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Shaped by some of the most dramatic tectonic events of the Cenozoic, the parts of southern and eastern Asia that have become known as the Oriental faunal region comprise vast areas of great geological complexity and ecological diversity. One of the four major groups of terrestrial elapid snakes in this region is the genus Bungarus. These nocturnal and predominantly ophiophagous snakes are widely known as kraits and are an important cause of snakebite mortality throughout their wide range that extends from Afghanistan to Vietnam and eastern China, and south to the Indonesian islands of Java and Bali. Although present on Borneo, kraits have not been found on any island of the Philippines, nor on Lesser Sunda Islands east of Bali. Despite their medical significance and the great importance of Bungarus toxins as tools in neuropharmacology, krait systematics and taxonomy have remained largely unstudied. Twelve species of Bungarus were recognized at the beginning of the present study. Many of these are rare in collections, and most aspects of their biology are unknown. While some species are highly distinct, most kraits are conservative morphologically, rendering molecular methods invaluable for the study of their diversity and biogeography. This study is the first to address the relationships within Bungarus and the historical biogeography of kraits based on molecular evidence. I inferred phylogeographic relationships based on analyses of new nucleotide sequences of the entire mitochondrial cytochrome b gene of 51 kraits and partial NADH dehydrogenase subunit 4 sequences of 40 kraits which I analyzed together with a representative sample of 32 published elapid and non-elapid outgroup taxa using Bayesian, maximum-likelihood, maximum-parsimony and neighbor-joining methods. I then used the recovered phylogeny to investigate the evolution of selected morphological characters and, together with collections-based geographical distribution information, in dispersal-vicariance analyses with models of variable taxonomic and biogeographic complexity. The phylogenetic analyses demonstrate that the current taxonomy of kraits does not adequately represent either the relationships or the genetic diversity in this genus. In contrast, I identified monophyletic groups that are congruent with recognized biogeographic units as well as extensive ecomorph evolution and morphologically cryptic speciation. The following additional conclusions are collectively supported by the mitochondrial phylogeny and morphological as well as biochemical synapomorphies: (1) Kraits are monophyletic with respect to the remaining taxa of the Elapidae; (2) Bungarus flaviceps and Bungarus bungaroides form the monophyletic sister clade of a clade formed by B. fasciatus, black-and-white-banded, and uniformly black taxa; (3) the remaining taxa are divisible into two sister clades, the South Asian species (Bungarus sindanus (Bungarus caeruleus, Bungarus ceylonicus)) vs. Himalayan, Burmese, Southeast and East Asian taxa; (4) within the latter, Burmese taxa form the sister clade to Southeast and East Asian taxa; (5) the widespread and medically significant species Bungarus candidus and Bungarus multicinctus are paraphyletic. The results of this study highlight the importance of vicariant geological events and sea level fluctuations for the cladogenesis of kraits. Events of particular importance in the evolution of kraits include the uplift of the Indo-Burman ranges (Arakan-Naga Hills) which separated black-and-white banded kraits in India and Southeast Asia, and the uplift of mountain ranges in Yunnan, China (e.g., the Gaoligong Shan), which coincided with lineage separation in two distantly related clades of kraits. Alternating dispersal and vicariance events due to Pleistocene climatic and sea level changes have caused complex phylogeographic patterns in kraits in Southeast Asia. Zones of contact between closely related evolutionary lineages of the B. candidus complex are identified in Thailand, Vietnam, and southern China (Hainan). Within this complex, two main clades are revealed. One includes populations from the Southeast Asian mainland and is in contact with B. multicinctus in southern China. The other consists of populations from Thailand, southern Vietnam, Java, and Bali. The phylogeny as well as genetic distances suggest a scenario in which a Pleistocene southward dispersal of B. candidus to Sumatra, Java, and Bali during times of low sea levels was temporarily interrupted by vicariant events (rising sea levels, especially flooding of the Malacca Strait between Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, and of the Bali Strait between Java and Bali). In this context, the close phylogenetic relationship between haplotypes from southern Vietnam and those from Java and Bali suggests that "southern" B. candidus dispersed directly via colonization of the widely receded South Chinese Sea, and not by taking a detour via the Malay Peninsula and Thailand, which were already inhabited by other populations of B. candidus. Using these phylogenetic estimates as the framework for a study on the diversity and evolution of krait venom components, I applied biochemical and molecular genetic approaches to identify and quantify polypeptide and protein toxins in krait venom, focusing on the distribution and molecular evolution of alpha-bungarotoxin, an irreversible competitive antagonist of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors with an exceptionally high applied significance as a receptor probe. I was specifically interested in the medically relevant question of intraspecific and interspecific variability in toxin diversity, and whether receptor-binding postsynaptic toxins evolve at rates different from those of presynaptic neurotoxins like beta-bungarotoxin, which act by destroying the nerve terminal and are believed to exhibit hypervariable functional diversification due to an accelerated mode of molecular evolution. In the context of this question, I isolated and purified the major lethal neurotoxins from B. candidus venoms by sequential steps of liquid chromatography for structural and functional characterization studies. Cloning and sequence analysis of toxin-coding genomic DNAs showed that the gene encoding the alpha-bungarotoxin alanine-31 variant, originally isolated from B. multicinctus venom, is widely present and highly conserved in multiple populations of B. candidus and is expressed as the principal postsynaptic neurotoxin at least in Javan B. candidus. In addition to the widespread presence of genomic DNAs encoding the alpha-bungarotoxin alanine-31 variant, the present study also revealed the partial genes of three novel alpha-bungarotoxin isoforms in addition to the previously known alanine-31 and valine-31 variants, all of which share an invariant exon 3 coding region. While alpha-bungarotoxin is the principal postsynaptic neurotoxin of Taiwanese B. multicinctus and Javan B. candidus, the main postsynaptic neurotoxin of Thai B. candidus both by quantity and lethality was a novel polypeptide of similar toxicity with a mass of 8030 Da and 73 amino acid residues, whose characterization at the genetic and protein levels revealed a novel subgroup of krait neurotoxins, here named alpha-delta-bungarotoxins and represented by four sequences from Bungarus caeruleus and B. candidus. alpha-delta-Bungarotoxins share high sequence homology with alpha-bungarotoxins but the purified, 8030 Da alpha-delta-bungarotoxin-1 exhibits only reversible, low affinity binding to nicotinic receptors and high site-selectivity for the acetylcholine binding site at the alpha-delta-subunit interface of the receptor. These properties render alpha-delta-bungarotoxin not only the first snake long-chain neurotoxin with reversible binding and binding-site selectivity, but also an exciting natural tool with which to address structure-function relationships at the subunit interfaces of the human receptor. The results of comparisons of the number of non-synonymous nucleotide substitutions per nonsynonymous site (dN) to the number of synonymous nucleotide substitutions per synonymous site (dS) strongly suggest that positive selection is acting on exon 2 of the alpha-bungarotoxin and probably also of the alpha-delta-bungarotoxin genes. In addition, the numbers of nucleotide substitutions per site of intron (dI) compared to the dS value of the toxin-coding exon regions provide strong evidence for accelerated molecular evolution in exon 2 of alpha-delta-bungarotoxins —whose value of dI is only one-eighth of the value of dS—whereas the hypothesis of accelerated evolution is rejected for 13 unique genomic DNAs encoding five alpha-bungarotoxin isoforms from B. candidus and B. multicinctus....
