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Taphonomy and palaeoecology of Laetoli as well as Makuyuni, Arusha region in northern Tanzania
(2004)
This thesis is the result of the Hominid Corridor research Project in Tanzania since 1993 to 1995 that include Pliocene and Pleistocene localities. The localities under study include Laetoli and Manyara area in Arusha Region, northern Tanzania. The thesis has the following specific objectives: firstly, to identify taxa recovered from the studied assemblages; secondly, to underpin taphonomic history of the assemblages under study; thirdly, to elucidate further palaeoecological reconstruction of the assemblages; and finally, to examine surface fossil fauna modifications including agents of modifications either hominids or carnivores.
The Upper Laetolil Beds are dated at 3.5 million years ago (Ma) and the Ndolanya Beds are bracketed in age between 3.5 and 2.41 Ma. The Naibadad Beds, also from Laetoli area, are date to be between 2.2 to 2.1 Ma. The Naibadad Beds are correlated with the base of Bed I at Olduvai Gorge. There are so far no absolute dates for Manyara assemblages. Based on biostratigraphic correlation, the younger overlying unit, the Upper Manyara Beds are estimated to belong to Later Pleistocene and the Lower Manyara Beds are estimated to belong to Early Pleistocene. The Upper Manyara Beds are correlated to the age of Bed III at Olduvai Gorge, while the Lower Manyara Beds are interpreted to span the same contemporaneity with the upper part of Bed II at Olduvai Gorge.
At Laetoli localities, terrestrial mammals while localities from Manyara besides terrestrial mammals dominate fauna; they include aquatic species such as fish, crocodiles and hippopotamus. The main families recovered from Upper Laetolil Beds complement those already recovered from former research works by other workers. This is also true for the younger overlying stratigraphic horizon, the Upper Ndolanya Beds. Thus, mammalian families recovered from Upper Laetolil Beds include Bovidae, Carnivora, Elephantidae, Equidae, Lagomorpha, Suidae, Rodentia, Hominoidea and Rhenocerotidae. Remains of an invertebrate, Gastropoda were also recovered. For Upper Ndolanya Beds include almost the same families recovered from Upper Laetolil Beds, but based on former recovery of fossil fauna, these Beds outnumber greatly the Upper Laetolil Beds in bovid composition by 20 per cent. Such a change in species composition is noticed also from South African localities and East African localities such as the East Turkana. This is interpreted to be due to climatic change drier environments that included species adapted to such palaeoclimates.
For the first time, our team has been able to retrieve specimens identifiable to taxa, a pattern that not possible from previous workers who claimed to have recovered too sparse specimens to be identifiable to any taxon.
The Upper Manyara Beds as well as Lower Manyara taxonomic composition include aquatic species besides the large terrestrial mammalian fauna retrieved from there. In due regard, the former horizon is attributed to have affinity with Olduvai Bed III components and the latter, older horizon, is attributed to have affinity with upper parts of Bed II times at Olduvai Gorge. The Lower Manyara Beds can be said to have, in relative terms, affinity to species recovered from site RC 11 of the Chiwondo Beds, Malema region in northern Malawi, although the former site may be equable to the terminal age of the latter locality.
Fossil hominid remains; attributable to genus Homo and possibly species Homo erectus have been recovered from two localities, Mk 2 and Mk, along Lower Manyara Beds. On the other hand, stone tools, identified to belong to the Acheulian industrial technocomplex, were recovered from site Mk 4.
All of fossil fauna from Laetoli sites were mostly exfoliated and there shows to be little effect in terms of hydrodynamic sorting of the fossil bones. However, intense carnivore activity is witnessed due to the almost one to one ratio of proximal to distal ends. This is also true for the Lower Manyara Beds locality. Through examination of surface modifications of the fossil fauna, it has been established that there was carnivore consumption of ungulates. There is no evidence of hominid involvement that has to be testified by stone tools.
One of the most important events in human history occurred during the Early Pleistocene: the dispersal of early hominins out of Africa and into Europe and Asia. In Western Europe, the earliest evidences of the genus Homo have been found in the Baza Basin, at the sites of Orce in the SE of the Iberian Peninsula. These sites contain fossils and lithic industry dated approximately as 1.4–1.3 Ma.While hominin remains and artifacts at Orce, as well as the accompanying fauna, have been extensively studied, the properties and evolution of the Early Pleistocene vegetation in the basin remain unknown. The general effect of climate change on the expansion of early hominins from Africa into Eurasia still remains unclear. It is not known if the Early Pleistocene climate changes and the development of glacials periods led to the extirpation of European communities, or if those communities were able to endure and persist through such adverse climatic periods. This open question highlights the need for climate and environmental analyses for the time before, during and after the first presence of Homo in Europe. This PhD thesis contributes to that need by the presentation of the first long pollen record of the Baza Basin, where the oldest hominin sites in Western Europe are found.
