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The substantia nigra is not the induction site in the brain of the neurodegenerative process that underlies Parkinson’s disease. Instead, the results of this semiquantitative study of 30 autopsy cases with incidental Lewy body pathology indicate that Parkinson’s disease in the brain commences with the formation of the very first immunoreactive Lewy neurites and Lewy bodies in noncatecholaminergic visceromotor neurons of the dorsal glossopharyngeusvagus complex, in projection neurons of the intermediate reticular zone, and in specific nerve cell types of the gain setting system (coeruleussubcoeruleus complex, caudal raphe nuclei, gigantocellular reticular nucleus), olfactory bulb, olfactory tract, and/or anterior olfactory nucleus in the absence of nigral involvement. The topographical parcellation of the nuclear grays described here is based upon known architectonic analyses of the human brain stem and takes into consideration the pigmentation properties of a few highly susceptible nerve cell types involved in Parkinson’s disease. In this sample and in all 58 ageand gendermatched controls, Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites do not occur in any of the known telencephalic Parkinson’s disease predilection sites (hippocampal formation, temporal mesocortex, proneocortical cingulate areas, amygdala, basal nucleus of Meynert, interstitial nucleus of the diagonal band of Broca, hypothalamic tuberomamillary nucleus).
Enzymatic and antisense effects of a specific anti-Ki-ras ribozyme in vitro and in cell culture
(1999)
Due to their mode of action, ribozymes show antisense effects in addition to their specific cleavage activity. In the present study we investigated whether a hammerhead ribozyme is capable of cleaving mutated Ki-ras mRNA in a pancreatic carcinoma cell line and whether antisense effects contribute to the activity of the ribozyme. A 2[prime]-O-allyl modified hammerhead ribozyme was designed to cleave specifically the mutated form of the Ki-ras mRNA (GUU motif in codon 12). The activity was monitored by RT-PCR on Ki-ras RNA expression by determination of the relative amount of wild type to mutant Ki-ras mRNA, by 5-bromo-2[prime]-deoxy-uridine incorporation on cell proliferation and by colony formation in soft agar on malignancy in the human pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell line CFPAC-1, which is heterozygous for the Ki-ras mutation. A catalytically inactive ribozyme was used as control to differentiate between antisense and cleavage activity and a ribozyme with random guide sequences as negative control. The catalytically active anti-Ki-ras ribozyme was at least 2-fold more potent in decreasing cellular Ki-ras mRNA levels, inhibiting cell proliferation and colony formation in soft agar than the catalytically inactive ribozyme. The catalytically active anti-Ki-ras ribozyme, but not the catalytically inactive or random ribozyme, increased the ratio of wild type to mutated Ki-ras mRNA in CFPAC-1 cells. In conclusion, both cleavage activity and antisense effects contribute to the activity of the catalytically active anti-Ki-ras hammerhead ribozyme. Specific ribozymes might be useful in the treatment of pancreatic carcinomas containing an oncogenic GTT mutation in codon 12 of the Ki-ras gene.
Mismatch repair is a highly conserved system that ensures replication fidelity by repairing mispairs after DNA synthesis. In humans, the two protein heterodimers hMutSα (hMSH2‐hMSH6) and hMutLα (hMLH1‐hPMS2) constitute the centre of the repair reaction. After recognising a DNA replication error, hMutSα recruits hMutLα, which then is thought to transduce the repair signal to the excision machinery. We have expressed an ATPase mutant of hMutLα as well as its individual subunits hMLH1 and hPMS2 and fragments of hMLH1, followed by examination of their interaction properties with hMutSα using a novel interaction assay. We show that, although the interaction requires ATP, hMutLα does not need to hydrolyse this nucleotide to join hMutSα on DNA, suggesting that ATP hydrolysis by hMutLα happens downstream of complex formation. The analysis of the individual subunits of hMutLα demonstrated that the hMutSα–hMutLα interaction is predominantly conferred by hMLH1. Further experiments revealed that only the N‐terminus of hMLH1 confers this interaction. In contrast, only the C‐terminus stabilised and co‐immunoprecipitated hPMS2 when both proteins were co‐expressed in 293T cells, indicating that dimerisation and stabilisation are mediated by the C‐terminal part of hMLH1. We also examined another human homologue of bacterial MutL, hMutLβ (hMLH1–hPMS1). We show that hMutLβ interacts as efficiently with hMutSα as hMutLα, and that it predominantly binds to hMutSα via hMLH1 as well.
Aim of the study: Investigation, whether water-filtered infrared-A (wIRA) irradiation during moderate bicycle ergometer endurance exercise has effects especially on local fat reduction and on weight reduction beyond the effects of ergometer exercise alone.
Methods: Randomised controlled study with 40 obese females (BMI 30-40 (median: 34.5), body weight 76-125 (median: 94.9) kg, age 20-40 (median: 35.5) years, isocaloric nutrition), 20 in the wIRA group and 20 in the control group. In both groups each participant performed 3 times per week over 4 weeks for 45 minutes bicycle ergometer endurance exercise with a constant load according to a lactate level of 2 mmol/l (aerobic endurance load, as determined before the intervention period). In the wIRA group in addition large parts of the body (including waist, hip, and thighs) were irradiated during all ergometries of the intervention period with visible light and a predominant part of water-filtered infrared-A (wIRA), using the irradiation unit “Hydrosun® 6000” with 10 wIRA radiators (Hydrosun® Medizintechnik, Müllheim, Germany, radiator type 500, 4 mm water cuvette, yellow filter, water-filtered spectrum 500-1400 nm) around a speed independent bicycle ergometer.