1. Ein junger männlicher Steinmarder lernte in kurzer Zeit das Öffnen einer Schiebetür. Vor die Aufgabe gestellt, einen diese Tür verschließenden Riegel zu drehen, versagte er. Auch eine sekundäre Lösung, die auf dem Wege über eine Passivdressur angestrebt wurde, erfolgte nicht, ebensowenig wurde eine optische Orientierung auf Grund der Riegelstellung beobachtet. 2. Kleine Umwege in horizontaler und vertikaler Richtung wurden gut, in primärer Bewältigung der Aufgabe, genommen. 3. Eine einfache Ortsdressur (auf einen der Ecktöpfe einer dargebotenen Reihe von vier gleichen Töpfen) wurde unter Benutzung olfaktorischer Hilfen in kurzer Zeit zu dem gewünschten Erfolg gebracht. Eine kompliziertere Ortsdressur (Wahl des zweiten Topfes von links aus einer Reihe von fünf gleichen Töpfen) führte, bei strenger Vermeidung olfaktorischer Orientierungsmöglichkeiten, erst nach einer größeren Anzahl (etwa 220) Versuchen zum Ziele. Die Erlernung erfolgte auf Grund kinästhetischer, vor allem aber optischer Reize. Der Vorgang der optischen Gliederung der Reihe konnte genau festgestellt werden. 4. Ein mehrjähriger Iltisrüde wurde hinsichtlich der sich aus allgemeinen anatomischen und biologischen Unterschieden ergebenden Eigenheiten im psychischen Verhalten beobachtet und untersucht. Es ergaben sich bei einem Vergleich mit dem Steinmarder eine Reihe wichtiger artspezifischer Differenzen, die sich zumeist auf den Unterschied Bodentier-Klettertier zurückführen ließen. 5. Auch der Iltis lernte das Öffnen einer Schiebetür. Im horizontalen Umwegversuch wurden recht gute primäre, vor allem aber auch sekundäre Lösungen festgestellt. Auf Grund der sekundären Lösungen wird eine starke Entwicklung des kinästhetischen Sinnes angenommen. 6. Eine Helligkeitsdressur bei alternativer Wahl scheiterte an der Unmöglichkeit, die hauptsächlich auf der Intensität der kinästhetischen Empfindungen beruhenden Tendenzen einer ortsbedingten Wahl auszuschalten. 7. Eine multiple Ortsdressur, der des Steinmarders entsprechend, gelang, obwohl durch Hinzunahme von insgesamt vier neuen Aufstellungsarten die Aufgabe für den Iltis nicht unbedeutend erschwert wurde. Die große Bedeutung des Ortskriteriums für das Tier wurde im Verlaufe dieser Versuche besonders deutlich und konnte exakt nachgewiesen werden. 8. Eine Helligkeitsdressur bei multipler Wahl gelang. Ebenso konnte bei einer Rot-Blaudressur Blauwahl erreicht werden. 9. Im Anschluß an die vorhergehende Dressur kam Blauwahl nunmehr auch bei Anwendung der Alternativmethode zustande. 10. Es konnte gezeigt werden, daß die in 8 und 9 dargestellten Resultate auf Grund einer helligkeits-, nicht farb-bedingten Orientierung zustande kamen. Färb- und Graupapiere, die dem zur Dressur verwandten Heringschen Blau Nr. 12 helligkeitsverwandt waren, wurden mit diesem verwechselt. Dieser Befund läßt den Schluß auf das Vorhandensein einer Farbenschwäche oder Farbenblindheit zu. 11. Es wurde festgestellt, daß der Iltis sowohl in orts- als auch in helligkeitsbedingter Wahl sich nach relativen Kriterien richtete.
Araneae : cinquième série ; précédée d'un essai sur l'évolution souterraine et son déterminisme
(1931)
11 mit Salix spp. assoziierte Gallmücken-Arten (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae: Oligotrophini) wurden einer morphometrischen Analyse unterzogen. Dabei fanden 18 allgemeine und 10 geschlechtsspezifische Merkmale Berücksichtigung. Von sechs Arten wurden darüber hinaus 10 larvale Merkmale morphometrisch erfasst. Insgesamt wurden 325 Imagines und 45 Larven vermessen. Die Ergebnisse lassen eine neue systematische Einteilung auf Gattungs- und Artebene zu. Neben der morphologisch und biologisch bereits vorher eindeutig zu differenzierenden Gattung Iteomyia ist eine Aufteilung des verbleibenden Artenschwarms in drei Gruppen erkennen. Als wesentliche trennende Merkmale zeigen sich Antennen und geschlechtspezifische Charakteristika wie die Länge des Ovipositors bei den Imagines und die Ausbildung der für die Larven charakteristischen Spatula. Die morphologische Differenzierung findet ihre Entsprechung in qualitativen, biologischen Merkmalen der Tiere. Aus diesem Grund wird die Aufteilung der auf Salix spp. gallenbildenden Cecidomyiidae in mindestens vier Gattungen vorgeschlagen. Die Gattung Iteomyia behält ihren aktuellen Status und wird von der einzigen Art repräsentiert, die auf der Blattflächen von Weiden Gallen erzeugt (I. capreae). Die Dasineura-Gruppe enthält die sich in Blattrandgallen entwickelnden Gallmücken (D. auritae, D. marginemtorquens und D. roskami) sowie die inquilinen Arten, die zur Verpuppung einen Kokon anlegen und mindestens zwei Generationen im Jahr realisieren (in der vorliegenden Arbeit untersucht: D. schreiteri). In Rabdophaga werden jene Taxa integriert, die sich im Sproßbereich ihrer Wirtspflanzen unmittelbar unter der Rindeentwickeln, ohne ausgeprägte Gallenbildungen auszulösen (in der vorliegenden Arbeit untersucht: R. saliciperda und R. repentiperda) Ihre Entwicklung ist univoltin, die Verpuppung erfolgt ohne Anfertigung eines Kokons. In einer noch genauer zu definierenden vierten Gruppierung (hier provisorisch mit dem Gattungsnamen „Salicicola“ bezeichnet) fasst die Arten zusammen, die an den Sprossen ihrer Wirtspflanzen deutliche Gallenbildungen hervorrufen. Auch sie sind univoltin und verpuppen sich im Sproßbereich ohne Anfertigung eines Kokons. Die Zuordnung des in der vorliegenden Studie nicht untersuchten Artenkomplexes, den Knospengallenerzeugern, ist noch nicht geklärt. Eine endgültige Klärung der hier vorgeschlagenen systematischen Einteilung kann nur das Ergebnis einer umfassenden Revision sämtlicher mit Salix spp. assoziierten Gallmücken sein. Die polyphage Weidenrosenmücke Rabdophaga rosaria lässt sich mit Hilfe einer Hauptkomponenten-Analyse morphometrisch in vier Cluster gruppieren, die in der systematischen Aufteilung der von ihnen genutzten Salix spp. (alba, aurita/caprea/cinerea, purpurea und repens) ihre Entsprechung finden. Die festgestellte Auftrennung der Weidenrosenmücke illustriert anschaulich die Idee der sequentiellen Evolution, nach der aufgrund der engen phänologischen, biochemischen und physiologischen Interaktionen zwischen spezialisierten Phytophagen und ihren Wirtspflanzen eine schrittweise hochgradige Anpassung der beteiligten Organismengruppen zu erwarten ist. Wie im vorliegenden Fall steht am Ende solch einer Entwicklung die Herausbildung sogenannter Biotypen, deren Eigenständigkeit durch morphologische Unterschiede untermauert wird. Die Cecidomyiidae Iteomyia capreae ruft je nach genutzter Wirtspflanzenart verschiedene Gallenformen mit unterschiedlichem Verteilungsmuster auf den Blattflächen hervor. Die sich in den beiden Gallentypen entwickelnden Tiere unterscheiden sich morphologisch und lassen