompatibilität der SEE zu. Innerhalb der Stabilitätsfelder zeigte sich keine signifikante Druck- oder Temperatur-Abhängigkeit der maximalen Löslichkeit. Anhand der Mikrosonden-Analysen konnte gezeigt werden, dass der Einbau von Al und SEE in Ca-Walstromit nicht über eine gekoppelte Substitution erfolgt, sondern wahrscheinlich über eine Defektstruktur. Dies deckt sich mit unseren TEM-Untersuchungen an diesen synthetischen Produkten, die eine hohe Dichte an planaren Baufehlern mit leicht erhöhten SEE-Konzentrationen ergaben. In allen Ca-Silikat-Phasen lag die maximale Löslichkeit der Seltenen Erden höher als die Konzentration in natürlichen Proben. Damit steht fest, dass die in Einschlüssen gemessenen SEE-Gehalte „primär“ sind und sich nicht durch etwaige Entmischungen im Zuge einer Anpassung der Kristallstruktur an die veränderten P,T-Bedingungen verändert haben. Entmischungen in Form einer SEE-reichen Phase würden eine an LSEE extrem angereicherte Quelle voraussetzen. Ein Vergleich unserer Subsolidus-Experimente mit CaSiO3-Einschlüssen in Diamanten aus Guinea zeigt, dass einige mit bis zu 0.13 Gew.% Al2O3 an Aluminium gesättigt sind. Diese Tatsache ist besonders interessant bei der Interpretation Alhaltiger Einschlussphasen. Neben absoluten Spurenelement-Konzentrationen sind Verteilungskoeffizienten äußerst wertvolle Hilfsmittel bei der Bewertung natürlicher Proben. Die in der Literatur bestehenden Datensätze wurden mit unseren Kristall/Schmelz-Verteilungskoeffizienten bzw. Verteilungskoeffizienten zwischen Ca-Silikatphasen erweitert. Verteilungskoeffizienten der Seltenerd-Elemente zwischen Ca-Walstromit und Karbonat sind um eine Größenordnung höher als Ca-Walstromit/Schmelz-Verteilungskoeffizienten und zeigen eine größere Steigung zwischen den MSEE und den SSEE (Lu/Gd). Die Seltenen Erden verhalten sich sowohl in Larnit als auch in Si-Titanit inkompatibel, wobei DX/L La für Larnit etwa 0.1 und für CaSi2O5 etwa 0.002 ist, d.h. auch, dass die LSEE im Vergleich zu Si-Titanit bevorzugt in Larnit eingebaut werden. Al verhält sich in Si-Titanit Zusammenfassung 147 kompatibel (DX/LAl=4) und in Larnit leicht inkompatibel. Diese Ergebnisse decken sich mit Analysen an natürlichen Proben. Die SEE-Verteilungskoeffizienten zwischen Ca-Perowskit und Schmelze liegen mit Ausnahme von La über eins und zeigen in Übereinstimmung mit Literaturdaten ein Maximum bei Gd. Für Granat konnte gezeigt werden, dass der Einbau der SEE und Si in MgO-haltigen Kristallen in Abhängigkeit von Druck und Startzusammensetzung über eine Ca SEE2 Mg2 Si3O12- Komponente bzw. über eine Ca3 MgSi Si3O12-Komponente mit 6-fach koordiniertem Silizium erfolgt. In zahlreichen Experimenten kristallisierte eine neue Ca-SEE-Silikat-Phase mit Feldspat-Stöchiometrie. Dabei handelt es sich offenbar um ein Mischkristallsystem mit einem Endglied, in das vorwiegend die leichten SEE eingebaut werden und in einem zweiten mit vorwiegend schweren SEE. Ab einem Druck von etwa 10.0 GPa trennt ein Solvus die beiden Endglieder voneinander. In der Literatur ist bisher nur ein CaLa2Si2O8-Endglied beschrieben worden. In einigen Experimenten mit P und Li wurde zusätzlich untersucht, ob diese Elemente zur Rekonstruktion der Bildungsbedingungen von Diamanten verwendet werden können. Dabei zeigte sich, dass die max. Löslichkeit von Li in CaSiO3 näher an den natürlichen Probenzusammensetzungen liegt und damit möglicherweise Potential für die Rekonstruktion von Bildungsbedingungen hat. In einem weiteren Teil dieser Arbeit wurde die Kinetik retrograder Reaktionen im CaSiO3-System untersucht. Die für die In-Situ-Experimente mit Synchrotron-Strahlung notwendigen Versuchsaufbauten wurden von uns entwickelt und die entsprechenden Entwicklungsschritte und technischen Probleme ausführlich beschrieben. Anhand von Entlastungsexperimenten wurden die Disproportionierung von Ca-Perowskit zu Larnit + Si-Titanit und die Rekombination zu Ca-Walstromit bei unterschiedlichen Temperaturen und unter dem Einfluss von Wasser untersucht. Aufgrund der wenigen verwertbaren Daten, die uns vorliegen, konnten zwar keine Aktivierungsenergien berechnet werden, es sind aber aufgrund unser Beobachtungen folgende Feststellungen zu treffen: Die Reaktion von Ca-Perowskit zu Larnit + Si-Titanit erfolgt bei gleicher Temperatur offenbar um Größenordnungen schneller als die sich bei niedrigen Drucken anschließende Rekombination zu Ca-Walstromit. Dies deckt sich mit Beobachtungen an natürlichen Proben, bei denen Larnit und Si-Titanit teilweise unvollständig zu Ca-Walstromit reagierten. Dadurch erscheint es eher unwahrscheinlich, dass amorphes CaSiO3 in Diamanten ein direktes Umwandlungsprodukt von Ca-Perowskit ist. Aber auch für die in der Literatur beschriebene Amorphisierung von Ca-Walstromit-Einschlüssen (Stachel 2000) noch innerhalb des umgebenden Diamanten ließ sich durch unsere In-Situ-Entlastungsexperimente nicht stützen. Eine Amorphisierung von Ca-Walstromit beobachteten wir nur bei einer Untersuchung am TEM, wo die Phase sehr instabil war und selbst in einem Kryohalter rasch unter dem Einfluss der Elektronenstrahls amorphisierte. Die Beugungs-Spektren, die nach einer Druckentlastung im Ca-Walstromit-Stabilitätsfeld aufgenommen wurden, unterschieden sich trotz der CaSiO3-Chemie der neu gebildeten Phase deutlich von unseren Ca-Walstromit-Referenz-Spektren, so dass die Umwandlung möglicherweise über eine metastabile Zwischenstufe erfolgt. Vor dem Hintergrund von unterschiedlichen, in der Literatur beschriebenen Strukturtypen von Ca-Walstromit wäre eine systematische Untersuchung der Struktur innerhalb des gesamten Stabilitätsfeldes wichtig.
In old and heavily weathered soils, the availability of P might be so small that the primary production of plants is limited. However, plants have evolved several mechanisms to actively take up P from the soil or mine it to overcome this limitation. These mechanisms involve the active uptake of P mediated by mycorrhiza, biotic de-occlusion through root clusters, and the biotic enhancement of weathering through root exudation. The objective of this paper is to investigate how and where these processes contribute to alleviate P limitation on primary productivity. To do so, we propose a process-based model accounting for the major processes of the carbon, water, and P cycle including chemical weathering at the global scale. We use simulation experiments to assess the relative importance of the different uptake mechanisms to alleviate P limitation on biomass production. Implementing P limitation on biomass synthesis allows the assessment of the efficiencies of biomass production across different ecosystems.
We find that active P-uptake is an essential mechanism for sustaining P availability on long time scales, whereas biotic de-occlusion might serve as a buffer on time scales shorter than 10 000 yr. Although active P uptake is essential for reducing P losses by leaching, humid lowland soils reach P limitation after around 100 000 yr of soil evolution. Given the generalized modeling framework, our model results compare reasonably with observed or independently estimated patterns and ranges of P concentrations in soils and vegetation. Furthermore, our simulations suggest that P limitation might be an important driver of biomass production efficiency (the fraction of the gross primary productivity used for biomass growth), and that vegetation on older soils becomes P-limited leading to a smaller biomass production efficiency.
With this study, we provide a theoretical basis for investigating the responses of terrestrial ecosystems to P availability linking geological and ecological time scales under different environmental settings.
In old and heavily weathered soils, the availability of P might be so small that the primary production of plants is limited. However, plants have evolved several mechanisms to actively take up P from the soil or mine it to overcome this limitation. These mechanisms involve the active uptake of P mediated by mycorrhiza, biotic de-occlusion through root clusters, and the biotic enhancement of weathering through root exudation. The objective of this paper is to investigate how and where these processes contribute to alleviate P limitation on primary productivity. To do so, we propose a process-based model accounting for the major processes of the carbon, water, and P cycles including chemical weathering at the global scale. Implementing P limitation on biomass synthesis allows the assessment of the efficiencies of biomass production across different ecosystems. We use simulation experiments to assess the relative importance of the different uptake mechanisms to alleviate P limitation on biomass production. We find that active P uptake is an essential mechanism for sustaining P availability on long timescales, whereas biotic de-occlusion might serve as a buffer on timescales shorter than 10 000 yr. Although active P uptake is essential for reducing P losses by leaching, humid lowland soils reach P limitation after around 100 000 yr of soil evolution. Given the generalized modelling framework, our model results compare reasonably with observed or independently estimated patterns and ranges of P concentrations in soils and vegetation. Furthermore, our simulations suggest that P limitation might be an important driver of biomass production efficiency (the fraction of the gross primary productivity used for biomass growth), and that vegetation on old soils has a smaller biomass production rate when P becomes limiting. With this study, we provide a theoretical basis for investigating the responses of terrestrial ecosystems to P availability linking geological and ecological timescales under different environmental settings.