Main variable of interest: change of “the sum of circumferences of waist, hip, and both thighs of each patient” over the intervention period (4 weeks). Additional variables of interest: body weight, body mass index BMI, body fat percentage, fat mass, fat-free mass, water mass (analysis of body composition by tetrapolar bioimpedance analysis), assessment of an arteriosclerotic risk profile by blood investigation of variables of lipid metabolism (cholesterol, triglycerides, high density lipoproteins HDL, low density lipoproteins LDL, apolipoprotein A1, apolipoprotein B), clinical chemistry (fasting glucose, alanin-aminotransferase ALT (= glutamyl pyruvic transaminase GPT), gamma-glutamyl-transferase GGT, creatinine, albumin), endocrinology (leptin, adiponectin (= adipo Q), homocysteine, insulin). All variables were at least measured before and after the intervention period. Ergometry (ECG, blood pressure behaviour, lactate curve with power at 2, 3 and 4 mmol/l) before the intervention period. In addition: nutrition training ahead of and during the intervention period with a nutrition protocol over one week for assessment of the daily energy intake; calculation of basic metabolic rate and total energy requirement. Assessment of undesired effects.
Only methods of non-parametric statistics were used, both descriptive (median, percentiles of 25 and 75 (= interquartile range), minimum, maximum) and confirmatory (two-sided Mann-Whitney U test for unpaired samples for the only one main variable of interest). Total error probability: .05 (5%). An intention to treat analysis ITT with last observed carry forward method was used preferably (presented results) and in addition an on treatment analysis OT. Only 2 (treatment group) and 4 (control group) drop-outs occurred (mostly due to lack of time).
Results: The “sum of circumferences of waist, hip, and both thighs of each patient” decreased during the 4 weeks significantly more (p<.001) in the wIRA group than in the control group: medians and interquartile ranges: -8.0 cm (-10.5 cm/-4.1 cm) vs. -1.8 cm (-4.4 cm/0.0 cm).
As well “body weight of each patient” decreased during the 4 weeks markedly more in the wIRA group than in the control group: medians and interquartile ranges: -1.9 kg (-4.0 kg/0.0 kg) vs. 0.0 kg (-1.5 kg/+0.4 kg); median of body weight changed from 99.3 kg to 95.6 kg (wIRA) vs. 89.9 kg to 89.6 kg (control). A similar effect showed the body mass index BMI.
Blood variables of interest remained unchanged or showed some slight improvements during the treatment period, concerning most variables with no obvious differences between the two groups; insulin showed a slight trend to decrease in the wIRA group and to increase in the control group.
Undesired effects of the treatment were not seen.
Discussion: The results of the study suggest, that wIRA – during moderate bicycle ergometer endurance exercise as lipolytic stimulus – increases local lipolysis with a local fat reduction (thighs) in the otherwise bradytrophic fatty tissue. The presumably underlying mechanisms of wIRA have already been proven: wIRA acts both by thermal effects and by non-thermal effects. Thermal effects of wIRA are the generation of a therapeutic field of warmth with the increase of tissue temperature, tissue oxygen partial pressure, and tissue blood flow, and by this regional metabolism. As fatty tissue normally has a slow metabolism (bradytrophic and hypothermic tissue) with a low rate of lipolysis, wIRA can increase lipolysis in fatty tissue and the mobilized fats are burned in musculature during the ergometer exercise.
Conclusion: The results of the study indicate, that wIRA irradiation during moderate ergometer endurance exercise can be used – in combination with an appropriate nutrition – to improve body composition, especially local fat distribution, and the reduction of fat and body weight in obese persons.
RNA interference (RNAi) has emerged as a powerful tool to induce loss-of-function phenotypes by post-transcriptional silencing of gene expression. In this study we wondered whether inducible RNAi-cassettes integrated into cellular DNA possess the power to trigger neoplastic growth. For this purpose inducible RNAi vectors containing tetracycline (Tet)-responsive derivatives of the H1 promoter for the conditional expression of short hairpin RNA (shRNA) were used to target human polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1), which is overexpressed in a broad spectrum of human tumors. In the absence of doxycycline (Dox) HeLa clones expressing TetR, that carry the RNAi-cassette stably integrated, exhibited no significant alteration in Plk1 expression levels. In contrast, exposure to Dox led to marked downregulation of Plk1 mRNA to 3% and Plk1 protein to 14% in cell culture compared to mismatch shRNA/Plk1-expressing cells. As a result of Plk1 depletion cell proliferation decreased to 17%. Furthermore, for harnessing RNAi for silencing disease-related genes in vivo we transplanted inducible RNAi-HeLa cells onto nude mice. After administration of Dox knockdown of Plk1 expression was observed correlating to a significant inhibition of tumor growth. Taken together, our data revealed that genomically integrated RNAi-elements are suitable to hamper tumor growth by conditional expression of shRNA.