sich in Abhängigkeit der von ihnen genutzten Wirtspflanze ähnlich wie Rabdophaga rosaria in zwei Biotypen einteilen. Die auf Salix caprea lebenden Tiere weisen eine geringere Gallenzahl pro Blatt auf als die auf S. cinerea lebenden Tiere. Die beiden Biotypen zeigen signifikante Unterschiede hinsichtlich ihrer Fertilität. Der S. caprea-Typus, der seine einkammrigen Gallen über die gesamte Blattfläche verteilt, zeigt eine höhere Fruchtbarkeit als der S. cinerea-Typus, der ein- bis mehrkammrige Gallen entlang des Blattmittelnervs anlegt. Gleichzeitig zeigen sich signifikante Unterschiede in der durch Parasitoiden hervorgerufenen Mortalität. Die kleinen, über die gesamte Blattfläche verstreuten Gallen des S. caprea-Typs weisen eine geringere Parasitierungsrate auf als die großen, am Mittelnerv konzentrierten Gallen des S. cinerea-Typs. Von acht der elf untersuchten Gallmückenspezies wurde der Feindartenkomplex analysiert. Zu diesem Zweck wurden an 30 Standorten in Deutschland und Dänemark über 7500 Gallen gesammelt und in Zucht genommen. Aufgrund der vielkammrigen Gallen einzelner Arten konnten insgesamt mehr als 12500 Gallenkammern auf ihre Artenzusammensetzung hin analysiert werden. Insgesamt konnten 57 Parasitoiden-Arten nachgewiesen werden, die sich auf sieben Familien parasitischer Hymenopteren verteilen. Am artenreichsten vertreten sind die Pteromalidae und Platygasteridae mit einem Anteil von jeweils 24,56 % (14 spp). Der Artenreichtum ist mit fast zehn Spezies pro Gegenspielerkomplex ungewöhnlich hoch und liegt deutlich über den Werten anderer Gallenerzeuger-Gruppen. 27 Spezies (47,37 %) konnten keiner bekannten Art zugeordnet werden. Es wird vermutet, dass sich darunter zahlreiche, für die Wissenschaft neue Arten befinden. Insgesamt 42 spp. (73,7 %) der nachgewiesenen Parasitoidenarten wurden nur aus einer der untersuchten Wirtsarten gezüchtet, lediglich fünf Arten attackierten mehr als zwei der untersuchten Wirtsarten. Das Verhältnis von Idiobionten (töten den Wirt zum Zeitpunkt der Parasitierung ab) zu Koinobionten (erlauben dem Wirt zunächst ein weiteres Wachstum) ist mit 53,3 % zu 46,7 % annähernd gleich. Für 37 Taxa (64,91 %) konnten Angaben über ihre Wirtsbindung gemacht werden. Es zeigte sich, daß der Feindkomplex der untersuchten Gallmücken von stark spezialisierten Arten dominiert wird. Alle Arten sind bisher nur an gallenerzeugenden oder zumindest endophytisch lebenden Wirten nachgewiesen worden, 28 spp. sind darüber hinaus auf gallenbildende Cecidomyiidae spezialisiert, 10 spp. parasitieren nur cecidogene Gallmücken auf Weiden. Am artenreichsten war mit 24 spp. der Gegenspielerkomplex des Blattgallenerzeugers Iteomyia capreae, gefolgt von den Blattrandgallenerzeugern Dasineura auritae (12 spp.) und D. marginemtorquens (11 spp.), dem Sproßgallenerzeugern Rabdophaga salicis (10 spp.) und der Inquilinen-Art Dasineura schreiteri (10 spp.) sowie der unmittelbar unter der Rinde ihrer Wirtspflanzen lebenden sogenannten Schrotschuß-Gallmücke R. saliciperda (6 spp.). Mit nur drei bzw. vier Arten erwiesen sich die Gegenspielerkomplexe der Weidenrosen-Gallmücke Rabdophaga rosaria und der Sproßgallen erzeugenden R. degeeri am artenärmsten. Die Ähnlichkeits-Analyse der jeweiligen Gegenspielerspektren ließ eine große Eigenständigkeit erkennen, die geringen Ähnlichkeiten sprechen für einen hohen Anteil von Spezialisten in den Parasitoidenkomplexen. In den Gegenspielerspektren dominierten nur jeweils zwei bis fünf Arten. 19 der 57 Arten wiesen eudominante oder dominate Abundanz-Werte auf. Dabei waren vor allem die Arten der Gattungen Synopeas, Torymus, Platygaster und Aprostocetus von größerer Bedeutung für die Mortalitätsraten ihrer Wirte. Die Erreger der verschiedenen Gallentypen waren unterschiedlichen Mortalitätsraten durch Parasitoide unterworfen. Dasineura auritae und D. marginemtorquens, die Erzeuger von Blattrandgallen, wiesen die höchsten durchschnittlichen Parasitierungsraten auf (43,04 %), die Inquiline D. schreiteri die geringste (20,25 %). Die Sproßgallenerzeuger Rabdophaga salicis und R. degeerii wiesen nur eine geringfügig höhere Mortalität durch Parasitierung (24,31 %) auf, gefolgt von der Weidenrosen-Gallmücke Rabdophaga rosaria (25,47 %) und den Blattgallen von Iteomyia capreae (31,26 %). Der Feindkomplex der untersuchten Cecidomyiidae wurde mit dem der an Salix spp. gallenbildenden Tenthredinidae verglichen. Bislang sind für die mit Salix spp. assoziierten cecidogenen Gallmücken und Blattwespen in Nord- und Mitteleuropa über Gegenspielerarten nachgewiesen worden, von denen lediglich sieben in beiden Wirtsfamilien auftreten. Brutparasiten, die vor allem bei den Blattgallenerzeugern (Pontania spp.) vorhanden sind, fehlen bei den Gallmücken völlig. Sowohl Cecidomyiidae als auch Tenthredinidae werden vor allem von spezialisierten Parasitoiden attackiert, deren Wirtskreis sich auf diese gallenbildenden Herbivoren-Gruppen beschränkt. Innerhalb der Gegenspielerspektren sind jeweils über 80 % der Parasitoidenarten bislang nur in einem Gallentyp nachgewiesen worden. Der Artenpool der Blattwespen-Parasitoiden wird mit fast 60 % von den Ichneumonoidea dominiert. Bei den Gallmücken fehlt diese ParasitoidenÜberfamilie völlig, hier sind die Chalcidoidea mit über 70 % der Arten das bestimmende Element. Dagegen stellen die in den Tenthrediniden-Gallen lediglich mit zwei Arten vertretenen Platygasteroidea im Gegenspielerspektrum der Cecidomyiidae mehr als 25 % aller Spezies. Bei den Blattwespen tritt nur ein knappes Drittel der Parasitoidenarten, deren Biologie näher bekannt ist, als Koinobionten auf. Bei den Gallmücken erhöht sich der Anteil dieser Feindarten-Gilde auf über 50 %. Vergleicht man die einzelnen Gallentypen, so sind auch in der Parasitierungs-Strategie der beteiligten Arten große Unterschiede zu verzeichnen. Die meisten Parasitoide der Tenthredinidae befallen junge Wirtslarven, bei den Gallmücken ist dagegen der Typ des Junglarven-Parasitoiden nur selten anzutreffen: Wird ein frühes Wirtsstadium angegriffen (in der Regel durch Koinobionten), so erfolgt bereits die Belegung des Wirtseies. Blattwespen weisen höhere Mortalitätsraten als Gallmücken auf. Darüber hinaus zeigt sowohl bei den Blattwespen als auch bei den Gallmücken die durch Parasitierung hervorgerufene Mortalität prägnante Unterschiede zwischen den einzelnen Wirtsarten und Gallentypen, aber auch innerhalb einer Art gibt es je nach Lokalität und Untersuchungsjahr deutliche Schwankungen. Bei den Tenthredinidae liegt die durchschnittliche Parasitierungsrate der Blattgallenerzeuger (53,3 %) deutlich über den Werten der Sproßgallenerzeuger (41,7 %) Entsprechende große Unterschiede lassen sich für die Blattrandgallenerzeuger (43,04 %) und Sproßgallenerzeuger (24,31 %) der Cecidomyiidae feststellen.