Fossils are often anatomically and functionally compared to extant model taxa such as Pan, Gorilla, Pongo and modern Homo sapiens to put the respective fossils into the (taxonomical) context of human evolution. Therefore, knowledge of extant hominid anatomy is necessary as well as knowledge of which traits differ between sexes, populations, (sub-)species and taxa, and whether these differences are pronounced enough to separate respective groups. Dental and mandibular structures have been of particular interest in many paleoanthropological studies, simply due to the fact that these morphological structures are most abundant in the human fossil record.
Various studies have addressed questions regarding taxonomy, variation and sexual dimorphism of hominid taxa with regard to dental and mandibular size. Tooth size, however, has almost exclusively referred to crown size, with little focus on root size. The focus on tooth crowns is partly due to roots being embedded in mandibular bone which makes access difficult. With the help of micro-computed tomography (μCT) it is now possible to render virtual 3D models of dental roots and measure these models without harming the original specimens. In addition, measurements are much more precise using μCT data than previous techniques such as 2D x-rays. The present study used 3D models of 231 (first, second and third) molars and 80 mandibles of 53 Pan troglodytes verus (consisting of individuals form the Tai and Liberia populations), 14 Gorilla sp. and 13 Pongo sp. individuals to investigate molar and mandibular sizes within, and between, taxa and populations with regard to sexual dimorphism, variability and taxonomical value. Molar root size was assessed by applying 7 measurements to each molar. Mandibular size was investigated using three different measurements: overall mandibular size, mandibular robusticity (at each molar position) and 15 linear measurements. Overall mandibular size and root measurements were used to investigate the dental and mandibular size relationship. Furthermore, based on data acquired from great apes, how well fossil mandibles (including their dentition) of Australopithecus africanus, Paranthropus sp. and Homo sp. match one or multiple extant hominid taxa was examined Overall, molar root and mandibular metrics are suitable to differentiate between sexes, populations and taxa. Investigation of 40 (21 molar and 19 mandibular) different measure ments resulted in five common characteristics among Pan, Gorilla and Pongo only: firstly, molar root size sequence in root volume and root surface area (M3 < M1 < M2). Secondly, M2 as the molar with the largest cervical area, root volume, root surface area and mesial root lengths and thirdly, mandibular robusticity is larger in females than in males, yet the difference is not signifficant. Fourthly, mandibular length and premolar width are sexually dimorphic and fifthly, the best factors to discriminate between taxa are bicondyle width and molar root length. There is no generalized answer to the question which molar and/or measurement (dental or mandibular) is best to discriminate between sex or taxa in extant hominids. Moreover, size relationships differ among taxa, depending on the measurement. The overall trend, however, is that Pan is the taxa with the smallest, and Gorilla the largest, mean values. Among Pan populations, Liberian chimpanzees tend to have larger average values compared to Tai chimpanzees, with the exception of mandibular robusticity. The highest percentage of sexual dimorphic measurements is found in Pongo, yet only half of the measurements are statistically different between sexes. African apes are less sexually dimorphic compared to Pongo, and surprisingly, Gorilla is only slightly more dimorphic than Pan. The study also shows that statements and conclusions relating to \mandibular size" should not be generalized: whereas male and female Pongo do not differ significantly in overall mandibular size, they do differ in linear mandibular measurements. Moreover, Gorilla has the overall largest mandible, yet robusticity is higher in Pan, as are some linear measurements. Sexual dimorphism in overall mandibular size does not seem to reflect body mass dimorphism, whereas mandibular size appears to be related to body mass. The same was previously proposed for mandibular robusticity, yet Pan, the smallest taxa, has the most robust mandibular corpus (> Gorilla > Pongo). A substantial amount of molar measurements that positively correlate with (overall) mandibular size was found, but in African apes only. This contrasts with former studies which found no, or weak, correlations between dental and mandibular sizes. Given that the percentage of correlation is highest in Pan, and not present in Pongo, it is proposed that small jaws feature small teeth, rather than large jaws feature large teeth. This proposition assumes a size-threshold from which, when reached, dental and mandibular sizes no longer correlate, as has been previously proposed for the relationship between canine size and mandibular breadth. This assumption is further supported by the fact that the smaller and more robust Tai population shows more significant correlation compared to the less robust and larger Liberia population. Results show that fossil metrics are similar to one or multiple extant hominid taxa, depending on the measurement (dental or mandibular) used for comparison. Subsequently, the assignment to a specific sex depends on the earlier selected extant model taxa. Therefore the study questions whether choosing one model taxa for one fossil, or taxonomical group, is advisable. This study is the first to extensively investigate molar root size in extant hominids and to broadly describe differences in molar root sizes among and between taxa and therefore provides a solid database for future studies. The same applies to mandibular robusticity which has not been investigated as systematically or to such a great extent as in this work. The study specifically shows how complex the search for taxa or sex differentiating molar root and/or mandibular measurements is. Subsequently it shows that generalizations in relation to taxonomical values and statements about sexual dimorphism can be misleading.