Natural objects provide partially redundant information to the brain through different sensory modalities. For example, voices and faces both give information about the speech content, age, and gender of a person. Thanks to this redundancy, multimodal recognition is fast, robust, and automatic. In unimodal perception, however, only part of the information about an object is available. Here, we addressed whether, even under conditions of unimodal sensory input, crossmodal neural circuits that have been shaped by previous associative learning become activated and underpin a performance benefit. We measured brain activity with functional magnetic resonance imaging before, while, and after participants learned to associate either sensory redundant stimuli, i.e. voices and faces, or arbitrary multimodal combinations, i.e. voices and written names, ring tones, and cell phones or brand names of these cell phones. After learning, participants were better at recognizing unimodal auditory voices that had been paired with faces than those paired with written names, and association of voices with faces resulted in an increased functional coupling between voice and face areas. No such effects were observed for ring tones that had been paired with cell phones or names. These findings demonstrate that brief exposure to ecologically valid and sensory redundant stimulus pairs, such as voices and faces, induces specific multisensory associations. Consistent with predictive coding theories, associative representations become thereafter available for unimodal perception and facilitate object recognition. These data suggest that for natural objects effective predictive signals can be generated across sensory systems and proceed by optimization of functional connectivity between specialized cortical sensory modules.
Background The proto-oncogene pituitary tumor-transforming gene (PTTG) has been shown to be abundantly overexpressed in a large variety of neoplasms likely promoting neo-vascularization and tumor invasiveness. In this study, we investigated a potential role for PTTG mRNA expression as a marker to evaluate the future clinical outcome of patients diagnosed with primary cancer of the head and neck. Methods Tumor samples derived from primary tumors of 89 patients suffering from a squamous cell carcinoma were analyzed for PTTG mRNA-expression and compared to corresponding unaffected tissue. Expression levels were correlated to standard clinico-pathological parameters based on a five year observation period. Results In almost all 89 tumor samples PTTG was found to be overexpressed (median fold increase: 2.1) when compared to the unaffected tissue specimens derived from the same patient. The nodal stage correlated with PTTG transcript levels with significant differences between pN0 (median expression: 1.32) and pN+ (median expression: 2.12; P = 0.016). In patients who developed a tumor recurrence we detected a significantly higher PTTG expression in primary tumors (median expression: 2.63) when compared to patients who did not develop a tumor recurrence (median expression: 1.29; P = 0.009). Since the median expression of PTTG in patients with tumor stage T1/2N0M0 that received surgery alone without tumor recurrence was 0.94 versus 3.82 in patients suffering from a tumor recurrence (P = 0.006), PTTG expression might provide a feasible mean of predicting tumor recurrence. Conclusion Elevated PTTG transcript levels might be used as a prognostic biomarker for future clinical outcome (i.e. recurrence) in primary squamous cell carcinomas of the head and neck, especially in early stages of tumor development.
The Na+/proline transporter of E. Coli (PutP) is responsible for the uptake of proline which is subsequently used not only as a carbon and nitrogen source and a constituent of proteins but also as a particularly effective osmoprotectant. However, for a long time there was little known about the single steps in the reaction cycle of this transporter and only few details about its structure-function relationship are available. Aim of the present work was to achieve a deeper understanding about the kinetic properties of the Na+/proline transporter and to get insights into the structure-function relationship of the substrate binding. To answer these questions different techniques were used. By using the novel SSM technique combining the preparation of PutP proteoliposomes it was possible to demonstrate for the first time the electrogenic substrate binding to PutP transporter. Due to rapid solution exchange measurements on the SSM it was additionally possible to obtain time resolved information about the kinetic details of the cytoplasmic substrate binding sites which were not available by previous steady state and equilibrium binding measurements. Pre-steady-state charge translocation was observed after rapid addition of one or both of the cosubstrates Na+ and/or proline to the PutP-WT proteoliposomes adsorbed on the SSM. Thereby it was possible to link the observed electrical signals with the binding activity of PutP. The observed Na+ and/or proline induced charge displacement were assigned to an electrogenic Na+ and/or proline binding process at the cytoplasmic face of the enzyme with a rate constant of k > 50 s-1 proceeding the rate limiting step of the reaction cycle. Furthermore, based on the kinetic analysis of the electrical signals obtained from the measurements of PutP on SSM, the following characteristics of the substrates binding in PutP were deduced: (1) both Na+ and proline can bind individually to the transporter. Under physiological conditions, an ordered binding mechanism prevails; while at sufficiently high concentrations, each substrate can bind in the absence of the other; (2) substrate binding is electrogenic not only for Na+, but also for the uncharged cosubstrate proline. The charge displacement associated with Na+ binding and proline binding is of comparable size and independent of the presence of the respective cosubstrate. In addition, it was concluded that Na+ accesses its binding site through a high-field access channel resulting in a charge translocation, whereas the binding of the electroneutral proline induces a conformation alteration involving the displacement of charged amino acid residue(s) of the protein; (3) Na+ and proline binding sites interact cooperatively with each other by increasing the affinity and/or the speed of binding of the respective cosubstrate; (4) proline binding proceeds in a two step process: low affinity (~ 0.9 mM) electroneutral substrate binding followed by a nearly irreversible electrogenic conformational