Traditionell-morphologisch begründete Hypothesen zur Großphylogenie der Metazoa sind im Verlauf der letzten Jahre durch molekularbiologische Untersuchungen grundsätzlich in Frage gestellt worden. Die molekularbiologisch begründete Metazoen-Großphylogenie wird seit einem Übersichtsartikel von ADOUTTE et al. (2000) meist als „New Animal Phylogeny“ bezeichnet (kurz: NAP); sie beinhaltet eine Restrukturierung des Stammbaumes (kladogenetischer Aspekt) und die Infragestellung einer morphologischen Komplexitätssteigerung nach dem Schema acoelomat-pseudocoelomat-coelomat (anagenetischer Aspekt). Hinsichtlich der Kladogenese steht die Neueinteilung der Bilateria in drei Superphyla Deuterostomia, Ecdysozoa und Lophotrochozoa im Vordergrund; die Genealogie innerhalb dieser drei Großgruppen ist aber z.Z. relativ schlecht aufgelöst, so daß sich Vergleichsmöglichkeiten mit morphologischen Vorgängermodellen schnell erschöpfen. Aus diesem Grunde wird in vorliegender Arbeit der anagenetische Aspekt als Ausgangspunkt für eine umfassende morphologische Interpretation der molekularbiologischen Resultate gewählt. Momentan wird auf molekularsystematischer und vergleichend-entwicklungsgenetischer Basis davon ausgegangen, daß die frühesten Bilaterier eine acoelomate Organisation aufwiesen, von hier aus eine relativ komplexe, polymer-coelomate Organisation erwarben, welche dann aber in zahlreichen Bilaterierlinien sekundär reduziert wurde. Die ursprünglich acoelomate Organisation wird rezent nur durch eine sehr isolierte Linie, die Acoela (ggf. auch Nemertodermatida) vertreten, während alle anderen Bilaterier von einem polymer-coelomaten „Urbilaterier“ abstammen sollen. In vorliegender Arbeit wird die Auffassung vertreten, daß die morphologische Deutung eines solchen anagenetischen Szenarios am ehesten anhand der Hydroskelett-Theorie von W. F. GUTMANN (1972 et mult.), sowie späteren auf diesem Entwurf aufbauenden Arbeiten (insbesondere der Gallertoid-Hypothese, BONIK et al. 1976) möglich ist, d.h. auf konstruktionsmorphologischer Grundlage. Um den Nachweis einer weitgehenden Übereinstimmung von NAP und Gallertoid-Hydroskelett-Theorie zu führen, werden für 36 Metazoenbaupläne (4 Nonbilaterier, 32 Bilaterier) aktuelle molekularphylogenetische Befunde den jeweiligen konstruktionsmorphologischen Interpretationen gegenübergestellt. Für die vier Nonbilateria-Linien ergibt sich eine Vereinbarkeit auf kladogenetischer Ebene insbesondere dann, wenn die Placozoa vor den Porifera abzweigen (z.Z. aufgrund von mtDNADaten anzunehmen); auf anagenetischer Ebene aufgrund von Studien, welche die „Diploblastica/ Triploblastica“-Unterteilung in Frage stellen (Mesoderm-Problem). Für die Bilateria ist u.a. festzuhalten, daß im Rahmen der Hydroskelett-Theorie kein Schwestergruppenverhältnis Annelida + Arthropoda angenommen wurde, so daß die umstrittene neue Großgruppe Ecdysozoa unproblematisch ist: Ecdysozoa werden durch Ableitung der „Aschelminthen“ von polymeren Vorformen einer Deutung zugänglich. Die Molekularsystematik der Annelida, aber auch der Deuterostomia ist mit konstruktionsmorphologischen Interpretationen vereinbar, bei den Deuterostomia v.a. der hochderivierte Status der Pterobranchia und Tunicata. Als kennzeichnendste Übereinstimmung ist die Einordnung der Tentaculata als hochabgeleitete Protostomier hervorzuheben, was sowohl als „Grundstein“ der NAP gilt (HALANYCH et al. 1995) als auch eine sehr spezifische Position der Hydroskelett-Theorie darstellt. Es wird gefolgert, daß die Gallertoid- Hydroskelett-Theorie zentrale Resultate der NAP besser zu integrieren vermag als andere Entwürfe. Konsequenzen für merkmalsmorphologische Deutungen werden aufgezeigt.
Ahnenforschung unter sozialen Amöben : die morphologische Taxonomie muss umgeschrieben werden
(2007)
Seit fast 150 Jahren forschen Wissenschaftler aus aller Welt über den faszinierenden Wechsel zwischen Einzelligkeit und Vielzelligkeit im Lebenszyklus der »zellulären Schleimpilze«. Diese Forschung war bisher so erfolgreich, dass einem Vertreter der zellulären Schleimpilze, Dictyostelium discoideum, vom US-amerikanischen Gesundheitsministerium National Institutes of Health (NIH) ganz offiziell der Status eines Modellorganismus für biomedizinische Forschung verliehen wurde. Obwohl wir inzwischen glauben, viel über die »sozialen Amöben«, die sich bei Nahrungsmangel von Einzellern zu einem vielzelligen Verband zusammenlagern, gelernt zu haben, basiert unser Wissen doch fast ausschließlich auf Arbeiten mit der einen Art D. discoideum. Man kennt allerdings heute mehr als 100 Arten sozialer Amöben. Alle bilden multizelluläre Fruchtkörper aus, die aus Stielen und Sporenpaketen bestehen. Bisher ging man davon aus, dass die Spezies mit azellulären Stielen in ihren Fruchtkörpern phylogenetische Vorläufer der Vertreter mit zellulären Stielen sind, und dass die Vertreter mit verzweigten Fruchtkörpern näher mit sich selbst als mit den anderen sozialen Amöben verwandt sind. Diese Hypothesen wurden nun durch aktuelle molekulargenetische Analysen widerlegt.