In Sandgruben am Piesberg bei Osnabrück sind Vorschütt-Sedimente, Grundmoräne und Nachschütt-Sedimente der Saale-Eiszeit erschlossen. Einregelungsmessungen länglicher Gerölle in der Grundmoräne ergeben ein differenziertes Bild der Eisbewegung bei der Hauptvorstoßrichtung von N nach S. Die Geröllanalyse zeigt einen dominierenden heimischen Bestand in den Vorschütt-Sedimenten und der Lokal-Grundmoräne sowie einen höheren nordischen Anteil in den Nachschütt-Sedimenten. Bildungen einer Toteislandschaft mit Verzahnungen von Nachschütt-Sedimenten und Grundmoräne werden diskutiert.
Aerosolpartikel sind in der Atmosphäre insbesondere für die Strahlungsübertragung und die Wolkenbildung von wichtiger Bedeutung. Aufgrund ihrer kurzen Lebensdauer, der Variabilität ihrer Quellen und Senken und ihrer Einbindung in den atmosphärischen Wasserkreislauf sind Partikel in allen ihren Eigenschaften sehr veränderlich. Die Zusammenhänge dieser Variabilität mit den meteorologischen Bedingungen und ihre Auswirkungen in der meteorologischen Anwendung sind bisher nur ungenügend durch Meßdaten belegt, so daß die Ergebnisse von Modellen, in denen die meteorologischen Wirkungen von Partikeln berücksichtigt werden (z.B. Klimamodelle), mit großen Unsicherheiten behaftet sind. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, auf der Grundlage von Messungen einen Beitrag zur Charakterisierung der bodennahen troposphärischen Aerosolpartikel zu leisten. Im Hinblick auf die meteorologischen Anwendungen wurden die chemische Zusammensetzung und die Masse der Partikel in Abhängigkeit von ihrer Größe gemessen, da sie wesentliche Einflußgrößen für die Strahlungswirkung von Partikeln und die Wasserdampfkondensation in der Atmosphäre sind. Auf der Basis eines Datensatzes der physikalisch-chemischen Partikeleigenschaften und meteorologischer Meßgrößen wurde zunächst die Abhängigkeit der Partikeleigenschaften und ihrer Variabilität von den meteorologischen Umgebungsbedingungen analysiert sowie die Bedeutung der Variabilität der Partikeleigenschaften in der meteorologischen Anwendung untersucht. Dazu wurden Absorptionskoeffizienten der Partikel und Erwärmungsraten durch Absorption solarer Strahlung durch Partikel sowie das Wachstum der Partikel mit der relativen Feuchte in Abhängigkeit von ihrer chemischen Zusammensetzung berechnet. Die Messungen fanden während fünf drei- bis achtwöchiger Meßkampagnen 1991, 1993 und 1994 in Melpitz bei Torgau (Sachsen) und 1993 und 1994 auf dem Hohen Peißenberg (Oberbayern) statt. Mit einem Berner-Impaktor wurden die Partikel gesammelt. Es wurden die Konzentrationen der Gesamtmasse der Partikel sowie der Ionen in Abhängigkeit von ihrer Größe bestimmt. Die Rußkonzentrationen wurden mit einem Aethalometer gemessen. Parallel zu den Partikelmessungen fanden Messungen von Temperatur, relativer Feuchte, Windgeschwindigkeit, Windrichtung, Globalstrahlung und diffuser Himmelsstrahlung statt. Die Messungen liefern folgende Ergebnisse: Bei allen Messungen waren Nitrat, Sulfat und Ammonium die Hauptkomponenten der kleinen Partikel, und die Massenkonzentrationen der kleinen Partikel (0,04 µm < aed < 1,72 µm) waren wesentlich größer als die der großen Partikel (1,72 µm < aed < 21µm). Die Partikel sind also überwiegend anthropogener Herkunft. Die großen Partikel enthielten zusätzlich Natrium und Kalzium, lediglich bei einzelnen Messungen in Melpitz wurde auch Chlorid als Hinweis auf Seesalzpartikel gefunden. Die Massenkonzentrationen aller Partikelbestandteile waren in Melpitz in der Regel etwas größer als auf dem Hohen Peißenberg, da die Partikelkonzentrationen mit zunehmender Höhe abnehmen und da Melpitz näher an Ballungsräumen liegt als der Hohe Peißenberg. Die Unterschiede zwischen den verschiedenen Meßkampagnen an einem Ort sind jedoch größer als die zwischen den beiden Orten. Die Variabilität sowohl der Massenkonzentrationen der Partikelbestandteile als auch der Gesamtmasse liegt im Bereich von zwei Größenordnungen und ist damit wesentlich größer als die Unterschiede zwischen den Meßkampagnen. Der mittlere Anteil der löslichen Masse an der Gesamtmasse beträgt für die kleinen Partikel 57 %, für die großen 30 %. Dieser Anteil variiert sehr stark (10-100 % bzw. 5-80 %). Ruß hat einen mittleren Anteil von 5 % an der Gesamtmasse (1-18 %). Wesentliche Parameter, die zu Veränderungen der Partikeleigenschaften führen, sind: - Luftmassen unterschiedlicher Herkunft und Geschichte - Veränderungen der Mächtigkeit und Struktur der atmosphärischen Grenzschicht - Emissionen lokaler Quellen - lokale meteorologische Parameter (Temperatur, Windrichtung, -geschwindigkeit) Die unterschiedliche Häufigkeit und Ausprägung dieser Einflußfaktoren führt zu Unterschieden zwischen den Ergebnissen der einzelnen Meßkampagnen. Die einzelnen Faktoren sind nicht voneinander unabhängig, da durch die großräumige Wettersituation und die Luftmassen die Ausprägung der lokalen Parameter bestimmt wird. Um eine Zusammenfassung von Messungen unter vergleichbaren meteorologischen Bedingungen zu erreichen, wurde eine Klassifikation der Daten auf der Basis von Rückwärtstrajektorien vorgenommen. Es wurden fünf Klassen unterschieden: vier Klassen umfassen Richtungssektoren mit jeweils 90 ° um die Haupthimmelsrichtungen (Nord, Ost, Süd, West), einer fünften (X) werden kurze Trajektorien zugeordnet. Dieser Ansatz wurde gewählt, weil ähnliche Luftmassen und damit meteorologische Bedingungen hinsichtlich Temperatur, Feuchte, Stabilität und Luftbeimengungen meistens durch ähnliche Trajektorien gekennzeichnet sind, die eine Aussage über die Herkunft und den Weg der Luft ermöglichen, die wiederum für die Ausprägung der Partikeleigenschaften maßgeblich sind. Eine weitere Unterteilung nach Tageszeiten (morgens, mittags, abends) wurde vorgenommen, da einige Meßgrößen deutliche Tagesgänge zeigten. Die Ergebnisse lassen sich wie folgt zusammenfassen: Die Klassifikation der meteorologischen Meßgrößen liefert sowohl im Hinblick auf die Charakterisitika der Trajektorienklassen (Herkunft der Luft) als auch für die Tagesgänge meteorologisch sinnvolle Ergebnisse. Die Lage der Stationen in einer Ebene und auf einem Berg führt zu einer unterschiedlichen Ausprägung von Tagesgängen der Temperatur und der Windgeschwindigkeit besonders während stabiler Hochdruckwetterlagen. Es zeigt sich, daß bedingt durch die Entwicklung der Grenzschicht auf dem Hohen Peißenberg vor allem bei Hochdruckwetterlagen im Tagesverlauf in zwei verschiedenen Atmosphärenschichten gemessen wird. Die starke Streuung der lokalen Windrichtungen innerhalb einer Trajektorienklasse führt dazu, daß der Einfluß lokaler bzw. regionaler Quellen durch die Klassifikation nur bedingt erfaßt wird, und liefert einen Hinweis auf die lokale Wetterlage. Die Klassifikation der Partikelmeßdaten liefert meteorologisch sinnvolle Ergebnisse, da die Konzentrationsunterschiede zwischen den einzelnen Klassen mit der Wetterlage und dem Einfluß regionaler Quellen zu begründen waren. Die Absolutwerte ließen sich allerdings nicht vergleichen, und es wurden im Detail meßkampagnenspezifische Begründungen gefunden. Es ergab sich jedoch für alle Meßkampagnen die Unterteilung in Klassen mit antizyklonalen Wetterlagen und kontinentaler Luft mit hohen Konzentrationen (Klassen Ost, Süd, West) und zyklonalen Wetterlagen und maritimer Luft mit geringeren Konzentrationen (Klassen Nord, West). Abweichungen von dieser Einteilung waren vor allem mit der geographischen Lage der Meßorte zu begründen. Ausgeprägte Tagesgänge mit Maxima bei den Morgenmessungen ergaben sich nur für Nitrat, bei einigen Messungen auch für Chlorid in den kleinen Partikeln durch temperaturabhängige Gleichgewichtsreaktionen instabiler Partikelkomponenten mit der Gasphase sowie für Ruß durch die Anreicherung von Emissionen lokaler Quellen bei geringer Grenzschichthöhe. Während sich die mittleren absoluten Konzentrationen in den einzelnen Klassen erheblich unterscheiden, ist die mittlere relative chemische Zusammensetzung der Partikel in allen Klassen ähnlich; die Variabilität der Anteile ist aber ebenfalls sehr groß. Mit Ausnahme der Advektion von Seesalzpartikeln sowie der temperaturbedingten Verschiebung der Anteile von Nitrat und Sulfat, lassen sich Unterschiede zwischen den Klassen nicht mit den durch die Klassifikation erfaßten Einflußfaktoren oder geographischen Besonderheiten begründen. Durch die Klassifikation nimmt die Variabilität sowohl der meteorologischen Meßgrößen als auch der Partikeleigenschaften ab. Für die meteorologischen Meßgrößen verringert sich die Variabilität durch die Klassifikation nach Trajektorien weniger als durch die nach Tageszeiten, für die Konzentrationen der Partikelbestandteile und der Masse führt hingegen die Klassifikation nach Trajektorien zu einer größeren Verminderung der Variabilität als die nach Tageszeiten. Die Anwendung beider Klassifikationskriterien führt zu einer Abnahme der Variabilität um im Mittel 55 % für die meteorologischen Meßgrößen und um 50 % bzw. 25 % für die Konzentrationen der Bestandteile und der Masse der kleinen bzw. der großen Partikel. Die Variabilität der Werte in einer Klasse bleibt jedoch auch nach Klassifikation größer als Unterschiede zwischen den Klassen. Sie wird vor allem durch die spezifische meteorologische Situation bedingt. Um die Auswirkungen der Variabilität der Partikeleigenschaften in meteorologischen Anwendungen abschätzen zu