transition; (5) membrane impermeable PCMBS inhibits both Na+ and proline binding to the inside-out orientated PutP transporter, indicating that rather than selectively blocking a specific binding site, PCMBS probably locks the enzyme in an inactive state. The possible targets for this SH-reagent are cysteines 281 and 344 located close to the cytoplasmic surface of the protein. Beyond it, transient electrical currents of PutP were also observed on the BLM after rapid addition of proline in the presence of Na+. This was possible by combining the conventional BLM technique with high-speed flash-photolysis of caged-proline. Indeed the signals on the BLM indicate the detection of a different underlying reaction process in comparison to the data achieved by the SSM technique. This has paved the way for supplemental information about the reaction cycle since it was possible to assign the flash-photolysis BLM signals to the proline binding step followed by the internalization of Na+ and proline into the liposome. Thereby it was found, that the presence of Na+ is indispensable and the time constant for the process is ~ 63 ms. Moreover, structure-function information about the Na+ and proline binding sites of PutP was obtained by investigating the functionally important amino acid residues Asp55, Gly63 and Asp187 with site-directed mutagenesis and the combined SSM technique. One finding is that the mutated proteins PutP-D55C and PutP-G63C showed no activity on the SSM. Therefore, it can be assumed that either both Asp55 and Gly63 are crucial for the structure of PutP protein, or they are located at or close to the Na+ and proline binding sites. Furthermore, the results obtained from PutP-D187N and PutP-D187C mutants on SSM suggest that Asp187 of PutP is likely to be involved in the Na+ binding at the cytoplasmic side of the backward running carrier. Taken together the results of the present work have substantially broadened the known picture of the Na+/proline transporter PutP thereby several steps of the reaction cycle were elucidated, and moreover, valuable insights into the structure-function relationship of the transporter have become available.
The N-terminal domain (matrix protein or MA) of a retroviral Gag polyprotein precursor plays a critical role in several stages of the retrovirus life cycle. MA is involved in the effective membrane targeting, assembly and release of the immature viral particles from the infected cell. In order to understand the structural basis of these functions, the full length MA from Moloney Murine Leukemia Virus (MoMuLV) was purified and the solution structure of the MA MoMuLV was determined by means of heteronuclear high-resolution NMR spectroscopy and compared with that of the X-ray diffraction analysis as well as with the structures of several MA proteins from geterologous viruses. Structural features were also obtained from CD spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering, sedimentation velocity, differential scanning calorimetry and other methods. It was found that the MA MoMuLV globular core (residues 8-98) is comprised of 7 well-defined helices (five alpha-helices and two 310 helices), with the general fold typical for MA proteins from other retroviral species. The N-terminus (residues Met1-Leu7) and the C-terminal proline-rich part (residues Pro103-Tyr131) are not structured in solution. Although MA MoMuLV has a low sequence identity compared with other matrix proteins for which the three-dimensional structure is known, it was shown that its overall topology and pattern of secondary structural units is similar to other retroviral matrix proteins. The monomeric state is observed for the correctly folded MA MoMuLV in a variety of external conditions and protein concentrations, indicating that virion assembly starts with the plasma membrane targeting of the nascent Gag precursor. The denaturation of MA MoMuLV is irreversible and is connected with protein aggregation. For Moloney Murine Leukemia Virus (MoMuLV) a proteolytic processing of the R-peptide (last 16 amino acids from the C-terminus of the Envelope protein (Env)) has been described as a second mode of fusion and activation preceding the receptor contact between the viral particle and the cellular membrane. An interaction between the R-peptide and MA MoMuLV has been proposed, since the R-peptide and MA are localized at the inner part of the membrane. Therefore the interaction between 15N labelled purified MA MoMuLV and synthesized R-peptide has been investigated using high-resolution NMR. It was found that in water solution MA MoMuLV and R-peptide do not form a tight complex, but in a mature virion in the presence of membranes or other protein factors it might be possible. In the case of HIV-1 the cytoplasmic part (EnvC) of the Env protein is much longer than in other retroviruses and again as for MoMuLV little is known about the interaction between EnvC and HIV MA. Hence, the full length HIV MA, and the last 150 amino acids from HIV Env have been subcloned with suitable expression vectors, purified and analysed by native gel electrophoresis, a pull down assay and by high resolution NMR for the purpose to detect the complex formation of EnvC and HIV MA. Finally, after all those experiments, it was found that a stable complex is not formed, but a weak interaction between the two proteins can not be excluded.
Background: PPARs exhibit anti-inflammatory capacities and are potential modulators of the inflammatory response. We hypothesized that their expression and/or function may be altered in cystic fibrosis (CF), a disorder characterized by an excessive host inflammatory response.
Methods: PPARα, β and γ mRNA levels were measured in peripheral blood cells of CF patients and healthy subjects via RT-PCR. PPARα protein expression and subcellular localization was determined via western blot and immunofluorescence, respectively. The activity of PPARα was analyzed by gel shift assay.
Results: In lymphocytes, the expression of PPARα mRNA, but not of PPARβ, was reduced (-37%; p < 0.002) in CF patients compared with healthy persons and was therefore further analyzed. A similar reduction of PPARα was observed at protein level (-26%; p < 0.05). The transcription factor was mainly expressed in the cytosol of lymphocytes, with low expression in the nucleus. Moreover, DNA binding activity of the transcription factor was 36% less in lymphocytes of patients (p < 0.01). For PPARα and PPARβ mRNA expression in monocytes and neutrophils, no significant differences were observed between CF patients and healthy persons. In all cells, PPARγ mRNA levels were below the detection limit.