In addition, the study contributes to the understanding of intra- and inter-population differences within Pan torglodytes verus. Furthermore, it could be demonstrated that results of a subspecies sample very likely depend on the sample composition, i.e. whether the sample consists of individuals from one or more populations. This study serves as a database for further studies investigating molar root sizes in great apes, whether these studies are investigating various relationships between taxa, population or sex, or as database to investigate functional adaptations or to examine mandibular robusticity and molar root relationships.
Delthyridoid spiriferids are characterized by a global abundance and fast evolution during Silurian and Devonian, and, therefore, are used as important biostratigraphical and palaeobiogeographical tools. In this work, delthyridoid brachiopod faunas from different regions of today’s world, resp., of different palaeobiogeographical units, are compared side-by-side to investigate their phylogenetic relationships and to improve, in a second step, the palaeobiogeography from Late Silurian to Early Eifelian time. A new systematics of Delthyridoidae is established which is more complicated than hitherto assumed. The results of this study are mainly based on direct comparison of articulated and isolated brachiopod shells, external and internal moulds, as well as latex casts and serial sections. The computer supported cladistic analyses have turned out not to be useful due to different kinds of preservation resulting in an incomplete matrix which is insufficient for reliable cladograms. A further problem in terms of cladistical analyses are various convergences during the evolution of spiriferids. Many characters evolved independently from each other at different times in each lineage so that autapomorphies are hardly or not at all recognizable. As a result, families and genera are only definable by a combination of characters rather than by a single or a few autapomorphies. As a new method, 3D reconstruction from serial sections is introduced which made it possible for the first time to compare directly mouldic and shelly material. Preliminary results are presented herein. Statistical analyses of measurements taken from new taxa are made but regarded as a descriptive argument rather than a deciding factor for taxonmy due to incomplete preservation and/or tectonic deformation. Brachiopods, especially type material, from collections of different institutions and museums are studied as well as personal material, whenever possible collected from topotype outcrops. Emended diagnoses, if necessary, from family to species level are given. During this work several new taxa have been erected: 7 new families: Australospiriferidae, Murchisonispiriferidae, Orientospiriferidae, Otospiriferidae, Patriaspiriferidae, Rostrospiriferidae, and Trigonospiriferidae; 6 new genera, 1 of these in open nomenclature: Cyclopterospirifer, Hallispirifer, Parlinispirifer, Murchisonispirifer, Shujiapingensispirifer, and gen. nov. B; and 3 new species: Patriaspirifer merriami, Patriaspirifer johnsoni, and Murchisonispirifer feldmani; 1 taxon is defined as nomen novum: Orientospirifer nakaolingensis wani. In the framework of this project, 2 families: Filispiriferidae and Multispiriferidae; 1 subfamily: Multiplicatispiriferinae, 6 genera, 1 of them in open nomenclature: Frequentispirifer, Leonispirifer, Multiplicatispirifer, Ovetensispirifer, Turcispirifer, and Gen. A; and 9 new species, 3 of them in open nomenclature: Filispirifer hamadae, Leonispirifer leonensis, Multiplicatispirifer foumzguidensis, Oventensispirifer novascotianus, Quiringites arensentiae, Turcispirifer turciae, Multiplicatispirifer cf. foumzguidensis, Quiringites cf. arensentiae, and ?Turcispirifer sp. A which have already been established are also described in this work. The brachiopod faunas studied consist of externally very similar spiriferids which have been identified as same genera, species, or even subspecies in earlier times. These forms are considered as 6 distinct morphotypes Howellella-, Arduspirifer-, Acrospirifer-, Euryspirifer-, Paraspirifer-, and Multiplicatispirifer-like morphotypes, which are briefly introduced. The new systematics is characterized by different clades, the European/North African delthyridoid spiriferid clade, the North American delthyridoid spiriferid clade, the Asian delthyridoid spiriferid clade, the Malvinokaffric delthyridoid spiriferid clade, and the delthyridoid multiplicated spiriferid clade. Each of them is described in a cladistic and in a phylogenetic way. Their phylogenetic relationship sheds new light on palaeobiogeographical interpretations for the different stages from Late Silurian to early Middle Devonian time. A tendency for increasing endemicity is seen until the end of the Early Emsian, which is interrupted by short term regional faunal exchange within a province or within a realm, followed by a loss of endemicity resulting in global distribution of brachiopod genera until the end of Givetian time. The Old World Realm is re-defined due to the lack of phylogenetic relationship between its faunas and subdivided into the European Realm, consisting of the Gondwanan and Avalonian provinces, and the Asian Realm, consisting of the Siberian, Sino, and Mongolian provinces. A reconstruction of Lower Devonian palaeobiographical map is introduced.