Koalas are popular zoo animals, but difficult in husbandry. In addition to their specialised diet of eucalyptus leaves, they are prone to “stress” and disease. Particularly in European zoos, themonitoring of theirwell-being has high priority and they are protected from possible stressors. However, stress signs in koalas are vague and monitoring techniques like weighing might result in discomfort itself. Additionally, husbandry routines are planned according to keeper’s schedule, not to the endogenous rhythms of the koalas. Therefore it is necessary to investigate activity pattern in captive koalas and the signals influencing them. These signals have to be assessed on the strength and quality of their impact. A total of 17 koalas have been observed in three zoological gardens in Australia and Europe. Koalas kept in outdoor enclosures with little human contact (Koala Walkabout, Taronga Zoo, Sydney) showed a uniform activity pattern, which was clearly entrained by light. Activity levels were higher during the night, and there was a pronounced resting period in the morning which corresponds with low body temperature measured by Degabriele and Dawson (1979). Activity peaks were related to twilight and changed during the year related to day lengths. However, there was a clear influence from the introduction of fresh browse which resulted in a distinct feeding peak in the afternoon. With short day lengths, this stimulus competed with dusk. Activity patterns from koalas in indoor enclosures (Zoo Duisburg, Vienna Zoo) varied between individuals and in some cases lacked a detectable rhythm. Though activity peaks were related to light, entrainment to sunlight was weak. In winter, koalas reacted primarily to the artificial light, but some also showed activity peaks related to sunlight. Activity patterns in these koalas were less structured and differed severely from patterns expected according to literature. Activity was often related to the keeper’s presence and food introduction. Frequency of feeding bouts was considerably higher at Vienna Zoo compared to the other zoos and the bouts were shorter in duration. Time budgets of the koalas were within the range given in free-range studies. Feeding showed seasonal changes and was increased in lactating females. Koalas at Vinna Zoo had a high level of locomotor activity compared to the size of the enclosure. Koalas at Koala Walkabout were not used to handling, so they resisted the keeper. The koalas at the two European zoos were handled regularly and settled down quickly. However, handling took place in the morning; in most koalas, there was no activity prior to it. In Vienna, resting periods were interrupted daily due to weighing. Food introduction at KoalaWalkabout took place in the afternoon. It was preceded by locomotor activity and triggered a long feeding bout in the koalas. It is not clear, whether food had true Zeitgeber properties or masked the endogenous rhythm. In the two European zoos, food was introduced in the morning. The peaks related to this were smaller than those at Koala Walkabout. Activity was rarely observed prior to food introduction. The koalas at Koala Encounter, Taronga Zoo (Sydney),were regularly confronted with visitors, though no contact was allowed. Direct observation by the keepers did rarely show any stress signs. Activity patterns at night were strikingly similar to Koala Walkabout, but differed dramatically during the day. Food was introduced three times a day, which usually resulted in activity that interrupted a resting period. Generally, the koalas at Koala Encounter were more active than those at KoalaWalkabout. They also displayed a high level of locomotor activity, especially on the ground, which is an accepted sign of discomfort in koalas (Wood 1978; Zoological Society of San Diego 2001; Yusuf& Rosenthal unpublished data). In summary, this chronoethological study of the captive koalas showed that there are several problems with koala husbandry. Artificial light regimes for koalas are not sufficient for entrainment and result in unstructured activity pattern. This is especially the case in winter, when the day in Europe is artificially extended. Due to the mainly nocturnal behaviour of koalas, such an extension might not be necessary and therefore should be avoided. Handling in Europe took place during the physiological resting time of the koalas. Interruptions of resting times are considered as stressors (Wood 1978) and should be avoided. Handling in the afternoon would be more suitable for the koalas and triggered activity in the two koalas at Vienna Zoo. It is also arguable if daily weighing is necessary to monitor health in captive koalas or if the frequent interruption of resting countervail the advantages of constant monitoring. Frequent contact with visitors, evenwithout the so-called cuddling, has a considerable impact on activity patterns and time budget of koalas, even if no immediate stress signs are displayed. Such contact should therefore be reduced to a minimum and chronoethological observations of the koalas should be used. A study on koalas with direct visitor contact is also advisable to revise the current legislation on “koala cuddling”. Koalas frequently rested in living trees if they had access to it. Since no food-poisoning has been reported from koalas using living non-food trees, the provision of living trees with an appropriate canopy should be included in the husbandry guidelines. Increased locomotor activity has been shown to be related to conditions of discomfort or stress and possibly to oestrus. This is in accordance with literature (Wood 1978; Zoological Society of San Diego 2001). Further observation, combined with hormone analysis, are advisable to establish this parameter for evaluation of well-being. Chronoethology has proven to be useful for the evaluation of husbandry conditions and group dynamics. Different to other, traditional ethologicalmethods, it indicated problems and enabled me to advise more appropriate times for handling and food introduction. It is desirable that zoos already using 24-hour video observation include chronoethological aspects into their analysis.
Le système des Gobiidés
(1930)
Die im nachfolgenden aufgeführten Spinnen wurden im Jahre 1907 gesammelt durch die Expedition, die unter Leitung von Dr. H. A. LORENTNZ Niederländisch Südwest-Neu-Guinea besuchte und namentlich an dem Lorentz-(,Noord"-)Nuss arbeitete. Diese Sammlung erfuhr einen erfreulichen Zuwachs durch Material, das Dr. J. W. R. KOCH als Mitglied der von der Kön. Niederländischen Geographischen Gesellschaft im Jahre 1904/1905 nach Niederländisch Neu-Guinea gesandten Expedition an der Südküste, in Merauke, an der Südwestküste arn Digul-Fluss und an der Etna-Bucht sammelte. Die Fortsetzung der Bearbeitung des vorliegenden Materiales wird in einem zweiten Teil geschehen. Das Material endlich, das durch die zweite Expedition von Dr. H. A. LORENTZ in 1909/10 in demselben Gebiete wie seine erste Expedition von 1907 gesammelt wurde, ging mir erst nach Abschluss vorliegender Arbeit zu und soll späterhin bearbeitet werden.
Spinnen aus Nord-Neu-Guinea
(1911)
Die nachfolgend beschriebenen Spinnen wurden während der Monate Februar bis August 1903 im Norden von Niederländisch-Neu-Guinea gesammelt und zwar in erster Linie durch die Herrn L. F. DE BEAUFORT und H. A. LORENTZ, die beiden Zoologen der Niederländischen Expedition, die unter Leitung von Prof. A. WICHMANN im Jahre 1903 das genannte Gebiet untersuchte.
Die Termiten, von welchen gegenwärtig gegen 200 Arten bekannt geworden sind, bewohnen vorzugsweise die tropischen Esinder und die wärmeren Gegenden der Länder mit gemässigtern Klima. In Europa sind, abgesehen von der aus Nordamerika in die Sohönbrunner Treibhäuser eingeschleppten Art Termes flavipes KOLLAR nur zwei Arten einheimisch: Calotermes marginalis ROSSI (flavicollis FABR.), welche aus Portugal, Spanien, der Provence, Toskana, Neapel, Sardinien, Sizilien, Nordafrika, Syrien, Kleinasien und dem nordwestlichen Kaukasus mitgetheilt wurde und Termes lucifugus ROSSI, welche in Portugal, Spanien, der Provenoe, La Rochelle, Paris, Langres, Toskana, Sizilien, Nordafrika, Dalmatien, der Türkei, Griechenland, Cgpern, Beesarabien und Odessa gefunden worden ist. ...
Beschreibung der Larve und Puppe von Liponeura Brevirostris Löw (Dipterenfamilie Blepharoceridae)
(1881)
Über Ceratiten
(1848)
Die Arbeit stellt einen Beitrag zur Fauna von Rovigno dar. Sie enthält eine kritische Übersicht der in der Adria gefundenen Holothurienarten und einen Bestimmungsschlüssel, der sich hauptsachlich auf äußere Merkmale stützt. Der Bestimmungsschlüssel, die Beschreibung der Arten, sowie die Fundkarten und Abbildungen sollen das Auffinden und genaue Bestimmen der Holothurien ermöglichen. Daran schließen sich einige Bemerkungen über ihr Vorkommen in Abhängigkeit von der Meerestiefe und Bodenbeschaffenheit an. An verschiedenen Stellen sind biologische Notizen eingefügt, die sich auf die Lebensweise und Fortpflanzung (jedoch nicht auf Larvenformen, über die verhältnismäßig wenig bekannt ist) beziehen. Die Angaben über die Fortpflanzungszeit besitzen großes praktisches Interesse, weil neuerdings auch in der Adria einige Holothurienarten (H. tubulosa und polii) zur Herstellung von "Trepang" gefischt werden sollen. Da im Gegensatz zu anderen Meeren die Adria bei großem Artenreichtum sehr individuenarm ist, dürfte durch ungehemmtes Ausfischen in kurzer Zeit die Individuenzahl so stark herabgesetzt sein, daß sich ein Fischen gar nicht mehr lohnt. Es scheint daher notwendig, während der Hauptfortpflanzungszeiten dieser Arten streng durchzuführende Schonzeiten festzulegen. Die Arbeit stützt sich vor allem auf eigene Beobachtungen und Untersuchungen. Die meisten Tiere wurden längere Zeit hindurch in Aquarien gehalten und lebend beobachtet. Die voneinander stark abweichenden Beschreibungen der älteren Untersucher verlangten aber auch ein eingehendes Studium der Holothurien-Literatur der Adria. Die verwendete Literatur ist in dem Literaturverzeichnis aufgeführt.