Conclusion: Lymphocytes are important regulators of the inflammatory response by releasing cytokines and antibodies. The diminished lymphocytic expression and activity of PPARα may therefore contribute to the inflammatory processes that are observed in CF.
Background While there is enough convincing evidence in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), the data on the pre-natal origin in childhood acute myeloid leukemia (AML) are less comprehensive. Our study aimed to screen Guthrie cards (neonatal blood spots) of non-infant childhood AML and ALL patients for the presence of their respective leukemic markers. Methods We analysed Guthrie cards of 12 ALL patients aged 2–6 years using immunoglobulin (Ig) and T-cell receptor (TCR) gene rearrangements (n = 15) and/or intronic breakpoints of TEL/AML1 fusion gene (n = 3). In AML patients (n = 13, age 1–14 years) PML/RARalpha (n = 4), CBFbeta/MYH11 (n = 3), AML1/ETO (n = 2), MLL/AF6 (n = 1), MLL/AF9 (n = 1) and MLL/AF10 (n = 1) fusion genes and/or internal tandem duplication of FLT3 gene (FLT3/ITD) (n = 2) were used as clonotypic markers. Assay sensitivity determined using serial dilutions of patient DNA into the DNA of a healthy donor allowed us to detect the pre-leukemic clone in Guthrie card providing 1–3 positive cells were present in the neonatal blood spot. Results In 3 patients with ALL (25%) we reproducibly detected their leukemic markers (Ig/TCR n = 2; TEL/AML1 n = 1) in the Guthrie card. We did not find patient-specific molecular markers in any patient with AML. Conclusion In the largest cohort examined so far we used identical approach for the backtracking of non-infant childhood ALL and AML. Our data suggest that either the prenatal origin of AML is less frequent or the load of pre-leukemic cells is significantly lower at birth in AML compared to ALL cases.
Background: Experimental animal data show that protection against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) infection with human monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) is feasible. For an effective immune prophylaxis in humans, broad coverage of different strains of SARS-CoV and control of potential neutralization escape variants will be required. Combinations of virus-neutralizing, noncompeting mAbs may have these properties. Methods and Findings: Human mAb CR3014 has been shown to completely prevent lung pathology and abolish pharyngeal shedding of SARS-CoV in infected ferrets. We generated in vitro SARS-CoV variants escaping neutralization by CR3014, which all had a single P462L mutation in the glycoprotein spike (S) of the escape virus. In vitro experiments confirmed that binding of CR3014 to a recombinant S fragment (amino acid residues 318–510) harboring this mutation was abolished. We therefore screened an antibody-phage library derived from blood of a convalescent SARS patient for antibodies complementary to CR3014. A novel mAb, CR3022, was identified that neutralized CR3014 escape viruses, did not compete with CR3014 for binding to recombinant S1 fragments, and bound to S1 fragments derived from the civet cat SARS-CoV-like strain SZ3. No escape variants could be generated with CR3022. The mixture of both mAbs showed neutralization of SARS-CoV in a synergistic fashion by recognizing different epitopes on the receptor-binding domain. Dose reduction indices of 4.5 and 20.5 were observed for CR3014 and CR3022, respectively, at 100% neutralization. Because enhancement of SARS-CoV infection by subneutralizing antibody concentrations is of concern, we show here that anti-SARS-CoV antibodies do not convert the abortive infection of primary human macrophages by SARS-CoV into a productive one. Conclusions: The combination of two noncompeting human mAbs CR3014 and CR3022 potentially controls immune escape and extends the breadth of protection. At the same time, synergy between CR3014 and CR3022 may allow for a lower total antibody dose to be administered for passive immune prophylaxis of SARS-CoV infection.
Antileukoproteinase (ALP) is a physiological inhibitor of granulocytic serine proteases that has been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties in addition to its antiproteolytic activity. On the basis of its potential to block anti-collagen type II (CII) antibody-induced arthritis (CAIA) and to suppress the conformational activation of β2-integrins in leukocytes, the present study was undertaken to investigate its interference with leukocyte adherence to cytokine-activated endothelium. The potential of recombinant ALP to block the interactions of leukocytes with the endothelial lining was concomitantly investigated in vitro and in vivo. Thus, intravital fluorescence microscopic imaging of leukocyte rolling and firm adhesion to postcapillary venules were performed in the knee joints of DBA1/J mice after intravenous injection of anti-CII mAbs. An IL-1β-activated endothelial layer formed by a murine glomerular cell line (glEND.2) was used to assay the interaction with human leukocytes in vitro. Electromobility shift and luciferase reporter gene assays permitted the analysis of cytokine-induced activation of the NF-κB pathway. Fluorescence-activated cell sorting was applied to determine endothelial E-selectin expression. Leukocyte rolling and firm adhesion to the synovial endothelium in an early response to the anti-CII antibody transfer were significantly decreased in ALP-pretreated mice. Concomitantly, ALP suppressed the IL-1β-induced NF-κB activation and the upregulation of E-selectin expression in glEND.2 cells in vitro. These findings support the notion that the newly uncovered properties of ALP to interfere with cytokine signalling and upregulation of adhesion molecules in endothelial cells are likely to contribute to the therapeutic potential of ALP in immune-complex-induced tissue injury.