Very little is known about the occlusal wear pattern in the Neanderthal posterior dentition. Usually dental wear is closely related to the physical properties of the ingested food, and consequently can be used to obtain information about diet. Neanderthal dietary reconstructions have been mostly based on the analysis of accompanying faunal remains and isotopic signatures of bones and tooth enamel, suggesting that they exploited larger portions of animal proteins from large and medium-sized herbivores. Probably these studies may do not reflect the bulk diet, tending to underestimate plant consumption and to overestimate meat consumption. In the present work the occlusal wear pattern of maxillary molars of Homo neanderthalensis (N=19) and early Homo sapiens (N=12)have been analyzed, applying non-destructive methods based on virtual three-dimensional polygonal models generated from surface scanning of dental casts. The sample groups occupied different geographical areas at different chronological times. The 3D digital tooth models were analyzed using the “Occlusal Fingerprint Analysis” (OFA) method (Kullmer et al. 2009), describing and quantifying the occlusal wear pattern derived from two wear facet angles (dip and dip direction), wear facet area and occlusal relief index (ORI). The OFA method provides information about the dynamics of the occlusal relationships and their function, permitting the reconstruction of the mandibular movements responsible for the contacts created during the chewing cycle. Since jaw movements and diet are closely related, the results obtained, can be used to interpret the diet of the two Pleistocene hominin species. In order to evaluate how dietary differences influence the occlusal wear pattern, upper molars of modern hunter-gatherers (N=42) with known diet and different dietary habits, have been included in the sample and compared with those of Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens. Results show that within the modern hunter-gatherers sample, the occlusal wear pattern of carnivorous populations differs from those who relied on a mixed-diet. In particular, the study of relative facet areas clearly distinguish meat-eaters from mixed-diet hunter-gatherers, while ORI results and wear facet inclinations (dip angle) seem to reflect directly the abrasiveness of the diet, including the influence of exogenous materials during food preparation. The Neanderthal occlusal wear pattern is characterized by an ecogeographic variation, suggesting the exploitation of different food resources. In particular Neanderthals who inhabited relatively warm environments of southern Europe and the Near East exhibit an occlusal wear pattern different from those of meat-eaters hunter-gatherers from tempered and cooler regions, displaying some features similar to those of Bushmen. These results suggest the exploitation of a broad variety of food sources. The analysis of the occlusal wear pattern in Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens who inhabited Europe during the cooler Oxygen Isotope Stage 3 (OIS3) shows many similarities between the two hominid species. These results indicate the exploitation of similar and low-diversified food sources, based mostly on the consumption of animal proteins, as suggested through the clear similarities with the wear patterns found in modern meat-eaters hunter-gatherers. In both studied groups, Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens the occlusal wear pattern is characterized by high ORI and dip angle values, suggesting the intake of a low-abrasive diet, probably due to the absence of sophisticated food preparation techniques introducing external silica grains, e.g. from soil (grinding of seeds) or plant cells, as those, seen in modern hunter-gatherer populations. The analysis of the occlusal fingerprints in Neanderthal and early European Homo sapiens upper molars suggests that both species followed very similar adaptive dietary strategies, based on a distinctive versatility and flexibility in the daily diet, depending on availability of resources according to environmental circumstances.