können, wurden aus den Meßdaten der Absorptionskoeffizient der Partikel und die daraus resultierenden Erwärmungsraten sowie das Partikelwachstum mit der relativen Feuchte berechnet und wie die Meßdaten klassifiziert. Die Ergebnisse lassen sich folgendermaßen zusammenfassen: Für die Absorptionskoeffizienten der trockenen Partikel wurden Werte zwischen 0,1·10-6/m und 97·10-6/m berechnet. Für die beiden Meßkampagnen im Herbst (Melpitz 1993 und 1994) ergaben sich etwa um den Faktor 2 größere mittlere Absorptionskoeffizienten als für die Meßkampagnen im Sommer, die maximalen Absorptionskoeffizienten waren in Melpitz aufgrund der starken lokalen Quellen um den Faktor 2-3 größer als auf dem Hohen Peißenberg. Für die maximalen Erwärmungsraten wurden Werte zwischen 0,003 und 0,128 K/h, für die Gesamterwärmung über die Tageslichtperiode zwischen 0,02 K und 0,81 K berechnet. Die Partikel liefern in Abhängigkeit von den Umgebungsbedingungen selbst während Meßkampagnen an zwei ländlichen Orten in Mitteleuropa einen vernachlässigbar geringen bis deutlichen Beitrag zum Strahlungsantrieb. In Melpitz waren sowohl die maximalen Erwärmungsraten als auch die Gesamterwärmung im Mittel um den Faktor 1,5 geringer als auf dem Hohen Peißenberg, da die maximalen Absorptionskoeffizienten zu einer Zeit bestimmt wurden, als das Strahlungsangebot noch gering war, während auf dem Hohen Peißenberg die Maxima von Absorptionskoeffizient und Strahlungsangebot zeitlich näher zusammenliegen. Die Klassifikation nach Rückwärtstrajektorien ergab deutliche Unterschiede (Faktor 3-5) zwischen den einzelnen Klassen, da in Klassen mit den höchsten Rußkonzentrationen auch das Strahlungsangebot am höchsten war und in Klassen mit niedrigen Rußkonzentrationen meistens starke Bewölkung vorherrschte. Zwischen maximaler Erwärmungsrate und Gesamterwärmung über die Tageslichtperiode wird ein linearer Zusammenhang gefunden, der sich aber aufgrund der verschiedenen Tagesgänge des Absorptionskoeffizienten für die Meßkampagnen in Melpitz und auf dem Hohen Peißenberg unterscheidet. Sowohl für den exponentiellen Massenzuwachskoeffizienten bei unendlicher Verdünnung als auch für das Partikelwachstum bei fester relativer Feuchte ergeben sich im Mittel nur geringe Unterschiede zwischen kleinen und großen Partikeln sowie einzelnen Klassen durch die chemische Zusammensetzung des wasserlöslichen Anteils der Partikel. Unterschiede sind vielmehr durch den Anteil der wasserlöslichen Masse an der Gesamtmasse bedingt. Es ergibt sich ein linearer Zusammenhang zwischen dem exponentiellen Massenzuwachskoeffizienten bei unendlicher Verdünnung und dem Anteil der wasserlöslichen Masse an der Gesamtmasse der Partikel. Die Unterschiede zwischen den einzelnen Klassen lassen sich nicht auf einzelne meteorologische oder geographische Einflußfaktoren zurückführen. Sowohl für die Absorption solarer Strahlung als auch für das Wachstum der Partikel mit der relativen Feuchte ist die Variabilität der abgeleiteten Größen geringer als die der Ausgangsgrößen, sie ist aber immer noch mindestens so groß wie die Unterschiede zwischen den einzelnen Klassen. Zusammenfassend läßt sich festhalten, daß in dieser Arbeit ein Datensatz aus Messungen von meteorologischen Parametern und Partikeleigenschaften zusammengestellt wurde, der zusammen mit der Klassifikationsmethode nach Rückwärtstrajektorien und Tageszeiten eine Untersuchung der Zusammenhänge zwischen der Variabilität der Meßgrößen und den meteorologischen Bedingungen ermöglicht und eine Abschätzung der Auswirkungen der Variabilität der Partikeleigenschaften, insbesondere der chemischen Zusammensetzung, in meteorologischen Anwendungen zuläßt. Der Klassifikationsansatz nach Rückwärtstrajektorien ist prinzipiell geeignet, um die Abhängigkeit der Partikeleigenschaften von den meteorologischen Bedingungen zu beschreiben. Es ist jedoch nicht möglich, einen Einflußfaktor als den wichtigsten hervorzuheben oder sogar quantitative Beziehungen zwischen Partikeleigenschaften und meteorologischen Parametern herzustellen. Die Herkunft der Luft liefert einen Hinweis auf die zu erwartenden meteorologischen Bedingungen und Partikeleigenschaften, die lokale meteorologische Situation bestimmt jedoch die genaue Ausprägung der Meßgrößen. Eine Berücksichtigung des Einflusses der lokalen Wetterlage sowie lokaler bzw. regionaler Quellen könnte durch die Einbeziehung der Windrichtung vorgenommen werden. Auf der Basis längerer Meßreihen sollte überprüft werden, ob die Unterteilung in fünf Trajektorienklassen modifiziert werden muß. Der große Einfluß der spezifischen Wetterlage auf die Meßergebnisse führt dazu, daß die Ergebnisse von Meßkampagnen weder für einen längeren Zeitraum noch für ein größeres Gebiet repräsentativ sein können. Ebenso ist die Verwendung von Mittelwerten über längere Zeiträume ist nicht sinnvoll, da die Variabilität der Meßgrößen während eines Tages sowie von Tag zu Tag sehr groß ist. Aufgrund der komplexen Zusammenhänge zwischen Partikeleigenschaften und meteorologischen Bedingungen erscheint es unbedingt nötig, längere Meßreihen aller wichtigen Aerosoleigenschaften durchzuführen, damit statistisch belastbare Daten über eine hinreichend große Zahl von Messungen unter verschiedensten meteorologischen Bedingungen zu allen Jahreszeiten vorliegen, die Aussagen über Zusammenhänge mit Witterungsbedingungen, Tagesgänge, Jahresgänge aber auch die Vertikalverteilung der Partikeleigenschaften zulassen. Dabei ist es wichtig, alle interessierenden Größen gleichzeitig zu messen, da nur dann eine Untersuchung des Einflusses der Variabilität verschiedener Parameter auf die für die Anwendung wichtigen Größen möglich ist.
Convection-permitting climate model are promising tools for improved representation of extremes, but the number of regions for which these models have been evaluated are still rather limited to make robust conclusions. In addition, an integrated interpretation of near-surface characteristics (typically temperature and precipitation) together with cloud properties is limited. The objective of this paper is to comprehensively evaluate the performance of a ‘state-of-the-art’ regional convection-permitting climate model for a mid-latitude coastal region with little orographic forcing. For this purpose, an 11-year integration with the COSMO-CLM model at Convection-Permitting Scale (CPS) using a grid spacing of 2.8 km was compared with in-situ and satellite-based observations of precipitation, temperature, cloud properties and radiation (both at the surface and the top of the atmosphere). CPS clearly improves the representation of precipitation, in especially the diurnal cycle, intensity and spatial distribution of hourly precipitation. Improvements in the representation of temperature are less obvious. In fact the CPS integration overestimates both low and high temperature extremes. The underlying cause for the overestimation of high temperature extremes was attributed to deficiencies in the cloud properties: The modelled cloud fraction is only 46 % whereas a cloud fraction of 65 % was observed. Surprisingly, the effect of this deficiency was less pronounced at the radiation balance at the top of the atmosphere due to a compensating error, in particular an overestimation of the reflectivity of clouds when they are present. Overall, a better representation of convective precipitation and a very good representation of the daily cycle in different cloud types were demonstrated. However, to overcome remaining deficiencies, additional efforts are necessary to improve cloud characteristics in CPS. This will be a challenging task due to compensating deficiencies that currently exist in ‘state-of-the-art’ models, yielding a good representation of average climate conditions. In the light of using the CPS models to study climate change it is necessary that these deficiencies are addressed in future research.
It is common practice to use a 30-year period to derive climatological values, as recommended by the World Meteorological Organization. However this convention relies on important assumptions, of which the validity can be examined by deriving the uncertainty inherent to using a limited time-period for deriving climatological values. In this study a new method, aiming at deriving this uncertainty, has been developed with an application to precipitation for a station in Europe (Westdorpe) and one in Africa (Gulu). The weather generator framework is used to produce synthetic daily precipitation time-series that can also be regarded as alternative climate realizations. The framework consists of an improved Markov model, which shows good performance in reproducing the 5-day precipitation variability. The sub-seasonal, seasonal and the inter-annual signals are introduced in the weather generator framework by including covariates. These covariates are derived from an empirical mode decomposition analysis with an improved stability and significance assessment. Introducing covariates was found to substantially improve the monthly precipitation variability for Gulu. From the weather generator, 1,000 synthetic time-series were produced. The divergence between these time-series demonstrates an uncertainty, inherent to using a 30-year period for mean precipitation, of 11 % for Westdorpe and 15 % for Gulu. The uncertainty for precipitation 10-year return levels was found to be 37 % for both sites.