Introduction: Intoxications with carbachol, a muscarinic cholinergic receptor agonist are rare. We report an interesting case investigating a (near) fatal poisoning. Methods: The son of an 84-year-old male discovered a newspaper report stating clinical success with plant extracts in Alzheimer's disease. The mode of action was said to be comparable to that of the synthetic compound 'carbamylcholin'; that is, carbachol. He bought 25 g of carbachol as pure substance in a pharmacy, and the father was administered 400 to 500 mg. Carbachol concentrations in serum and urine on day 1 and 2 of hospital admission were analysed by HPLC-mass spectrometry. Results: Minutes after oral administration, the patient developed nausea, sweating and hypotension, and finally collapsed. Bradycardia, cholinergic symptoms and asystole occurred. Initial cardiopulmonary resuscitation and immediate treatment with adrenaline (epinephrine), atropine and furosemide was successful. On hospital admission, blood pressure of the intubated, bradyarrhythmic patient was 100/65 mmHg. Further signs were hyperhidrosis, hypersalivation, bronchorrhoea, and severe miosis; the electrocardiographic finding was atrio-ventricular dissociation. High doses of atropine (up to 50 mg per 24 hours), adrenaline and dopamine were necessary. The patient was extubated 1 week later. However, increased dyspnoea and bronchospasm necessitated reintubation. Respiratory insufficiency was further worsened by Proteus mirabilis infection and severe bronchoconstriction. One week later, the patient was again extubated and 3 days later was transferred to a peripheral ward. On the next day he died, probably as a result of heart failure. Serum samples from the first and second days contained 3.6 and 1.9 mg/l carbachol, respectively. The corresponding urine concentrations amounted to 374 and 554 mg/l. Conclusion: This case started with a media report in a popular newspaper, initiated by published, peer-reviewed research on herbals, and involved human failure in a case history, medical examination and clinical treatment. For the first time, an analytical method for the determination of carbachol in plasma and urine has been developed. The analysed carbachol concentration exceeded the supposed serum level resulting from a therapeutic dose by a factor of 130 to 260. Especially in old patients, intensivists should consider intoxications (with cholinergics) as a cause of acute cardiovascular failure.
The illusion of apparent motion can be induced when visual stimuli are successively presented at different locations. It has been shown in previous studies that motion-sensitive regions in extrastriate cortex are relevant for the processing of apparent motion, but it is unclear whether primary visual cortex (V1) is also involved in the representation of the illusory motion path. We investigated, in human subjects, apparent-motion-related activity in patches of V1 representing locations along the path of illusory stimulus motion using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Here we show that apparent motion caused a blood-oxygenation-level-dependent response along the V1 representations of the apparent-motion path, including regions that were not directly activated by the apparent-motion-inducing stimuli. This response was unaltered when participants had to perform an attention-demanding task that diverted their attention away from the stimulus. With a bistable motion quartet, we confirmed that the activity was related to the conscious perception of movement. Our data suggest that V1 is part of the network that represents the illusory path of apparent motion. The activation in V1 can be explained either by lateral interactions within V1 or by feedback mechanisms from higher visual areas, especially the motion-sensitive human MT/V5 complex.
Background: Depression is a disorder with high prevalence in primary health care and a significant burden of illness. The delivery of health care for depression, as well as other chronic illnesses, has been criticized for several reasons and new strategies to address the needs of these illnesses have been advocated. Case management is a patient-centered approach which has shown efficacy in the treatment of depression in highly organized Health Maintenance Organization (HMO) settings and which might also be effective in other, less structured settings. Methods/Design: PRoMPT (PRimary care Monitoring for depressive Patients Trial) is a cluster randomised controlled trial with General Practice (GP) as the unit of randomisation. The aim of the study is to evaluate a GP applied case-management for patients with major depressive disorder. 70 GPs were randomised either to intervention group or to control group with the control group delivering usual care. Each GP will include 10 patients suffering from major depressive disorder according to the DSM-IV criteria. The intervention group will receive treatment based on standardized guidelines and monthly telephone monitoring from a trained practice nurse. The nurse investigates the patient's status concerning the MDD criteria, his adherence to GPs prescriptions, possible side effects of medication, and treatment goal attainment. The control group receives usual care – including recommended guidelines. Main outcome measure is the cumulative score of the section depressive disorders (PHQ-9) from the German version of the Prime MD Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-D). Secondary outcome measures are the Beck-Depression-Inventory, self-reported adherence (adapted from Moriskey) and the SF-36. In addition, data are collected about patients' satisfaction (EUROPEP-tool), medication, health care utilization, comorbidity, suicide attempts and days out of work. The study comprises three assessment times: baseline (T0) , follow-up after 6 months (T1) and follow-up after 12 months (T2). Discussion: Depression is now recognized as a disorder with a high prevalence in primary care but with insufficient treatment response. Case management seems to be a promising intervention which has the potential to bridge the gap of the usually time-limited and fragmented provision of care. Case management has been proven to be effective in several studies but its application in the private general medical practice setting remains unclear.