The development of benthic foraminiferal assemblages during the past 6,000 yrs was investigated in Holocene sediment cores from three carbonate platforms (Turneffe Islands, Lighthouse Reef, and Glovers Reef) of Belize, Central America. Foraminiferal assemblages and their diversity were determined in different time periods to identify their dependence on environmental factors, such as lagoonal age, lagoonal depth, water circulation, substrate, bottom-water temperature, and salinity. Geochemical proxies (δ18O and δ13C), obtained from the common larger foraminifer Archaias angulatus were used to estimate Holocene seasonal BW-temperatures and climate variabilities. A total of 51 samples were taken from 12 vibracores for taxonomic determination and 10 to 15 subsamples of 32 tests of Archaias angulatus were used for stable oxygen and carbon isotope analyses. Based on cluster analyses, seven benthic foraminiferal assemblages are distinguished during the Holocene. The three platforms exhibit characteristic differences in benthic foraminiferal fauna and diversity, which are controlled by their respective environments during the last 6,000 yrs. Turneffe Islands has four benthic foraminiferal assemblages, which are typical for restricted lagoons with fluctuating salinity. Lighthouse Reef is inhabited by two benthic foraminifera associations, which are characteristic of high water exchange with the surrounding ocean and clear waters. Glovers Reef is characterized by two benthic foraminiferal assemblages, which occur in deeper lagoons with slow water circulation. In general, during the Holocene, the highest mean diversity, evenness, and richness of benthic foraminifera were found in the Turneffe Islands and the lowest occurred at Glovers Reef. The foraminiferal faunas of the Lighthouse and Glovers Reefs had been in a “Diversification Stage” since 6,000 yrs, whereas the foraminiferal fauna of the Turneffe Islands reflects the development from a “Colonisation” (~4,000 yrs BP) to a “Diversification Stage” (~2,000 yrs to present time). Lagoonal depth, water circulation, substrate, and BW-temperature have higher influence on foraminiferal diversity as compared to lagoonal size and age. The negative correlation between diversity and lagoonal depth is based on differences in light intensity and substrate. In contrast to Lighthouse Reef, the Turneffe Islands and Glovers Reef show decreasing diversity of benthic foraminifera with increasing lagoon depth, due to finer sediment, turbid waters and/or dense mangrove growth, which reduce the light intensity and the number of species. Water Circulation also affected the benthic foraminifera modes of living and their diversity during the last 6,000 yrs. Increasing abundances of infaunal taxa refer to restricted circulation and/or lower oxygen conditions, as assumed for the Turneffe Islands and Glovers Reef. Increasing abundances of epifaunal foraminifera, as observed in the Lighthouse Reef indicate better circulation and/or higher oxygen conditions. Holocene BW-temperature reconstructions based on δ18O of single Archaias angulatus tests do not correspond to typical Holocene climate models of the Caribbean. In the Belize area, mean BW-temperature trends indicate local climate variations. A decrease of δ13C values during the last 1,000 yrs could be related to the “Suess Effect”. The seasonal BW-temperature variations within single large benthic foraminifera tests correspond to present-day temperature fluctuations in the lagoons, and indicate higher temperatures in Summer and Autumn and lower temperatures in Winter and Spring.
In vorliegender Studie wurde lebend und tot gesammeltes Schalenmaterial der Europäischen Flussperlmuschel Margaritifera margaritifera verschiedener Lokalitäten in Schweden, Finnland und Deutschland (bzw. Frankreich) sklerochronologisch und isotopengeochemisch untersucht. Sauerstoffisotopen-Zeitreihen, trendbereinigte und standardisierte stabile Kohlenstoffisotopen-Zeitreihen (SSCI) sowie jährliche Zuwachsraten (SGI-Zeitreihen) jeder der acht Populationen sind zu Compound-Chronologien zusammengefasst und auf Zusammenhänge mit Temperatur, Sonnenflecken-Zyklen und Niederschlag untersucht sowie auf Korrelationen mit verschiedenen Klimaindizes (z.B. dem Dipol der Meeres-Oberflächenwasser Temperatur-Anomalien im Nordatlantik, NADP-SST, und der Nordatlantischen Oszillation, NAO) getestet worden. Im Vergleich ergaben sich für die geglätteten Zeitreihen (25-Jahresfilter) Korrelationskoeffizienten von r = 0,57 (SGI