Convection-permitting models (CPMs) have proven their usefulness in representing precipitation on a sub-daily scale. However, investigations on sub-hourly scales are still lacking, even though these are the scales for which showers exhibit the most variability. A Lagrangian approach is implemented here to evaluate the representation of showers in a CPM, using the limited-area climate model COSMO-CLM. This approach consists of tracking 5‑min precipitation fields to retrieve different features of showers (e.g., temporal pattern, horizontal speed, lifetime). In total, 312 cases are simulated at a resolution of 0.01 ° over Central Germany, and among these cases, 78 are evaluated against a radar dataset. The model is able to represent most observed features for different types of convective cells. In addition, the CPM reproduced well the observed relationship between the precipitation characteristics and temperature indicating that the COSMO-CLM model is sophisticated enough to represent the climatological features of showers.
Lightning climate change projections show large uncertainties caused by limited empirical knowledge and strong assumptions inherent to coarse-grid climate modeling. This study addresses the latter issue by implementing and applying the lightning potential index parameterization (LPI) into a fine-grid convection-permitting regional climate model (CPM). This setup takes advantage of the explicit representation of deep convection in CPMs and allows for process-oriented LPI inputs such as vertical velocity within convective cells and coexistence of microphysical hydrometeor types, which are known to contribute to charge separation mechanisms. The LPI output is compared to output from a simpler flash rate parameterization, namely the CAPE × PREC parameterization, applied in a non-CPM on a coarser grid. The LPI’s implementation into the regional climate model COSMO-CLM successfully reproduces the observed lightning climatology, including its latitudinal gradient, its daily and hourly probability distributions, and its diurnal and annual cycles. Besides, the simulated temperature dependence of lightning reflects the observed dependency. The LPI outperforms the CAPE × PREC parameterization in all applied diagnostics. Based on this satisfactory evaluation, we used the LPI to a climate change projection under the RCP8.5 scenario. For the domain under investigation centered over Germany, the LPI projects a decrease of 4.8% in flash rate by the end of the century, in opposition to a projected increase of 17.4% as projected using the CAPE × PREC parameterization. The future decrease of LPI occurs mostly during the summer afternoons and is related to (i) a change in convection occurrence and (ii) changes in the microphysical mixing. The two parameterizations differ because of different convection occurrences in the CPM and non-CPM and because of changes in the microphysical mixing, which is only represented in the LPI lightning parameterization.
A satellite-based climate record of monthly mean surface solar irradiance (SIS) is investigated with regard to possible inhomogeneities in time. The data record is provided by the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT) Satellite Application Facility on Climate Monitoring (CM SAF) for the period of 1983 to 2005, covering a disk area between ±70° in latitude and longitude. The Standard Normal Homogeneity Test (SNHT) and two other homogeneity tests are applied with and without the use of reference SIS data (from the Baseline Surface Radiation Network (BSRN) and from the ECMWF (European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts) ERA -Interim reanalysis. The focus is on the detection of break-like inhomogeneities, which may occur due to satellite or SIS retrieval algorithm changes. In comparison with the few suitable BSRN SIS observation series with limited extension in time (no data before 1992), the CM SAF SIS time series do not show significant inhomogeneities, even though slight discrepancies in the surface measurements appear. The investigation of the full CM SAF SIS domain reveal inhomogeneities related to most of the documented satellite and retrieval changes, but only for relatively small domain fractions (especially in mountainous desert-like areas in Africa). In these regions the retrieval algorithm is not capable of adjusting for the changes of the satellite instruments. For other areas, e.g., Europe, no such breaks in the time series are found. We conclude that the CM SAF SIS data record has to be further assessed and regionally homogenized before climate trend investigations can be conducted.
We conducted measurements of up to the five important short-lived brominated species in the marine boundary layer (MBL) of the mid-latitudes (List/Sylt, North Sea) in June 2009 and of the tropical Western Pacific during the TransBrom ship campaign in October 2009. For the one-week time series in List mean mixing ratios of 2.0, 1.1, 0.2, 0.1 ppt were analysed for CHBr3, CH2Br2, CHBr2Cl and CH2BrCl, with maxima of 5.8 and 1.6 ppt for the two main components CHBr3 and CH2Br2. Along the cruise track in the Western Pacific (between 41° N and 13° S) mean mixing ratios of 1.0, 0.9, 0.2, 0.1 and 0.1 ppt for CHBr3, CH2Br2, CHBrCl2, CHBr2Cl and CH2BrCl were determined. Air samples with coastal influence showed considerably higher mixing ratios than the samples with open ocean origin. Correlation analyses of the two datasets yielded strong linear relationships between the mixing ratios of four of the five species (except for CH2BrCl). Using a combined dataset from the two campaigns, rough estimates of the molar emission ratios between the correlated substances were derived as follows: 9/1/0.3/0.3 for CHBr3/CH2Br2/CHBrCl2/CHBr2Cl. Additional measurements were made in the tropical tropopause layer (TTL) above Teresina (Brazil, 5.07° S, 42.87° W) in June 2008, using balloon-borne cryogenic whole air sampling technique. Near the level of zero clear-sky net radiative heating (LZRH) at 14.8 km about 2.25 ppt organic bromine was bound to the five short-lived species, making up 13 % of total organic bromine (17.82 ppt). CH2Br2 (1.45 ppt) and CHBr3 (0.56 ppt) accounted for 90 % of the budget of short-lived compounds in that region. Near the tropopause (at 17.5 km) organic bromine from short-lived substances was reduced to 1.35 ppt, with 1.07 ppt and 0.12 ppt attributed to CH2Br2 and CHBr3 respectively.
We conducted measurements of the five important short-lived organic bromine species in the marine boundary layer (MBL). Measurements were made in the Northern Hemisphere mid-latitudes (Sylt Island, North Sea) in June 2009 and in the tropical Western Pacific during the TransBrom ship campaign in October 2009. For the one-week time series on Sylt Island, mean mixing ratios of CHBr3, CH2Br2, CHBr2Cl and CH2BrCl were 2.0, 1.1, 0.2, 0.1 ppt, respectively. We found maxima of 5.8 and 1.6 ppt for the two main components CHBr3 and CH2Br2. Along the cruise track in the Western Pacific (between 41° N and 13° S) we measured mean mixing ratios of 0.9, 0.9, 0.2, 0.1 and 0.1 ppt for CHBr3, CH2Br2, CHBrCl2, CHBr2Cl and CH2BrCl. Air samples with coastal influence showed considerably higher mixing ratios than the samples with open ocean origin. Correlation analyses of the two data sets yielded strong linear relationships between the mixing ratios of four of the five species (except for CH2BrCl). Using a combined data set from the two campaigns and a comparison with the results from two former studies, rough estimates of the molar emission ratios between the correlated substances were: 9/1/0.35/0.35 for CHBr3/CH2Br2/CHBrCl2/CHBr2Cl. Additional measurements were made in the tropical tropopause layer (TTL) above Teresina (Brazil, 5° S) in June 2008, using balloon-borne cryogenic whole air sampling technique. Near the level of zero clear-sky net radiative heating (LZRH) at 14.8 km about 2.25 ppt organic bromine was bound to the five short-lived species, making up 13% of total organic bromine (17.82 ppt). CH2Br2 (1.45 ppt) and CHBr3 (0.56 ppt) accounted for 90% of the budget of short-lived compounds in that region. Near the tropopause (at 17.5 km) organic bromine from these substances was reduced to 1.35 ppt, with 1.07 and 0.12 ppt attributed to CH2Br2 and CHBr3, respectively.
Staubwolken sind im Universum die Geburtsstätten neuer Sterne. Dort wiederholen sich Prozesse, die vor 4,56 Milliarden Jahren auch zur Entstehung unseres Sonnensystems geführt haben. Noch heute gibt es Zeugen aus dieser Zeit: Kometenstaub, Sternenstaub und interstellarer Staub. Die »Stardust-Mission« hat sie eingefangen, und Frankfurter Geowissenschaftler haben darin – dank modernster Labor-Analytik – erstaunliche Funde gemacht.
Im Rahmen einer Zusammenarbeit zwischen der Thüringer Landesanstalt für Umwelt und Geologie und der Goethe-Universität Frankfurt fand in Kooperation mit dem Deutschen Wetterdienst (DWD) eine umfassende Studie zum konvektiven Unwetterpotential über Thüringen statt. Unwetterereignisse, die durch konvektive Prozesse in der Atmosphäre verursacht werden, besitzen ein nicht unerhebliches Schadenspotential, obwohl sie oftmals eine räumlich eng begrenzte Ausdehnung aufweisen. Aufgrund ihrer Charakteristik ist sowohl die Vorhersage solcher Ereignisse, als auch eine vollständige, systematische Erfassung für eine detaillierte Auswertung längerer Zeitreihen noch immer eine Herausforderung. Zusätzliches Interesse besteht in der Abschätzung der durch den Klimawandel abhängigen Entwicklung des zukünftigen Gefährdungspotentials konvektiver Unwetter. Für eine gezielte Untersuchung des Themenkomplexes ist eine Vielzahl unterschiedlicher Daten und Methoden verwendet worden. Mit Hilfe von Fernerkundungsdatensätzen wird ein räumlich differenziertes Gefährdungspotential über Thüringen nachgewiesen. Bedingt durch das Relief ist das Auftreten von Konvektion am häufigsten und intensivsten über dem südlichen Thüringer Wald und dessen Ostrand zu beobachten, während Nordthüringen eine deutlich geringere Aktivität solcher Unwetterereignisse aufweist. Eine Abschätzung mittels globaler Klimamodelle und daraus abgeleiteten Wetterlagen zeigt unter Berücksichtigung des RCP8.5 Klimaszenarios für die nahe Zukunft (2016-2045) eine Zunahme des Gefährdungspotentials durch konvektive Unwetter. Aufgrund des Anstiegs feuchter Wetterlagen (49 % auf 82 %) erhöht sich die Zunahme der Gefährdung für den Zeitraum 2071-2100 noch deutlicher. Im Vergleich zu diesem statistischen Ansatz nimmt die projizierte Gefährdung durch extreme Ereignisse erheblich zu (Faktor 6), wenn die Ergebnisse expliziter Simulationen konvektiver Ereignisse mit einem regionalen Klimamodell (mit horizontaler Gitterdistanz von 1 km) und eine Zunahme der Tage mit konvektiven Extremereignissen berücksichtigt werden. Ein Anstieg der Gefährdung durch konvektive Unwetter in der Zukunft ist wahrscheinlich. Eine Quantifizierung bleibt jedoch unsicher.