Background: Diabetes model projects in different regions of Germany including interventions such as quality circles, patient education and documentation of medical findings have shown improvements of HbA1c levels, blood pressure and occurrence of hypoglycaemia in before-after studies (without control group). In 2002 the German Ministry of Health defined legal regulations for the introduction of nationwide disease management programs (DMP) to improve the quality of care in chronically ill patients. In April 2003 the first DMP for patients with type 2 diabetes was accredited. The evaluation of the DMP is essential and has been made obligatory in Germany by the Fifth Book of Social Code. The aim of the study is to assess the effectiveness of DMP by example of type 2 diabetes in the primary care setting of two German federal states (Rheinland-Pfalz and Sachsen-Anhalt). Methods/Design: The study is three-armed: a prospective cluster-randomized comparison of two interventions (DMP 1 and DMP 2) against routine care without DMP as control group. In the DMP group 1 the patients are treated according to the current situation within the German-Diabetes-DMP. The DMP group 2 represents diabetic care within ideally implemented DMP providing additional interventions (e.g. quality circles, outreach visits). According to a sample size calculation a sample size of 200 GPs (each GP including 20 patients) will be required for the comparison of DMP 1 and DMP 2 considering possible drop-outs. For the comparison with routine care 4000 patients identified by diabetic tracer medication and age (> 50 years) will be analyzed. Discussion: This study will evaluate the effectiveness of the German Diabetes-DMP compared to a Diabetes-DMP providing additional interventions and routine care in the primary care setting of two different German federal states.
Celiac disease
(2006)
Celiac disease is a chronic intestinal disease caused by intolerance to gluten. It is characterized by immune-mediated enteropathy, associated with maldigestion and malabsorption of most nutrients and vitamins. In predisposed individuals, the ingestion of gluten-containing food such as wheat and rye induces a flat jejunal mucosa with infiltration of lymphocytes. The main symptoms are: stomach pain, gas, and bloating, diarrhea, weight loss, anemia, edema, bone or joint pain. Prevalence for clinically overt celiac disease varies from 1:270 in Finland to 1:5000 in North America. Since celiac disease can be asymptomatic, most subjects are not diagnosed or they can present with atypical symptoms. Furthermore, severe inflammation of the small bowel can be present without any gastrointestinal symptoms. The diagnosis should be made early since celiac disease causes growth retardation in untreated children and atypical symptoms like infertility or neurological symptoms. Diagnosis requires endoscopy with jejunal biopsy. In addition, tissue-transglutaminase antibodies are important to confirm the diagnosis since there are other diseases which can mimic celiac disease. The exact cause of celiac disease is unknown but is thought to be primarily immune mediated (tissue-transglutaminase autoantigen); often the disease is inherited. Management consists in life long withdrawal of dietary gluten, which leads to significant clinical and histological improvement. However, complete normalization of histology can take years.
Background: Murine leukemia virus (MLV) vector particles can be pseudotyped with a truncated variant of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) envelope protein (Env) and selectively target gene transfer to human cells expressing both CD4 and an appropriate co-receptor. Vector transduction mimics the HIV-1 entry process and is therefore a safe tool to study HIV-1 entry. Results: Using FLY cells, which express the MLV gag and pol genes, we generated stable producer cell lines that express the HIV-1 envelope gene and a retroviral vector genome encoding the green fluorescent protein (GFP). The BH10 or 89.6 P HIV-1 Env was expressed from a bicistronic vector which allowed the rapid selection of stable cell lines. A codon-usage-optimized synthetic env gene permitted high, Rev-independent Env expression. Vectors generated by these producer cells displayed different sensitivity to entry inhibitors. Conclusion: These data illustrate that MLV/HIV-1 vectors are a valuable screening system for entry inhibitors or neutralizing antisera generated by vaccines.
Background: Osteoarthritis (OA) has a high prevalence in primary care. Conservative, guideline orientated approaches aiming at improving pain treatment and increasing physical activity, have been proven to be effective in several contexts outside the primary care setting, as for instance the Arthritis Self management Programs (ASMPs). But it remains unclear if these comprehensive evidence based approaches can improve patients' quality of life if they are provided in a primary care setting. Methods/Design: PraxArt is a cluster randomised controlled trial with GPs as the unit of randomisation. The aim of the study is to evaluate the impact of a comprehensive evidence based medical education of GPs on individual care and patients' quality of life. 75 GPs were randomised either to intervention group I or II or to a control group. Each GP will include 15 patients suffering from osteoarthritis according to the criteria of ACR. In intervention group I GPs will receive medical education and patient education leaflets including a physical exercise program. In intervention group II the same is provided, but in addition a practice nurse will be trained to monitor via monthly telephone calls adherence to GPs prescriptions and advices and ask about increasing pain and possible side effects of medication. In the control group no intervention will be applied at all. Main outcome measurement for patients' QoL is the GERMAN-AIMS2-SF questionnaire. In addition data about patients' satisfaction (using a modified EUROPEP-tool), medication, health care utilization, comorbidity, physical activity and depression (using PHQ-9) will be retrieved. Measurements (pre data collection) will take place in months I-III, starting in June 2005. Post data collection will be performed after 6 months. Discussion: Despite the high prevalence and increasing incidence, comprehensive and evidence based treatment approaches for OA in a primary care setting are neither established nor evaluated in Germany. If the evaluation of the presented approach reveals a clear benefit it is planned to provide this GP-centred interventions on a much larger scale.