In the ignorance which still prevails regarding many details of the breeding-habits of the Cuckoo, we have a goof object lesson of how well Nature is able to guard her secrets, since, after years of careful and methodical investigation by distinguished naturalists, comparatively few authentic facts have been established. ...
The North Arnerican species of the genus Cremastocheilus are reviewed. These belong to 5 subgenera, Macropodina, Trinodea, Anatinodia, Mymcotonus, and Cremastocheilus. Taxonomie changes are: She inclusion of Crernastocheilus nitens and C. chapini in the subgenus Cremastocheilus rather than Myrmecotonus. Also Anatinodia is elevated to subgeneric status. A key to the subgenera is provided, as is a key to the species of the 5 subgenera, recognizing that the 35 species in the subgenus Cremastocheilus are in need of revision. A critical review of the host records, geographic distribution, and ecology of the Tribe Crernastocheilini (Family Scarabaeidae. subfamily Cetoniinae) is provided. This contains enormous numbers of new records for both the genera Genuchinus and CremastocheiLus both from the literature and from the extensive field work that is reported here for the first time. A Summary of the host records is presented in tabular form. This table shows the association of all species of Cremastocheilus with ants as adults and the larvae either associated with the vegetable material of the ant nests or with vegetable material in rodent burrows. Genuchinus is shown to be a general predator on soft bodied insects while the other genera of the Cremastocheilini are associated with plants, particularly bromeliads. A detailed study of the external morphology and sexual dimorphism of the genera Genuchinus and Crernastocheilus is presented. All species of Cremastocheilus can be sexed with the naked eye by the difference in the shapes of the abdominal terminal Segments, wherein males have the posterior border of the last ventral abdominal segment either straight or slightly bowed, while females have this border broadly rounded. There are other microscopic sexual differences in the structure of the legs. The rest of the external morphology is also presented, particularly from the point of view of adaptations to either a predaceous or rnyrmecophilous existente. Particularly adapted for predation are the pointed maxillae which are used for piercing prey. Particularly adapted for myrmecophily are the mentum, the maxillae, the generally thick exoskeleton, trichomes on both the anterior and posterior angles of the pronotum, the elytra, and the legs (which are adapted to the nest substrate of the host ant nests. Exocrine glands are described for Genuchinus ineptus and at least 1 species of each of the 5 subgenera of Cremastocheilus. In general, there are no gland cells nor glandular areas in Genuchinuc that are comparable to those of Cremastocheilus. The gland cells and glandular areas are quite extensive andvariable arnong species of Cremastocheilus. The frontal gland of some Cremastocheilus (strongly developed in C. castaneus and the C. canaliculatus species group, but weakly developed in the C. wheeleri species group) is described for the first time. Because these glands are not found in Genuchinus ineptuc, a species with general predatory habits, it is thought that these play a role, as yet unknown, in interactions with ants. The life cycles of the subgenera of Cremastocheilus are described. The general life cycle entails adult beetles eclosing in ant nests during the summer and then undertaking dispersal flights. The adults then enter ant nests and ovenivinter there, eating ant larvae during the Winter. Another dispersal flight occurs in the spring during which the adults mate and enter ant nests again. The females then lay eggs and the adults die. The eggs hatch and the larvae spend 3 instars feeding upon vegetable material in the nests. The lmae then pupate in typical scarabaeine earthen cells made of fecal material and soil. These eclose in the summer and the cycle is repeated. Variation from species to species is largely in the timing. Leaving the nest in late Summer, mating seems to be triggered by rainfall in all the species studied. Mating of C. (Macropodina) beameri takes place in rodent burrows. Males seem attracted to females from a distance but the mechanism of this remains obscure. In the subgenus Trinodia, mating takes place on sandy washes or roadsides where females land. In the subgenus Myrmecotonus, maüng also takes place in sandy areas. In C. (Cremastocheilus) mating takes place on sand bars along rivers in the southeastern U.S. and in sand dunes in northeastern U.S. The femaies dig down into the sand. Males locate these places by some unknown mechanism and then dig down to copulate with the females. Field experiments showed unequivocaily that males dig only into areas occupied by females. No sex-specific Sex attractant glands have been located in females so far. Dispersal to ant nests occurs after mating except for C. (Macropodina) beameri which lays its eggs in the rodent burrows and then probably disperses to ant nests. Beetle activity going in and out of nests was studied using wire hardware cloth screens over entrances to Mynnecocystus nests. The mesh size was such that the ants could move freely in or out but the beetles got stuck by their thoraces. The direction then could be interpreted by the direction in which they got stuck. By this method, C. stathamae was shown to leave nests from 23 June to 1 September with a peak on 6 July, just after the beginning of the summer rains. Beetles entered nests from June 23 to August 3, however 39% entered on July 16, probably pulsed by the leaving time which was correlated with the rains. Life cycle timing: C. (Macropodina) develop in the nests of Wood rats (Neotoma sp.]. Females lay about 40 eggs each. The 3 larval instars to pupation take about 1 month. Pupae are found from late August to weil into September. In other subgenera as well, larvae are found in parts of the nest devoid of ants, The timing is similar in all the subgenera found with ants. Mortality factors: While ants attack Cremastocheilus adults, there is no evidence that they are ever killed by ants nor is there evidence that ants kill larvae nor hard earthen pupae cases which protect the pupae. During dispersal fiights and mating, the adults are exposed to predation and evidence is presented that shows predation by horned toads, spiders, magpies, and tiger beetles. Probably most mortality occurs in the larval and pupd stages where the beetles are attacked by internal parasites and fungus. Further rnortality is caused by limitation of the food supply during the larval stage. Reentering nests: Females of C. (Macropodina) beameri select specific rodent and other burrows, attract males for rnating. and then enter the burrow for oviposition. C. stathamae are carried into the ants nests from as far away as 25ft. The beetles appear to land spontaneously after flying randomly over M. depilis nesting areas. Then the wander about waiting for the ants to carry them into the nests. Cremastocheilus hirsutus fly low over the ground searching for Pogonomyrrnex barbatus nests, land. and move straight for the nest entrances which they enter unhindered. Among all species, the ants frequently eject beetles but the net rnovement is in. Ants frequently attacked Cremastocheilus in laboratory observation nests when they were introduced. These attacks seldom resulted in the death of the beetles and the beetles were eventually ignored. When the beetles entered brood chambers, where they fed upon larvae, they were mostly ignored and even licked assiduously by the ants. A principle defensive behavior by the beetles is feigning death (letisimulation). The beetles give off an unpleasant "dead fish odor when collected in the I field. Experiments show that this substance functions to fend off some predators but further experiments indicated that these substances were ineffective against both ants and kangaroo rats. Experiments with various species of Cremastocheilus adults indicate that the adults eat only ant larvae. The beetles will eat larvae of non-host ants but show preferences for the larvae of their normal hosts. Under the same experimental conditions. Genuchinus ineptus adults will feed on a variety of insect adults and larvae. Field experiments on the function of trichome secretions did not indicate that they function to attract ants at a distance nor are they involved in worker acceptance. Laboratory experiments in which areas with a high concentration of gland cells were presented to ants showed that no ants were attracted. Laboratory introduction of Cremastocheilus hamisii adults into Fomica schau.si nests yielded many interactions including ants licking the anterior pronotal angles, the mentum area where the frontal glands empty and a carina over the eye with a dense pad of short setae. These are areas of concentration of gland cells and these are the first observations of licking by ants in specific sites containing exocrine glands. Radioisotope experiments showed food exchange among ants but never from ants to beetles. Other experiments showed that ants can pick up radioactivity from the beetles without feeding on trichome secretions. Evolutionary pathways: Adult Cremastocheilini probably followed the evolutionary route from adult predation on soft bodied insects to specialized feeding upon ant brood and the subsequent development of the beetle larvae in vegetable material in the ant colonies. Thus Genuchininseptus makes a logical outgroup in that they are general predators probably feeding mostly on Diptera larvae associated with Sotol plants in the field. The rnajor evolutionary step taken by Cremastocheiluswas to specialize on ant brood. Then the species radiated into ant colonies inhabiting southwestem North Arnenca. Most of the ant hosts invaded have quantities of vegetable material in their nests sufficient to support several developing scarab larvae. Host colonies are large, contain accessible brood, and are usually dominant foragers Evidence supports the idea that the species of Cremastocheilus have differentes in behavior and morphology that reflect adaptation to the behavioral ecology of different species of ants rather than different evolutionary levels of integration into ant colonies.