Aus 4 Profilen durch den Laerer Sinterkalk wurden 33 Proben pollenanalytisch untersucht. Zwei Zähltabellen geben für jede einzelne dieser Proben den Gehalt an Pollen und Sporen. Zwei Diagramme stellen die Ergebnisse dieser qualitativen und quantitativen Analysen graphisch dar. Neben den Pollenkörnern der gebräuchlichen 11 Baumarten wurden 24 verschiedene Nichtbaumpollen-Gruppen ausgewertet. Als ältester Zeitabschnitt ließ sich die mindestens 10000 Jahre alte sog. "Jüngste Dryaszeit" feststellen, gekennzeichnet durch eine subarktische Tundra. Die darauf folgenden Zeitabschnitte Präboreal, Boreal, Atlantikum, Subboreal und Subatlantikum konnten in einem oder mehreren der Profile gefaßt werden. In günstig gelagerten Fällen wurden darüber hinaus Beziehungen angedeutet, die zwischen der Bildung dieses Sinterkalklagers und der Besiedlung durch den Menschen bestehen.
We have developed and characterized the novel PTR3, a proton transfer reaction-time-of-flight mass spectrometer (PTR-TOF) using a new gas inlet and an innovative reaction chamber design. The reaction chamber consists of a tripole operated with rf voltages generating an electric field only in the radial direction. An elevated electrical field is necessary to reduce clustering of primary hydronium (H3O+) and product ions with water molecules present in the sample gas. The axial movement of the ions is achieved by the sample gas flow only. Therefore, the new design allows a 30-fold longer reaction time and a 40-fold increase in pressure compared to standard PTR-TOF-MS. First calibration tests show sensitivities of up to 18000 counts per second/parts per billion and volume (cps/ppbv) at a mass resolution of >8000 m/Δm (fwhm). The new inlet using center-sampling through a critical orifice reduces wall losses of low volatility compounds. Therefore, the new PTR3 instrument is sensitive to VOC typically present in the ppbv range as well as to semivolatile organic compounds (SVOC) and even highly oxidized organic molecules (HOMs) present in the parts per quadrillion per volume (ppqv) range in the atmosphere.
Responses of southern ocean seafloor habitats and communities to global and local drivers of change
(2021)
Knowledge of life on the Southern Ocean seafloor has substantially grown since the beginning of this century with increasing ship-based surveys and regular monitoring sites, new technologies and greatly enhanced data sharing. However, seafloor habitats and their communities exhibit high spatial variability and heterogeneity that challenges the way in which we assess the state of the Southern Ocean benthos on larger scales. The Antarctic shelf is rich in diversity compared with deeper water areas, important for storing carbon (“blue carbon”) and provides habitat for commercial fish species. In this paper, we focus on the seafloor habitats of the Antarctic shelf, which are vulnerable to drivers of change including increasing ocean temperatures, iceberg scour, sea ice melt, ocean acidification, fishing pressures, pollution and non-indigenous species. Some of the most vulnerable areas include the West Antarctic Peninsula, which is experiencing rapid regional warming and increased iceberg-scouring, subantarctic islands and tourist destinations where human activities and environmental conditions increase the potential for the establishment of non-indigenous species and active fishing areas around South Georgia, Heard and MacDonald Islands. Vulnerable species include those in areas of regional warming with low thermal tolerance, calcifying species susceptible to increasing ocean acidity as well as slow-growing habitat-forming species that can be damaged by fishing gears e.g., sponges, bryozoan, and coral species. Management regimes can protect seafloor habitats and key species from fishing activities; some areas will need more protection than others, accounting for specific traits that make species vulnerable, slow growing and long-lived species, restricted locations with optimum physiological conditions and available food, and restricted distributions of rare species. Ecosystem-based management practices and long-term, highly protected areas may be the most effective tools in the preservation of vulnerable seafloor habitats. Here, we focus on outlining seafloor responses to drivers of change observed to date and projections for the future. We discuss the need for action to preserve seafloor habitats under climate change, fishing pressures and other anthropogenic impacts.
In the original manuscript, Figs. 7–16 included fonts which were not correctly embedded in the file. As such, unless certain propriety software (ArcGIS) is installed on the viewing platform, the figures will appear corrupted. In this Corrigendum, Figs. 7–16 and their captions are reproduced with the fonts correctly embedded. Please find the correct figures below.
The late Miocene palaeorecord provides evidence for a warmer and wetter climate than that of today, and there is uncertainty in the palaeo-CO2 record of at least 200 ppm. We present results from fully coupled atmosphere-ocean-vegetation simulations for the late Miocene that examine the relative roles of palaeogeography (topography and ice sheet geometry) and CO2 concentration in the determination of late Miocene climate through comprehensive terrestrial model-data comparisons. Assuming that these data accurately reflect the late Miocene climate, and that the late Miocene palaeogeographic reconstruction used in the model is robust, then results indicate that:
1. Both palaeogeography and atmospheric CO2 contribute to the proxy-derived precipitation differences between the late Miocene and modern reference climates. However these contributions exibit synergy and so do not add linearly.
2. The vast majority of the proxy-derived temperature differences between the late Miocene and modern reference climates can only be accounted for if we assume a palaeo-CO2 concentration towards the higher end of the range of estimates.
The Late Miocene (∼11.6–5.3 Ma) palaeorecord provides evidence for a warmer and wetter climate than that of today and there is uncertainty in the palaeo-CO2 record of at least 150 ppmv. We present results from fully coupled atmosphere-ocean-vegetation simulations for the Late Miocene that examine the relative roles of palaeogeography (topography and ice sheet geometry) and CO2 concentration in the determination of Late Miocene climate through comprehensive terrestrial model-data comparisons. Assuming that the data accurately reflects the Late Miocene climate, and that the Late Miocene palaeogeographic reconstruction used in the model is robust, then results indicate that the proxy-derived precipitation differences between the Late Miocene and modern can be largely accounted for by the palaeogeographic changes alone. However, the proxy-derived temperatures differences between the Late Miocene and modern can only begin to be accounted for if we assume a palaeo-CO2 concentration towards the higher end of the range of estimates.
Sesquiterpenes (C15H24) are semi-volatile organic compounds emitted by vegetation and are of interest in atmospheric research because they influence the oxidative capacity of the atmosphere and contribute to the formation of secondary organic aerosols. However, little is known about their emission pattern and no established parameterisation is available for global emission models. The aim of this study is to investigate a Central European spruce forest and its emission response to meteorological and environmental parameters, looking for a parameterisation that incorporates heat and oxidative stress as the main driving forces of the induced emissions. Therefore, a healthy ca. 80 yr old Norway spruce (Picea abies) tree was selected and a dynamical vegetation enclosure technique was applied from April to November 2011. The emissions clearly responded to temperature changes with small variations in the β-factor along the year (βspring = 0.09 ± 0.01, βsummer = 0.12 ± 0.02, βautumn = 0.11 ± 0.02). However, daily calculated values revealed a vast amount of variability in temperature dependencies ((0.02 ± 0.002) < β < (0.27 ± 0.04)) with no distinct seasonality.
By separating the complete dataset in 10 different ozone regimes, we found that in moderately or less polluted atmospheric conditions the main driving force of sesquiterpene emissions is the temperature, but when ambient ozone mixing ratios exceed a critical threshold of (36.6 ± 3.9) ppbv, the emissions become primarily correlated with ozone. Considering the complete dataset, cross correlation analysis resulted in highest correlation with ambient ozone mixing ratios (CCO3 = 0.63 ± 0.01; CCT = 0.47 ± 0.02 at t = 0 h for temperature) with a time shift 2–4 h prior to the emissions. An only temperature dependent algorithm was found to substantially underestimate the induced emissions (20% of the measured; R2 = 0.31). However, the addition of an ozone dependent term improved substantially the fitting between measured and modelled emissions (81% of the modelled emissions could be explained by the measurements; R2 = 0.63), providing confidence about the reliability of the suggested parameterisation for the spruce forest site investigated.
Sesquiterpenes (C15H24) are semi-volatile organic compounds emitted by vegetation and are of interest in atmospheric research because they influence the oxidative capacity of the atmosphere and contribute to the formation of secondary organic aerosols. However, little is known about their emission pattern and no established parameterization is available for global emission models. The aim of this study is to investigate a Central European spruce forest and its emission response to meteorological and environmental parameters, looking for a parameterization that incorporates heat and oxidative stress as the main driving forces of the induced emissions. Therefore, a healthy ca. 80 yr old Norway spruce (Picea abies) tree was selected and a dynamical vegetation enclosure technique was applied from April to November 2011. The emissions clearly responded to temperature changes with small variations in the β-factor along the year (βspring=0.09 ± 0.01, βsummer=0.12 ± 0.02, βautumn=0.11 ± 0.02). However, daily calculated values revealed a vast amount of variability in temperature dependencies ((0.02 ± 0.002)< β<(0.27 ± 0.04)) with no distinct seasonality.