Master-Chronologie und NAO) bzw. r = 0,59 (Master-Chronologie) und NADP-SST. Obwohl weder Isotopendaten noch Zuwachschronologien der Muscheln auf hochfrequenten Signalen hohe Korrelationen mit instrumentellen Messdaten aufweisen, sind dekadische Klimaoszillationen deutlich repräsentiert. Mit zunehmendem Lebensalter nimmt der Schalenzuwachs exponentiell ab. Gleichzeitig nähern sich die d13C-Werte der Schale dem d13CDIC-Wert des Wassers, der bei den hier untersuchten Lokalitäten zwischen -9,3 ‰ und -12,7 ‰ lag. Erst im hohen Lebensalter findet also die Schalenbildung nahezu im kohlenstoffisotopischen Gleichgewicht mit dem umgebenden Medium statt. In der Jugend der Tiere hingegen wirken sich lokalitätsspezifische Trends aus. Extrinsische Faktoren führen zu drei Mustern: 1) Trends hin zu stärker negativen d13C-Werten (um etwa -4,5 ‰) in den Bächen Nuortejaurbäcken (NJB) und Grundträsktjärnbäcken (GTB), 2) Trends hin zu weniger stark negativen d13C-Werten (um etwa +4,5 ‰) in den großen Flüssen (GJ: Görjeån, NWS: Tarn/Frankreich) und 3) Schwankungen um etwa ±1,5 ‰ um einen Mittelwert (RG: Regnitz). Der Einfluss auf die d13C-Trends könnte möglicherweise in Veränderungen der Bioproduktivität begründet sein, da sich diese unmittelbar auf den DIC-Pool des umgebenden Milieus und des Habitats auswirkt. In den Sauerstoffisotopen spiegelte sich die geographische Herkunft des untersuchten Materials wider. Die Chronologien der am nördlichsten gelegenen Populationen wiesen d18OMittelwerte von -11,5 ‰ (GJ), bzw. -9,5 ‰ (NJB, GTB) auf, die RG-Chronologie von -7,9 ‰ und die Zeitreihe der NWS von -5,3 ‰. Im Gegensatz zu anderen Arbeiten zeigten die untersuchten Individuen jedoch keinen statistischen Zusammenhang mit annuellen Temperaturdaten. Als beeinflussende Faktoren kommen die Schneeschmelze und die isotopengeochemische Ausprägung des Habitats (See, Fluss, Bach) in Frage. Eine sehr hohe Korrelation von r = -0,74 (25-Jahresfilter) wurde zwischen der Görjeån-Chronologie (d18OAragonit) und Niederschlagsraten für das in der Nähe des Flusses gelegene Jokkmokk festgestellt.
Die drei Atolle Glovers Reef, Lighthouse Reef und Turneffe Islands vor der belizischen Küste im Karibischen Meer unterscheiden sich in Geomorphologie, Lagunentiefe, Sedimentbeschaffenheit, Mangroven- und Seegrasbewuchs, Wellen- und Strömungseinfluss sowie in ihren Sedimentationsraten und ihrem Entstehungsalter. Um herauszufinden, ob die Bivalven-Vergesellschaftungen verschiedener Lagunenzonen diese Unterschiede widerspiegeln, wurden 32 bis 44 rezente Sedimentproben auf jedem Atoll entnommen (Gesamtprobenzahl: 111). Deren Datensatz von insgesamt 32 122 Bivalvenschalen wurde anschließend Q-Mode-Cluster-Analysen unterzogen. Neben der Verteilung charakteristischer Arten wurde auch die Verteilung von Bivalven unterschiedlicher Lebens- und Ernährungsweise untersucht. Chione cancellata, ein flach grabender Suspensionsfresser, besiedelt bevorzugt (1) flache, wellen- und strömungsbeeinflusste Lagunenzonen. Die Sedimente (2) sehr hoch energetischer Flachwasserbereiche enthalten zudem hohe Anteile tiefer grabender Suspensionsfresser der Gattung Ervilia. Im (3) Rückriffbereich und am Atollrand sind tief grabende, Detritus fressende Telliniden häufig. Gouldia cerina, wie Chione ein flach grabender Suspensionsfresser, ist typisch für (4) geschlossene Flachwasserbereiche, während die Chemosymbionten-tragende, ebenfalls flach grabende Parvilucina sp. A. vorwiegend in (5) geschlossenen, tiefen Lagunenzonen vorkommt. Charakteristisch für (6) Mangrovengebiete ist Crassinella lunulata, ein sehr flach grabender Suspensionsfresser. Die Anteile taphonomischer Signaturen auf den Schalen, wie Bohrspuren, Inkrustationen, Fragmentierung und Abrasion sowie Diversität, Evenness und Richness sind auf Glovers Reef am höchsten und nehmen über Lighthouse Reef nach Turneffe Islands ab. Da in die gleiche Richtung zunehmende Sedimentationsraten auf den drei Atollen zu verzeichnen sind (GISCHLER 2003), ist vermutlich der abnehmende Effekt des Time-averaging für diesen Trend verantwortlich. Neben der rezenten Fauna wurden auch die Bivalven aus Vibrationsbohrkernen (ein Kern von jedem Atoll) untersucht. Die fossilen Bivalven-Vergesellschaftungen der inneren Lagunen von Glovers Reef, Lighthouse Reef und Turneffe Islands zeigen seit deren Entstehung eine für das jeweilige Atoll typische Fauna, die sich seit ~7000 YBP weiter entwickelte. Sie reflektieren damit die bereits im Anfangsstadium charakteristischen Unterschiede der drei Atolle.