Rhizostomen von Ambon
(1898)
Die im Folgenden behandelten Rhizostomen wurden bei der Insel Ambon (Molukken) im Januar und Februar 1893 von Herrn Prof. R. SEMON gesammelt. Die Sammlung enthält 34 wohl erhaltene Individuen, die sich mit je einer Art auf 8 Genera vertheilen. Davon waren 2, den Polyrhiziden angehörige Gattungen noch nicht bekannt, Cassiopeja und Toxoclytus, letztere bisher nur im Atlantischen und - wenn wir die fragliche Cephea Dubreuillii von Reynaud auch zu Toxoclytus ziehen wollen - irn Indischen Ozean gefunden, sind in je einer neuen Art vertreten. Die umfangreiche, mehrere Originale (zum Theil aus den Museum GODEFPROY) enthaltende Rhizostomensammlung des Zoologischen Instituts in Jena und des Museums für Naturkunde zu Berlin, für deren Benutzung ich Herrn Geh. Rath MÖBIUS und Herrn Dr. W. WELTNER zu grosseln Dank verpflichtet bin, lieferten mir werthvoIles Vergleichsmaterial. Bei der anatomischen und systematischen Vergleichung ging ich in erster Linie auf die grundlegende Monographie der Medusen von HAECKEL zurück, die dessen System und untereinander sich befehdenden Vorschläge von CLAUS und VANHÖFFEN zur Kontrolle jeder einzelnen Bestimmung heranziehend.
Neue Käfer vom Amur
(1879)
Neue Acariden
(1879)
Es sind vorzüglich die Engländer, die über die therapeutische Anwendung des Ammonium bromntum gearbeitet haben und dasselbe als nützlich in versohiedenen Nervenleiden preisen. (Gibb, Ritchie, Harley , Belgrave). Wir benutzten dasselbe auch vielfach in der Kinderklinik in Petersburg und besonders beim Keuchhusten, aber wenn wir auch einigermaassen die Krankheits-Anfälle abnehmen sahen, so trat diese Abnahme doch lange nicht in dem Grade ein, wie sie Gibb beobachtet haben will, und wonach er das Präparat als Radicalmittel gegen den Keuchhusten empfehlen zu können glaubt. Die Meinungen über die Art der Wirkung dieses Mittels sind getheilt. Belgrave will demselben die Wirkung des Kalium bromatum zuschreiben, nur in etwas geringerem Grade; Gibb vindicirt für dasselbe eine besondere Einwirkung auf die Empfindungsnerven des Schlundes; Binz, der es in einer Keuchhusten-Epidemie viel benutzte, behauptet, dass dasselbe gar keine Vorzüge vor dem Salmiak haben soll. Wir sahen uns daher veranlasst, um die Wirkung dieses Mittels genauer zu ermitteln, eine Reihe von Untersuchungen an verschiedenen Thieren anzustellen, und wir wollen hier kurz die Resultate dieser Untersuchungen mittheilen.
Background The Radical Pair model proposes that magnetoreception is a light-dependent process. Under low monochromatic light from the short-wavelength part of the visual spectrum, migratory birds show orientation in their migratory direction. Under monochromatic light of higher intensity, however, they showed unusual preferences in other directions or axial preferences. To determine whether or not these responses are still controlled by the respective light regimes, European robins, Erithacus rubecula, were tested under UV, Blue, Turquoise and Green light at increasing intensities, with orientation in migratory direction serving as a criterion whether or not magnetoreception works in the normal way. Results Under low light with a quantal flux of 8 times 10 to 15 power quanta s-1 m-2, the birds were well oriented in their seasonally appropriate migratory direction under 424 nm Blue, 502 nm Turquoise and 565 nm Green light, indicating unimpaired magnetoreception. Under 373 nm UV of the same quantal flux, they were not oriented in migratory direction, showing a preference of the east-west axis instead, but they showed excellent orientation in migratory direction under UV of lower intensity. Intensities of above 36 times 10 to 15 power quanta s-1 m-2 of Blue, Turquoise and Green light elicited a variety of responses: disorientation, headings along the east-west axis, headings along the north-south axis or 'fixed' direction tendencies. These responses changed as the intensity was increased from 36 times 10 to the 15 power quanta s-1 m-2 to 54 and 72 times 10 to 15 power quanta s-1 m-2. Conclusion The specific manifestation of responses in directions other than migratory direction clearly depends on the ambient light regime. This implies that although mechanisms normally providing magnetic compass information seem disrupted, processes that are activated by light still control the behavior. It suggests complex interactions between different types of receptors, magnetic and visual. The nature of the receptors involved and details of their connections are not yet known; however, a role of the color cones in the processes mediating magnetic input is suggested.
Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, einen Überblick über die Verhaltensweisen zoolebender Zwergschimpansen (Pan paniscus Schwarz 1929) zu geben. Dabei nimmt die Beschreibung des Sozialverhaltens eine zentrale Stellung ein. Dieser Aspekt ist von besonderem Interesse, weil die Zwergschimpansen oder Bonobos durch eine regelmäßige Überflutung großer Teile ihres Lebensraumes zu einer stärker arborealen Lebensweise gezwungen sind (s. HOFW 1975) als die zweite Schiopansenart, Pan troglodytes. Das läßt neben morphologischen auch ethologische Anpassungen an ein Baumleben erwarten, und zwar sowohl in Bereichen wie Lokomotion etc.. als auch in Bezug auf das Sozialverhalten. Gerade auf diesem Gebiet aber ist unser ohnehin bruchstückhaftes Wissen über die Ethologie des Bonobo besonders gering....