By separating the complete dataset in 10 different ozone regimes, we found that in moderately or less polluted atmospheric conditions the main driving force of sesquiterpene emissions is the temperature, but when ambient ozone mixing ratios exceed a~critical threshold of (36.6 ± 3.9) ppbv, the emissions become primarily correlated with ozone. Considering the complete dataset, cross correlation analysis resulted in highest correlation with ambient ozone mixing ratios (CCO3=0.63 ± 0.01; CCT=0.47 ± 0.02 at t=0 h for temperature) with a time shift 2–4 h prior to the emissions. An only temperature dependent algorithm was found to substantially underestimate the induced emissions (20 % of the measured; R2=0.31). However, the addition of an ozone dependent term improved substantially the fitting between measured and modeled emissions (81 % of the measured; R2=0.63), providing confidence about the reliability of the suggested parameterization for the spruce forest site investigated.
Opportunities and challenges for paleoaltimetry in "small" orogens: insights from the European Alps
(2020)
Many stable isotope paleoaltimetry studies have focused on paleoelevation reconstructions of orogenic plateaus such as the Tibetan or Andean Plateaus. We address the opportunities and challenges of applying stable isotope paleoaltimetry to “smaller” orogens. We do this using a high‐resolution isotope tracking general circulation model (ECHAM5‐wiso) and explore the precipitation δ18O (δ18Op) signal of Cenozoic paleoclimate and topographic change in the European Alps. Results predict a maximum δ18Op change of 4–5‰ (relative to present day) during topographic development of the Alps. This signal of topographic change has the same magnitude as changes in δ18Op values resulting from Pliocene and Last Glacial Maximum global climatic change. Despite the similar magnitude of the isotopic signals resulting from topographic and paleoclimate changes, their spatial patterns across central Europe differ. Our results suggest that an integration of paleoclimate modeling, multiproxy approaches, and low‐elevation reference proxy records distal from an orogen improve topographic reconstructions.
Processes occurring in the tropical upper troposphere (UT), the Tropical Transition Layer (TTL), and the lower stratosphere (LS) are of importance for the global climate, for stratospheric dynamics and air chemistry, and for their influence on the global distribution of water vapour, trace gases and aerosols. In this contribution we present aerosol and trace gas (in-situ) measurements from the tropical UT/LS over Southern Brazil, Northern Australia, and West Africa. The instruments were operated on board of the Russian high altitude research aircraft M-55 "Geophysica" and the DLR Falcon-20 during the campaigns TROCCINOX (Araçatuba, Brazil, February 2005), SCOUT-O3 (Darwin, Australia, December 2005), and SCOUT-AMMA (Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, August 2006). The data cover submicron particle number densities and volatility from the COndensation PArticle counting System (COPAS), as well as relevant trace gases like N2O, ozone, and CO. We use these trace gas measurements to place the aerosol data into a broader atmospheric context. Also a juxtaposition of the submicron particle data with previous measurements over Costa Rica and other tropical locations between 1999 and 2007 (NASA DC-8 and NASA WB-57F) is provided. The submicron particle number densities, as a function of altitude, were found to be remarkably constant in the tropical UT/LS altitude band for the two decades after 1987. Thus, a parameterisation suitable for models can be extracted from these measurements. Compared to the average levels in the period between 1987 and 2007 a slight increase of particle abundances was found for 2005/2006 at altitudes with potential temperatures, theta, above 430 K. The origins of this increase are unknown except for increases measured during SCOUT-AMMA. Here the eruption of the Soufrière Hills volcano in the Caribbean caused elevated particle mixing ratios. The vertical profiles from Northern hemispheric mid-latitudes between 1999 and 2006 also are compact enough to derive a parameterisation. The tropical profiles all show a broad maximum of particle mixing ratios (between theta ~ 340 K and 390 K) which extends from below the TTL to above the thermal tropopause. Thus these particles are a "reservoir" for vertical transport into the stratosphere. The ratio of non-volatile particle number density to total particle number density was also measured by COPAS. The vertical profiles of this ratio have a maximum of 50% above 370 K over Australia and West Africa and a pronounced minimum directly below. Without detailed chemical composition measurements a reason for the increase of non-volatile particle fractions cannot yet be given. However, half of the particles from the tropical "reservoir" contain compounds other than sulphuric acid and water. Correlations of the measured aerosol mixing ratios with N2O and ozone exhibit compact relationships for the tropical data from SCOUT-AMMA, TROCCINOX, and SCOUT-O3. Correlations with CO are more scattered probably because of the connection to different pollution source regions. We provide additional data from the long distance transfer flights to the campaign sites in Brazil, Australia, and West-Africa. These were executed during a time window of 17 months within a period of relative volcanic quiescence. Thus the data represent a "snapshot picture" documenting the status of a significant part of the global UT/LS fine aerosol at low concentration levels 15 years after the last major (i.e., the 1991 Mount Pinatubo) eruption. The corresponding latitudinal distributions of the measured particle number densities are presented in this paper to provide data of the UT/LS background aerosol for modelling purposes.
Processes occurring in the tropical upper troposphere and lower stratosphere (UT/LS) are of importance for the global climate, for the stratospheric dynamics and air chemistry, and they influence the global distribution of water vapour, trace gases and aerosols. The mechanisms underlying cloud formation and variability in the UT/LS are of scientific concern as these still are not adequately described and quantified by numerical models. Part of the reasons for this is the scarcity of detailed in-situ measurements in particular from the Tropical Transition Layer (TTL) within the UT/LS. In this contribution we provide measurements of particle number densities and the amounts of non-volatile particles in the submicron size range present in the UT/LS over Southern Brazil, West Africa, and Northern Australia. The data were collected in-situ on board of the Russian high altitude research aircraft M-55 "Geophysica" using the specialised COPAS (COndensation PArticle counting System) instrument during the TROCCINOX (Araçatuba, Brazil, February 2005), the SCOUT-O3 (Darwin, Australia, December 2005), and SCOUT-AMMA (Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, August 2006) campaigns. The vertical profiles obtained are compared to those from previous measurements from the NASA DC-8 and NASA WB-57F over Costa Rica and other tropical locations between 1999 and 2007. The number density of the submicron particles as function of altitude was found to be remarkably constant (even back to 1987) over the tropical UT/LS altitude band such that a parameterisation suitable for models can be extracted from the measurements. At altitudes corresponding to potential temperatures above 430 K a slight increase of the number densities from 2005/2006 results from the data in comparison to the 1987 to 2007 measurements. The origins of this increase are unknown. By contrast the data from Northern hemispheric mid latitudes do not exhibit such an increase between 1999 and 2006. Vertical profiles of the non-volatile fraction of the submicron particles were also measured by a COPAS channel and are presented here. The resulting profiles of the non-volatile number density fraction show a pronounced maximum of 50% in the tropical TTL over Australia and West Africa. Below and above this fraction is much lower attaining values of 10% and smaller. In the lower stratosphere the fine particles mostly consist of sulphuric acid which is reflected in the low numbers of non-volatile residues measured by COPAS. Without detailed chemical composition measurements the reason for the increase of non-volatile particle fractions cannot yet be given. The long distance transfer flights to Brazil, Australia and West-Africa were executed during a time window of 17 months within a period of relative volcanic quiescence. Thus the data measured during these transfers represent a "snapshot picture" documenting the status of a significant part of the global UT/LS aerosol (with sizes below 1 μm) at low concentration levels 15 years after the last major (i.e., the 1991 Mount Pinatubo) eruption. The corresponding latitudinal distributions of the measured particle number densities are also presented in this paper in order to provide input on the UT/LS background aerosol for modelling purposes.
Verdunstungsstudien
(1930)
Mit Hilfe von Apparaten wird es wohl niemals gelingen, die tatsachliche Verdunstung bestimmter Landflächen zu bestimmen, so wichtig eine derartige Ermittlung im Hinblick auf Klimaforschung, Wasserhaushalt der Erde und dergleichen sein mag. Es wurde daher schon aud die verschiedensten Arten versucht, wenigstens ein relatives Maß der Verdunstung - die sogenannte Verdunstungskraft zu bestimmen. Freie Wasserflächen für eine derartige Untersuchung zu verwenden, wäre das Einfachste ; jedoch sind hierbei die Möglichkeiten einer Störung besonders groß infolge von Einflüssen, die die gemessene Verdunstungskraft verändern, und so Fälschungen der Messungen verursachen. Es seien hier nur die Störiingon durch Regen, den Rand der Schale, Verunreinigungen der Oberflache und durch Wellenbildung erwähnt. Darum scheint es vorteilhafter, wie bereits Babinetl 1848 vorschlug, für derartige Messungen statt der freien Wasserfläche einen porösen Tonkörper zu verwenden. Mitscherlich und Livingstone begannen dann ziemlich gleichzeitig 1904 mit derartigen Tonkörpern zu arbeiten, und Livingstone trat bald mit seinen vor allem für die Botanik wichtigen Ergebnissen hervor. Aufgabe des Meteorologen ist, eine Methode zu schaffen, die eine stets wiederholbare Messung ermöglicht; jedoch muß man sich dessen befaßt sein, daß solche Messungen keinesfalls die Verdunstungswerte der Erdoberfläche mit oder ohne Vegetation oder die Wasserabgabe des Menschen angeben. Das Verhältnis dieser, der "natürlichen" Verdunstungswerte, zu dem durch jene im folgenden erörterte - Methode gefundenen "physikalischen" Werte bedarf noch der Ermittlung. Über die Sondergebiete der Verdunstung liegen bereits zahlreiche Arbeiten vor. In dieser Arbeit wird zuerst die verwendete Apparatur und die Meßanordnung besprochen, dann der Einfluß des Windes, der Temperatur und des äußeren Dampfdruckes auf die Verdunstung untersucht. Darauf wird die durch die Verdunstung selbst erzeugte Ventilation, die "Grundventilation" behandelt. Es schließt sich die Ermittliing des Strahlungseinflusses und die Eignung des Apparates zu Strahlungsmessungen an, und zum Schluß werden Vergleichsmessungen mit anderen Apparaten angeführt.