Untersucht wurde die spätpleistozäne und holozäne Diatomeenflora aus drei Teilgebieten der westlichen Ostsee, dem Kattegat, der Kieler Bucht und der Pommerschen Bucht. Die Ergebnisse bestätigen die hervorragende Eignung der Diatomeen als Indikatororganismen in der Paläoökologie. Anhand der Mikroflora war es möglich, die wechselhafte Geschichte der verschiedenen Ostsee-Teilgebiete detailliert nachzuvollziehen. Es konnten Lage und Ausdehnung der Paläogewässer während der verschiedenen Stadien der Ostsee-Entwicklung sowie verschiedene abiotische Faktoren der Paläoumwelt - Salinität, pH-Wert, Trophie, Temperatur und Wassertiefe - rekonstruiert werden. Zur Rekonstruktion von Salinität, Trophie und pH-Wert kamen erstmals verschiedene Indikationssysteme - der Halobienindex nach ZIEMANN (1971), das Trophie-Indikationssystem nach HOFMANN (1994) und die pH-Rekonstruktion nach ARZET (1987) - zur Anwendung. Kattegat Der Schwerpunkt der Untersuchung lag auf dem südwestlich der Insel Anholt gelegenen Teil des Kattegats. In den 22 Kernprofilen konnten insgesamt 596 Diatomeentaxa registriert werden. In den Ablagerungen des Spätglazials waren im gesamten Untersuchungsgebiet keine silifizierten Mikrofossilien nachweisbar. Die anhand der seismoakustischen Untersuchungen aufgestellte Gliederung der holozänen Sedimente in die Abschnitte Holozän 1 (H1), Holozän 2 (H2) und Holozän 3 (H3) konnte durch die Analyse der Diatomeenfloren bestätigt werden. Die Ablagerungen des Sedimentabschnitts H1 entstanden während einer Transgressionsphase. Das in Alleröd und Jüngerer Dryas trockengefallene Untersuchungsgebiet wurde zu Beginn des Präboreals vollständig transgrediert. Durch das Auftreten halobionter Diatomeentaxa konnte der Beginn der Transgression im Untersuchungsgebiet auf den Anfang des Präboreals und ein Alter von 10.200 Jahren BP datiert werden. Für die Hauptphase der Transgression wurde ein Alter von rund 9.700 bis 9.300 Jahren BP ermittelt. In Übereinstimmung mit den seismoakustischen Befunden und den Ergebnissen der Makrofossil-Analyse konnte der Sedimentabschnitt H2 als Ablagerung aus dem Mündungsgebiet eines Fließgewässers identifiziert und auf ein Alter von rund 9.300 bis 8.300 Jahren BP datiert werden; wahrscheinlich entwässerte der Ancylus-See zumindest zeitweilig über den großen Belt in diesen Abschnitt des Paläokattegats. Die Diatomeenflora indiziert eine überwiegend durch den Einstrom von Süßwasser beeinflusste Paläoumwelt und ein alkalisches und eutrophes Milieu. Das charakteristische Merkmal der Thanathozönosen ist der hohe Anteil an allochthonen Schalen. Die Analyse der autökologischen Präferenzen zeigt, dass durchschnittlich 30 % der Taxa ursprünglich aus anderen Gewässertypen stammen. Mithilfe der Diatomeenflora konnte der Sedimentabschnitt H2 in drei Abschnitte untergliedert werden. Der Abschnitt H2a wurde während der Bildung einer Landzunge abgelagert, die die Mündung des Fließgewässers vom Paläokattegat trennte. Die Thanathozönosen indizieren die zunehmende Beeinflussung durch den Einstrom von Süßwasser. Der Abschnitt H2b wurde vor rund 8.800 Jahren BP deponiert, während die Landzunge ihre größte Ausdehnung und Isolationskraft erreichte. Die Diatomeenflora indiziert die maximale Beeinflussung durch den Zustrom von Süßwasser. Im Sedimentabschnitt H2c indizieren die Thanathozönosen die Verlagerung der Landzunge infolge küstendynamischer Prozesse und eine zunehmende Beeinflussung durch Meerwasser. Der Sedimentabschnitt H3, der während einer erneuten Transgression vor ca. 8.300 Jahren BP deponiert wurde, ist in weiten Bereichen vollständig frei von silifizierten Mikrofossilien. Eine autochthone, aus überwiegend halobionten Taxa zusammengesetzte Diatomeenflora ließ sich lediglich in einem der Kernprofile nachweisen. Das charakteristische Taxon der Transgressionsfloren in den Sedimentabschnitten H1 und H3 ist Paralia sulcata. Typisch sind des Weiteren Actinoptychus senarius, Cymatosira belgica, Dimeregramma minor, Ehrenbergia