Durch Beobachtungen individuell farbmarkierter Meisen und Kleiber an einer Futterstelle zwischen Sommer und Frühjahr konnte erstmals die Struktur gemischter Meisenschwärme und ihre Veränderung im Jahresverlauf systematisch analysiert werden. Nur im Winter bilden sich sehr kompakte Schwärme von durchschnittlich 27 Individuen, die sich schnell fortbewegen und nur zehn bis fünfzehn Minuten an der Futterstelle verweilen. Ihr Auftreten ist sowohl mit der Tageslänge als auch direkt mit der Temperatur korreliert. Eine Erniedrigung der Temperatur führt zu einem engeren Zusammenschluß der Individuen, vor allem auch verschiedener Arten. Dieses Verhalten ermöglicht eine effizientere Nahrungssuche, weil die Individuen von den Kenntnissen der übrigen Schwarmmitglieder über Nahrungsquellen profitieren und weil sie weniger Zeit zum Sichern aufwenden müssen. Die Schwarmgröße ist jedoch nicht temperaturabhängig. Sie wächst mit der Anzahl der Individuen, die an einem Tag die Futterstelle nutzen. Demnach erweitern die Individuen im Winter ihre Aktionsräume, vermutlich aufgrund des erhöhten Nahrungsbedarfs. Dadurch begegnen sich mehr Individuen bei der Nahrungssuche und bilden größere Schwärme. Die individuelle Zusammensetzung der Schwärme verändert sich dabei ständig. Es gibt keine Gruppen fester Zusammensetzung, die auch nur tage- oder stundenweise zusammen blieben. Während die Neigung der Individuen, sich anderen Meisen anzuschließen, im Winter sehr stark ist, spielen individuelle Bindungen für die Schwarmbildung offensichtlich keine Rolle. Dieser offenen Struktur der Schwärme entsprechend, wurde bei der Kohlmeise, die den größten Anteil an den gemischten Schwärmen hatte, nur eine schwach entwickelte, nicht strikt lineare Rangordnung gefunden. Lediglich das Männchen, in dessen Brutrevier die Futterstelle lag, war allen anderen Individuen eindeutig überlegen. Territorialität beeinflußte bei Männchen und Weibchen die Aggressivität. Männchen sind aggressiver als Weibchen, jedoch nicht immer dominanter, das Alter spielt für die Dominanz keine Rolle. Männchen sind um so dominanter, je schwerer sie sind. Männchen, die bis Ende Juli im Gebiet eintreffen oder im Vorjahr schon ansässig waren, sind dominanter als Männchen, die erst ab Oktober eintreffen. Bei jungen Männchen wird die Dominanz hauptsächlich von der Aggressivität bestimmt. Die einzige nachweisbare individuelle Bindung bei Kohlmeisen in Winterschwärmen ist die Paarbindung, die im Gegensatz zu bisherigen Vermutungen bereits ab Oktober besteht. Die Wahl von Freßkumpanen ist dennoch nicht völlig beliebig. Männchen meiden einander, und Weibchen ziehen andere Weibchen als Freßkumpaninnen vor, weil sie von Männchen vom Futter verdrängt werden könnten. Bei einander bereits bekannten Brutvögeln ist dies jedoch nicht festzustellen. Männchen, die sich gegenseitig einschätzen können, meiden einander nicht grundsätzlich. Auch verpaarte Weibchen meiden bekannte Männchen nicht. Sie profitieren vielleicht auch vom Status ihres Männchens. Sowohl die schwach ausgeprägte Rangordnung als auch das Fehlen individuell aneinander gebundener Gruppen bei Kohlmeisen widerspricht der einzigen systematischen Freilanduntersuchung zur Sozialstruktur der Kohlmeise, die in einer Population der japanischen Unterart P. m. minor feste Gruppen konstanter Zusammensetzung fand. Ein selektiver Vorteil von Gruppen konstanter Zusammensetzung ist nicht zu erkennen, da keine gemeinsamen Territorien verteidigt werden und sich Individuen verschiedener Gruppen frei mischen. Die zwischenartliche Dominanzstruktur in den gemischten Schwärmen war eindeutig. Kleiber, die sich einzeln oder paarweise Meisenschwärmen anschließen, dominieren alle Meisenarten, Kohlmeisen dominieren Blau- und Sumpfmeisen. Letztere sind allen anderen Arten unterlegen. Dementsprechend bevorzugen Sumpf- und Blaumeisen Artgenossen als Freßkumpane. Kohlmeisen ziehen jedoch die schwächeren Blaumeisen ihren eigenen Artgenossen vor. Dominante Arten profitieren von der gemeinsamen Nahrungssuche mit untergeordneten Arten, weil sich die Nahrungskonkurrenz, die mit der Schwarmbildung immer verbunden ist, auf sie weniger negativ auswirkt. Als schwächste Art bleiben die Sumpfmeisen innerhalb gemischter Schwärmen meist deutlich unter sich und mischen sich nur im Winter stärker mit anderen Arten. Durch den erhöhten Nahrungsbedarf und die stark herabgesetzte Aggressivität der Individuen in dieser Zeit übersteigt dann der Vorteil großer Schwärme für die Nahrungssuche den Nachteil der Konkurrenz auch für unterlegene Individuen.
The objective of this study is the avifauna of the North American Green River Formation. Five new Green River bird species as well as several new specimens of already known species are described. * Galliformes: Gallinuloides wyomingensis EASTMAN 1900 A second specimen of the galliform Gallinuloides wyomingensis could be identified. Gallinuloides wyomingensis resembles closely Paraortygoides MAYR 1999, which is known from Messel and the London Clay. The new specimen exhibits characters such as a cup-like cotyla scapularis of the coracoid that clearly indicate that Gallinuloides is a stem-group representative of galliforms. * Eurypygidae: Eoeurypyga olsoni gen. et sp. nov. Eoeurypyga is the only fossil representative of the Eurypygidae. Eoeurypyga and the modern sunbittern Eurypyga helias share the typical long bill, the caudally situated neck and the elongated vertebrae cervicales. Additional synapomorph characters were found. The new species indicates a North American origin for the Eurypygidae. * Messelornithidae: Messelornis nearctica HESSE 1992 The original description of Messelornis nearctica was based on a single specimen. Ten new specimens, described in this study, reveal additional information. Messelornis nearctica shows the same large intraspecific size range as Messelornis cristata HESSE 1988 from Messel, the type species of the genus. * Apodidae: Wyomingcypselus pohli gen. nov. sp. nov. Wyomingcypselus pohli is the first described fossil apodiform bird for North American. Due to characters of the wing, especially the position of the processus musculi extensor metacarpi radialis, Wyomingcypselus is referrred to the Apodidae. * Trogoniformes: unnamed species The Green River birds include a poorly preserved, but apparently heterodactyl specimen, which also resembles trogons in overall appearance. * Primobucconidae: Primobucco mcgrewi BRODKORB 1970 Originally, Primobucco mcgrewi was only known from a partial skeleton consisting of the right wing. Three new specimens could be referred to the species. Primobucco mcgrewi clearly exhibits an anisodactyl foot, which makes the assignment to the zygodactyl Bucconidae highly doubtful. Instead, Primobucco mcgrewi is referrred to the Coraciiformes s.s. Thus, Primobucconidae are the first New World representatives of stem-group Coraciiformes. * ?Leptosomidae: Plesiocathartes wyomingensis sp. nov. and Plesiocathartes major sp. nov. Plesiocathartes wyomingensis and Plesiocathartes major represent the first North American record for the genus. Both species exhibit the diagnostic characters for the Leptosomidae as listed by MAYR (2002a, b). * Primoscenidae: Eozygodactylus americanus gen. et sp. nov. and unnamed species Eozygodactylus americanus is the first North American member of this taxon. Both Eozygodactylus americanus and the unnamed species show the zygodactyl foot and the large processus intermetacarpalis of the carpometacarpus, which are typical for Primoscendiae. Due to differences mainly of the humerus, it was placed in a new genus. Besides the descriptionof new species, the avifauna of the Green River Formatin was studied and compared with the avifauna of Messel. The formations show a high concordance, more than 60 % of the Green River taxa also occur in Messel. Such a high concordance is also found for mammals. This is due to the existence of two landbridges, the Thule landbridge and the de Geer landbridge, between Europe and North America during the early Eocene.
Nachstehend folgt mit Beschreibung der neuen Arten eine Zusammenstellung aller vom herrn EDM. KOVÁCS für das Ungarische National-Museum in den Jahren 1911 und 1912 in Abessynien gesammelten Chloropiden, die in ihrer Gesammtheit geeignet sind, ein Bild von der Reichhaltigkeit der dortigen Fauna zu geben. ...