Ein Finite-Volumen-Modell des differentiell geheizten rotierenden Annulus wird verwendet, um die spontane Schwerewellenabstrahlung durch die großskalige, von baroklinen Wellen beherrschte Strömung zu untersuchen. Bei diesem Vorgang bilden barokline Wellen und der durch sie abgelenkte und verzerrte Strahlstrom, die sich näherungsweise im hydrostatischen und geostrophischen Gleichgewicht befinden, durch ihre Dynamik Ungleichgewichte aus, die sich als Schwerewellen ausbreiten. Neben der Anregung von Schwerewellen durch Prozesse wie Gebirgsüberströmung, Konvektion und Frontogenese, bildet dieser Vorgang vermutlich eine weitere wichtige Quelle von Schwerewellen in der Atmosphäre. Anders als für orographisch und konvektiv angeregte Schwerewellen gibt es für die spontane Schwerewellenabstrahlung bislang keine befriedigende Parametrisierung in Wettervorhersage- und Klimamodellen, die diesen Prozess nicht auflösen können. Die Durchführung von Messungen zur spontanen Schwerewellenabstrahlung in der Atmosphäre ist üblicherweise sehr aufwendig, sodass die Untersuchung dieses Vorganges in einem wiederholbaren und steuerbaren Laborexperiment reizvoll erscheint. Ob dafür möglicherweise das Experiment des differentiell geheizten rotierenden Annulus infrage kommt, untersuchen wir mit einem eigens dafür entwickelten numerischen Modell, dessen Tauglichkeit wir zunächst im Rahmen einer Validierung durch den Vergleich mit Labormessungen überprüfen. Damit die Ergebnisse zur Schwerewellendynamik im Annulus auf die Atmosphäre übertragbar sind, verwenden wir eine neue, atmosphärenähnliche Annuluskonfiguration. Im Gegensatz zu den klassischen Annuluskonfigurationen ist in der neuen Konfiguration die Brunt-Väisälä-Frequenz größer als der Coriolis-Parameter, sodass die Schwerewellen ein ähnliches Ausbreitungsverhalten zeigen sollten wie in der Atmosphäre. Deutliche Hinweise auf eine Schwerewellenaktivität in der atmosphärenähnlichen Konfiguration geben die horizontale Geschwindigkeitsdivergenz und eine Normalmodenzerlegung der kleinräumigen Strukturen der simulierten Strömung. Um der Herkunft der beobachteten Schwerewellen auf den Grund zu gehen, zerlegen wir die Strömung in den schwerewellenfreien quasigeostrophischen Anteil und den schwerewellenenthaltenden ageostrophischen Anteil. Bereiche innerhalb der baroklinen Welle, in denen ein erhöhter spontaner Antrieb des ageostrophischen Anteils durch die quasigeostrophische Strömung beobachtet wird, fallen mit Bereichen erhöhter Schwerewellenaktivität zusammen. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass die spontane Schwerewellenabstrahlung auch im Annulus zum Schwerewellenfeld beiträgt, sodass dieses Experiment als Labormodell dieser Schwerewellenquelle für deren weitere Erforschung geeignet erscheint.
Desert dust is one of the most abundant ice nucleating particle types in the atmosphere. Traditionally, clay minerals were assumed to determine the ice nucleation ability of desert dust and constituted the focus of ice nucleation studies over several decades. Recently some feldspar species were identified to be ice active at much higher temperatures than clay minerals, redirecting studies to investigate the contribution of feldspar to ice nucleation on desert dust. However, so far no study has shown the atmospheric relevance of this mineral phase.
For this study four dust samples were collected after airborne transport in the troposphere from the Sahara to different locations (Crete, the Peloponnese, Canary Islands, and the Sinai Peninsula). Additionally, 11 dust samples were collected from the surface from nine of the biggest deserts worldwide. The samples were used to study the ice nucleation behavior specific to different desert dusts. Furthermore, we investigated how representative surface-collected dust is for the atmosphere by comparing to the ice nucleation activity of the airborne samples. We used the IMCA-ZINC setup to form droplets on single aerosol particles which were subsequently exposed to temperatures between 233 and 250 K. Dust particles were collected in parallel on filters for offline cold-stage ice nucleation experiments at 253–263 K. To help the interpretation of the ice nucleation experiments the mineralogical composition of the dusts was investigated. We find that a higher ice nucleation activity in a given sample at 253 K can be attributed to the K-feldspar content present in this sample, whereas at temperatures between 238 and 245 K it is attributed to the sum of feldspar and quartz content present. A high clay content, in contrast, is associated with lower ice nucleation activity. This confirms the importance of feldspar above 250 K and the role of quartz and feldspars determining the ice nucleation activities at lower temperatures as found by earlier studies for monomineral dusts. The airborne samples show on average a lower ice nucleation activity than the surface-collected ones. Furthermore, we find that under certain conditions milling can lead to a decrease in the ice nucleation ability of polymineral samples due to the different hardness and cleavage of individual mineral phases causing an increase of minerals with low ice nucleation ability in the atmospherically relevant size fraction. Comparison of our data set to an existing desert dust parameterization confirms its applicability for climate models. Our results suggest that for an improved prediction of the ice nucleation ability of desert dust in the atmosphere, the modeling of emission and atmospheric transport of the feldspar and quartz mineral phases would be key, while other minerals are only of minor importance.
Desert dust is one of the most abundant ice nucleating particle types in the atmosphere. Tra ditionally, clay minerals were assumed to determine the ice nucleation ability of desert dust and constituted the focus of ice nucleation studies. Only recently some feldspar species were identified to be ice-active at much higher temperatures than clay minerals, redirecting studies to investigate the contribution of feldspar to ice nucleation on desert dust. However, so far no study has shown the atmospheric relevance of this mineral phase.
For this study four dust samples were collected after airborne transport in the troposphere from the Sahara to different locations (Crete, the Peloponnese, Canary Islands and the Sinai Peninsula). Additionally, eleven dust samples were collected from the surface from nine of the biggest deserts worldwide. The samples were used to study the ice nucleation behavior specific to different desert dusts. Furthermore we investigated how representative ice nucleation on surface-collected dust is for that in the atmosphere by comparing to the ice nucleation activity of the airborne samples. We used the IMCA-ZINC set-up to form droplets on single aerosol particles which were subsequently exposed to temperatures between 233 - 250 K. Dust particles were collected in parallel on filters for offline cold stage ice nucleation experiments at 253 - 263 K. To help the interpretation of the results from the ice nucleation experiments the mineralogical composition of the dusts was investigated.We found that a higher ice nucleation activity in a given sample can be attributed at 253 K to the K-feldspar content present in this sample whereas at temperatures between 238 - 245 K it is attributed to the sum of feldspar and quartz content present. A high clay content on the other hand is associated with a lower ice nucleation activity of a sample. This confirms the importance of feldspar at T > 250 K and the role of quartz and feldspars determining the ice nucleation activities at lower T as found by earlier studies for monomineral dust surrogates. Furthermore, we find that milling may lead to a decrease in the ice nucleation ability of polymineral samples due to a change in mineralogical composition in the atmospherically relevant size fraction arising from the different hardness and cleavage of individual mineral phases. Comparison of our comprehensive data set to an existing desert dust parameterization confirms its applicability for climate models. Our results suggest that for an improved prediction of the ice nucleation ability of desert dust in the atmosphere, the modelling of emission and atmospheric transport of the feldspar and quartz mineral phases would be key while other minerals are only of minor importance.
In this study we report the set-up of a novel twin chamber technique that uses the comparative method and establishes an appropriate connection of atmospheric and laboratory methods to broaden the tools for investigations. It is designed to study the impact of certain parameters and gases on ambient processes, such as particle formation online, and can be applied in a large variety of conditions. The characterisation of both chambers proved that both chambers operate identically, with a residence time xT (COMPASS1) = 26.5 ± 0.3 min and xT (COMPASS2) = 26.6 ± 0.4 min, at a typical flow rate of 15 L min−1 and a gas leak rate of (1.6 ± 0.8) × 10−5 s−1. Particle loss rates were found to be larger (due to the particles' stickiness to the chamber walls), with an extrapolated maximum of 1.8 × 10−3 s−1 at 1 nm, i.e. a hundredfold of the gas leak rate. This latter value is associated with sticky non-volatile gaseous compounds, too. Comparison measurement showed no significant differences. Therefore operation under atmospheric conditions is trustworthy. To indicate the applicability and the benefit of the system, a set of experiments was conducted under different conditions, i.e. urban and remote, enhanced ozone and terpenes as well as reduced sunlight. In order to do so, an ozone lamp was applied to enhance ozone in one of two chambers; the measurement chamber was protected from radiation by a first-aid cover and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were added using a small additional flow and a temperature-controlled oven. During the elevated ozone period, ambient particle number and volume increased substantially at urban and remote conditions, but by a different intensity. Protection of solar radiation displayed a clear negative effect on particle number, while terpene addition did cause a distinct daily pattern. E.g. adding β pinene particle number concentration rose by 13% maximum at noontime, while no significant effect was observable during darkness. Therefore, the system is a useful tool for investigating local precursors and the details of ambient particle formation at surface locations as well as potential future feedback processes.
The anthropogenic influence on climate and environment has increased strongly since industrialization about 150 yr ago. The consequences for the atmosphere became more and more apparent and nowadays affect our life quality on Earth progressively. Because of that it is very important to understand the atmospheric processes, on which these effects are based on, in detail. In this study we report the set-up of a novel twin chamber technique that uses the comparative method and establishes an appropriate connection of atmospheric and laboratory methods to broaden the tools for investigations. It is designed to study the impact of certain parameters and gases on ambient processes such as particle formation online and can be applied in a large variety of conditions. The characterisation of both chambers proved that both chambers operate identically with a residence time (xT (COMPASS 1) = 26.5 ± 0.3 min and xT (COMPASS 2) = 26.6 ± 0.4 min) at a typical flow rate of 15 L min−1 and a deposition rate (1.6 ± 0.8) × 10−5 s−1. Comparison measurement showed no significant differences. Therefore operation under atmospheric conditions is trustworthy. To indicate the applicability and the benefit of the system a set of experiments was conducted at different conditions, i.e. urban and remote, enhancing ozone and terpenes as well as reducing sunlight. In the ozone enhanced ambient particle number and volume increased substantially at urban and remote conditions in a different strength. Solar radiation displayed a clear positive effect on particle number as well as terpene addition did at remote conditions. Therefore the system is a useful tool to investigate local precursors, the details of ambient particle formation at surface locations as well as future feedback processes.