granulosa und Plagiogramma staurophorum. Kieler Bucht Aus der Kieler Bucht stand ein Kernprofil zur Verfügung. In diesem Profil konnten insgesamt 344 Diatomeentaxa nachgewiesen werden. Die brackischen Ablagerungen entstanden in der Mastogloia-Phase und konnten mithilfe der Diatomeenflora in zwei Abschnitte - Mastogloia 1 (M1) und Mastogloia 2 (M2) - untergliedert werden. Der Sedimentabschnitt M1 wurde deponiert, während das Milieu des Paläogewässers durch sporadische Ingressionen über den Großen Belt beeinflusst wurde. Die Diatomeenflora indiziert einen Paläosalzgehalt von maximal 9 Promille, ein eutrophes und alkalisches Paläomilieu und eine geringe Wassertiefe. Die Veränderungen im Artgefüge der Thanathozönosen innerhalb des Sedimentabschnitts M2 belegen einen kontinuierlichen Anstieg der Salinität um mindestens 8 Promille und das Auftreten starker Strömungen. Die Sedimentation erfolgte während des Übergangs vom brackigen Mastogloia-Stadium zur marinen Littorina-Phase. Mithilfe der Diatomeenflora konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass sich in dem Paläogewässer der Kieler Bucht frühestens vor 7.100 Jahren BP marine Verhältnisse etablierten. Die Flora indiziert einen Anstieg des Paläosalzgehalts auf mindestens 17 und maximal 30 Promille. In Übereinstimmung mit den Ergebnissen der Sedimentanalyse konnten die Ablagerungen der Littorina-Phase anhand der Diatomeenflora in zwei Subzonen - Littorina 1 (L1) und Littorina 2 (L2) - untergliedert werden. Während das Artgefüge in dem Abschnitt L1 auf große Strömungsgeschwindigkeiten während der Sedimentation hinweist, belegt die Flora in dem Abschnitt L2 eine deutliche Abnahme der Strömungsintensität. Pommersche Bucht In den neun Kernprofilen aus der Pommerschen Bucht konnten insgesamt 265 Diatomeentaxa identifiziert werden. In Übereinstimmung mit den Ergebnissen der geologischen Untersuchungen zeigt die Diatomeenflora, dass sich der südliche Abschnitt der Pommerschen Bucht nach dem Rückzug des Eisschildes bis in das Atlantikum hinein unabhängig vom nördlichen Teil entwickelte; erst während der Littorina-Phase wurde auch der südliche Abschnitt transgrediert. Mithilfe der Diatomeenflora wurde belegt, dass sich im Spätglazial vor ca. 12.000 Jahren BP im Süden der Pommerschen Bucht ein alkalischer, meso- bis schwach eutropher Süßwassersee etablierte. Die Thanathozönosen indizieren erhebliche Milieuunterschiede zwischen diesem See und dem Baltischen Eisstausee, der zeitweise den nördlichen Abschnitt der Pommerschen Bucht bedeckte. Im frühen Holozän entwickelte sich im südlichen Abschnitt der Pommerschen Bucht an gleicher Position wie im Spätglazial wiederum ein Süßwassersee, während der nördliche Abschnitt der Pommerschen Bucht vom Ancylus-See bedeckt war. Die Diatomeenfloren belegen, dass sich die Umweltbedingungen in beiden Paläogewässern ähnelten; sowohl im Norden als auch im Süden lag ein alkalisches und überwiegend eutrophes Milieu vor. Der Beginn der Mastogloia-Phase ist durch einen drastischen Wechsel im Artgefüge der Diatomeenflora gekennzeichnet; Taxa mit höherer Salinitätstoleranz, z. B. Epithemia turgida und Diploneis didyma, ersetzten die rein oligohalobe Ancylus-Flora. Die Veränderungen indizieren einen schwachen aber deutlichen Anstieg der Salinität im Norden der Pommerschen Bucht. Das charakteristische Taxon der Littorina-Phase ist die polyhalobe Planktonart Thalassionema nitzschioides. Es indiziert einen Anstieg des Paläosalzgehalts auf mindestens 13 Promille. Des Weiteren belegen die Diatomeen den stetig steigenden Wasserspiegel zu Beginn der Littorina-Phase. Chrysophyceen-Zysten, Chaetoceros-Sporen und die Skelette des Silicoflagellaten Distephanus speculum stellen in der Pommerschen Bucht wichtige Leitfossilien dar. Während Chrysophyceen-Zysten typisch für die Sedimente der Mastogloia-Phase sind, haben Chaetoceros-Sporen und Distephanus speculum charakteristischerweise ihren Verbreitungsschwerpunkt in den Ablagerungen des Littorina-Meers.