Atmospheric new particle formation is a general phenomenon observed over coniferous forests. So far nucleation is described as a function of gaseous sulfuric acid concentration only, which is unable to explain the observed seasonality of nucleation events at different measurement sites. Here we introduce a new nucleation parameter including ozone and water vapor concentrations as well as UV-B radiation as a proxy for OH radical formation. Applying this new parameter to field studies conducted at Finnish and German measurement sites it is found capable to predict the occurrence of nucleation events and their seasonal and annual variation indicating a significant role of organics. Extrapolation to possible future conditions of ozone, water vapor and organic concentrations leads to a significant potential increase in nucleation event number.
Atmospheric new particle formation is a general phenomenon observed over coniferous forests. So far nucleation is either parameterised as a function of gaseous sulphuric acid concentration only, which is unable to explain the observed seasonality of nucleation events at different measurement sites, or as a function of sulphuric acid and organic molecules. Here we introduce different nucleation parameters based on the interaction of sulphuric acid and terpene oxidation products and elucidate the individual importance. They include basic trace gas and meteorological measurements such as ozone and water vapour concentrations, temperature (for terpene emission) and UV B radiation as a proxy for OH radical formation. We apply these new parameters to field studies conducted at conducted at Finnish and German measurement sites and compare these to nucleation observations on a daily and annual scale. General agreement was found, although the specific compounds responsible for the nucleation process remain speculative. This can be interpreted as follows: During cooler seasons the emission of biogenic terpenes and the OH availability limits the new particle formation while towards warmer seasons the ratio of ozone and water vapour concentration seems to dominate the general behaviour. Therefore, organics seem to support ambient nucleation besides sulphuric acid or an OH-related compound. Using these nucleation parameters to extrapolate the current conditions to prognosed future concentrations of ozone, water vapour and organic concentrations leads to a significant potential increase in the nucleation event number.
The link between atmospheric radicals and newly formed particles at a spruce forest site in Germany
(2013)
It has been claimed for more than a century that atmospheric new particle formation is primarily influenced by the presence of sulphuric acid. However, the activation process of sulphuric acid related clusters into detectable particles is still an unresolved topic. In this study we focus on the PARADE campaign measurements conducted during August/September 2011 at Mt. Kleiner Feldberg in central Germany. During this campaign a set of radicals, organic and inorganic compounds and oxidants and aerosol properties were measured or calculated. We compared a range of organic and inorganic nucleation theories, evaluating their ability to simulate measured particle formation rates at 3 nm in diameter (J3) for a variety of different conditions. Nucleation mechanisms involving only sulphuric acid tentatively captured the observed noon-time daily maximum in J3, but displayed an increasing difference to J3 measurements during the rest of the diurnal cycle. Including large organic radicals, i.e. organic peroxy radicals (RO2) deriving from monoterpenes and their oxidation products in the nucleation mechanism improved the correlation between observed and simulated J3. This supports a recently proposed empirical relationship for new particle formation that has been used in global models. However, the best match between theory and measurements for the site of interest was found for an activation process based on large organic peroxy radicals and stabilized Criegee intermediates (sCI). This novel laboratory derived algorithm simulated the daily pattern and intensity of J3 observed in the ambient data. In this algorithm organic derived radicals are involved in activation and growth and link the formation rate of smallest aerosol particles with OH during daytime and NO3 during nighttime. Because of the RO2s lifetime is controlled by HO2 and NO we conclude that peroxy radicals and NO seem to play an important role for ambient radical chemistry not only with respect to oxidation capacity but also for the activation process of new particle formation. This is supposed to have significant impact of atmospheric radical species on aerosol chemistry and should to be taken into account when studying the impact of new particles in climate feedback cycles.
The link between atmospheric radicals and newly formed particles at a spruce forest site in Germany
(2014)
It has been claimed for more than a century that atmospheric new particle formation is primarily influenced by the presence of sulfuric acid. However, the activation process of sulfuric acid related clusters into detectable particles is still an unresolved topic. In this study we focus on the PARADE campaign measurements conducted during August/September 2011 at Mt Kleiner Feldberg in central Germany. During this campaign a set of radicals, organic and inorganic compounds and oxidants and aerosol properties were measured or calculated. We compared a range of organic and inorganic nucleation theories, evaluating their ability to simulate measured particle formation rates at 3 nm in diameter (J3) for a variety of different conditions. Nucleation mechanisms involving only sulfuric acid tentatively captured the observed noon-time daily maximum in J3, but displayed an increasing difference to J3 measurements during the rest of the diurnal cycle. Including large organic radicals, i.e. organic peroxy radicals (RO2) deriving from monoterpenes and their oxidation products, in the nucleation mechanism improved the correlation between observed and simulated J3. This supports a recently proposed empirical relationship for new particle formation that has been used in global models. However, the best match between theory and measurements for the site of interest was found for an activation process based on large organic peroxy radicals and stabilised Criegee intermediates (sCI). This novel laboratory-derived algorithm simulated the daily pattern and intensity of J3 observed in the ambient data. In this algorithm organic derived radicals are involved in activation and growth and link the formation rate of smallest aerosol particles with OH during daytime and NO3 during night-time. Because the RO2 lifetime is controlled by HO2 and NO we conclude that peroxy radicals and NO seem to play an important role for ambient radical chemistry not only with respect to oxidation capacity but also for the activation process of new particle formation. This is supposed to have significant impact of atmospheric radical species on aerosol chemistry and should be taken into account when studying the impact of new particles in climate feedback cycles.
In this survey paper, we present a multiscale post-processing method in exploration. Based on a physically relevant mollifier technique involving the elasto-oscillatory Cauchy–Navier equation, we mathematically describe the extractable information within 3D geological models obtained by migration as is commonly used for geophysical exploration purposes. More explicitly, the developed multiscale approach extracts and visualizes structural features inherently available in signature bands of certain geological formations such as aquifers, salt domes etc. by specifying suitable wavelet bands.
Residual circulation trajectories and transit times into the extratropical lowermost stratosphere
(2010)
Transport into the extratropical lowermost stratosphere (LMS) can be divided into a slow part (time-scale of several months to years) associated with the global-scale stratospheric residual circulation and a fast part (time-scale of days to a few months) associated with (mostly quasi-horizontal) mixing (i.e. two-way irreversible transport, including stratosphere-troposphere exchange). The stratospheric residual circulation can be considered to consist of two branches: a deep branch more strongly associated with planetary waves breaking in the middle to upper stratosphere, and a shallow branch more strongly associated with synoptic-scale waves breaking in the subtropical lower stratosphere. In this study the contribution due to the stratospheric residual circulation alone to transport into the LMS is quantified using residual circulation trajectories, i.e. trajectories driven by the (time-dependent) residual mean meridional and vertical velocities. This contribution represents the advective part of the overall transport into the LMS and can be viewed as providing a background onto which the effect of mixing has to be added. Residual mean velocities are obtained from a comprehensive chemistry-climate model as well as from reanalysis data. Transit times of air traveling from the tropical tropopause to the LMS along the residual circulation streamfunction are evaluated and compared to recent mean age of air estimates. A clear time-scale separation with much smaller transit times into the mid-latitudinal LMS than into polar LMS is found that is indicative of a clear separation of the shallow from the deep branch of the residual circulation. This separation between the shallow and the deep circulation branch is further manifested in a clear distinction in the aspect ratio of the vertical to meridional extent of the trajectories as well as the integrated mass flux along the residual circulation trajectories. The residual transit time distribution reproduces qualitatively the observed seasonal cycle of youngest air in the extratropical LMS in fall and oldest air in spring.
Residual circulation trajectories and transit times into the extratropical lowermost stratosphere
(2011)
Transport into the extratropical lowermost stratosphere (LMS) can be divided into a slow part (time-scale of several months to years) associated with the global-scale stratospheric residual circulation and a fast part (time-scale of days to a few months) associated with (mostly quasi-horizontal) mixing (i.e. two-way irreversible transport, including extratropical stratosphere-troposphere exchange). The stratospheric residual circulation may be considered to consist of two branches: a deep branch more strongly associated with planetary waves breaking in the middle to upper stratosphere, and a shallow branch associated with synoptic and planetary scale waves breaking in the subtropical lower stratosphere. In this study the contribution due to the stratospheric residual circulation alone to transport into the LMS is quantified using residual circulation trajectories, i.e. trajectories driven by the (time-dependent) residual mean meridional and vertical velocities. This contribution represents the advective part of the overall transport into the LMS and can be viewed as providing a background onto which the effect of mixing has to be added. Residual mean velocities are obtained from a comprehensive chemistry-climate model as well as from reanalysis data. Transit times of air traveling from the tropical tropopause to the LMS along the residual circulation streamfunction are evaluated and compared to recent mean age of air estimates. A time-scale separation with much smaller transit times into the mid-latitudinal LMS than into polar LMS is found that is indicative of a separation of the shallow from the deep branch of the residual circulation. This separation between the shallow and the deep circulation branch is further manifested in a distinction in the aspect ratio of the vertical to meridional extent of the trajectories, the integrated mass flux along the residual circulation trajectories, as well as the stratospheric entry latitude of the trajectories. The residual transit time distribution reproduces qualitatively the observed seasonal cycle of youngest air in the extratropical LMS in fall and oldest air in spring.