The large conductance voltage- and Ca2+-activated potassium (BK) channel has been suggested to play an important role in the signal transduction process of cochlear inner hair cells. BK channels have been shown to be composed of the pore-forming alpha-subunit coexpressed with the auxiliary beta-1-subunit. Analyzing the hearing function and cochlear phenotype of BK channel alpha-(BKalpha–/–) and beta-1-subunit (BKbeta-1–/–) knockout mice, we demonstrate normal hearing function and cochlear structure of BKbeta-1–/– mice. During the first 4 postnatal weeks also, BKalpha–/– mice most surprisingly did not show any obvious hearing deficits. High-frequency hearing loss developed in BKalpha–/– mice only from ca. 8 weeks postnatally onward and was accompanied by a lack of distortion product otoacoustic emissions, suggesting outer hair cell (OHC) dysfunction. Hearing loss was linked to a loss of the KCNQ4 potassium channel in membranes of OHCs in the basal and midbasal cochlear turn, preceding hair cell degeneration and leading to a similar phenotype as elicited by pharmacologic blockade of KCNQ4 channels. Although the actual link between BK gene deletion, loss of KCNQ4 in OHCs, and OHC degeneration requires further investigation, data already suggest human BK-coding slo1 gene mutation as a susceptibility factor for progressive deafness, similar to KCNQ4 potassium channel mutations. © 2004, The National Academy of Sciences. Freely available online through the PNAS open access option.
Background: The existence of a constitutively expressed machinery for death in individual cells has led to the notion that survival factors repress this machinery and, if such factors are unavailable, cells die by default. In many cells, however, mRNA and protein synthesis inhibitors induce apoptosis, suggesting that in some cases transcriptional activity might actually impede cell death. To identify transcriptional mechanisms that interfere with cell death and survival, we combined gene trap mutagenesis with site-specific recombination (Cre/loxP system) to isolate genes from cells undergoing apoptosis by growth factor deprivation.
Results: From an integration library consisting of approximately 2 × 106 unique proviral integrations obtained by infecting the interleukin-3 (IL-3)-dependent hematopoietic cell line - FLOXIL3 - with U3Cre gene trap virus, we have isolated 125 individual clones that converted to factor independence upon IL-3 withdrawal. Of 102 cellular sequences adjacent to U3Cre integration sites, 17% belonged to known genes, 11% matched single expressed sequence tags (ESTs) or full cDNAs with unknown function and 72% had no match within the public databases. Most of the known genes recovered in this analysis encoded proteins with survival functions.
Conclusions: We have shown that hematopoietic cells undergoing apoptosis after withdrawal of IL-3 activate survival genes that impede cell death. This results in reduced apoptosis and improved survival of cells treated with a transient apoptotic stimulus. Thus, apoptosis in hematopoietic cells is the end result of a conflict between death and survival signals, rather than a simple death by default.
An excess of the proinflammatory substance IL-18 is present in joints of patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and expression of IL-18 receptor (IL-18R) regulates IL-18 bioactivity in various cell types. We examined the expression of IL-18R alpha-chain and beta-chain and the biologic effects of IL-18 in fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) after long-term culture. The presence of both IL-18R chains was a prerequisite for IL-18 signal transduction in FLS. However, all FLS cultures studied were either resistant or barely responsive to IL-18 stimulation as regards cell proliferation, expression of adhesion molecules ICAM-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1, and the release of interstitial collagenase and stromelysin, IL-6 and IL-8, prostaglandin E2, or nitric oxide. We conclude that the presence of macrophages or IL-18R+ T cells that can respond directly to IL-18 is essential for the proinflammatory effects of IL-18 in synovitis in RA. Open Access: Published: 14 November 2001 © 2002 Möller et al., licensee BioMed Central Ltd (Print ISSN 1465-9905; Online ISSN 1465-9913)
Background: Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) is performed mainly in patients with high-risk or advanced hematologic malignancies and congenital or acquired aplastic anemias. In the context of the significant risk of graft failure after allo-HSCT from alternative donors and the risk of relapse in recipients transplanted for malignancy, the precise monitoring of posttransplant hematopoietic chimerism is of utmost interest. Useful molecular methods for chimerism quantification after allogeneic transplantation, aimed at distinguishing precisely between donor's and recipient's cells, are PCR-based analyses of polymorphic DNA markers. Such analyses can be performed regardless of donor's and recipient's sex. Additionally, in patients after sex-mismatched allo-HSCT, fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) can be applied. Methods: We compared different techniques for analysis of posttransplant chimerism, namely FISH and PCR-based molecular methods with automated detection of fluorescent products in an ALFExpress DNA Sequencer (Pharmacia) or ABI 310 Genetic Analyzer (PE). We used Spearman correlation test. Results: We have found high correlation between results obtained from the PCR/ALF Express and PCR/ABI 310 Genetic Analyzer. Lower, but still positive correlations were found between results of FISH technique and results obtained using automated DNA sizing technology. Conclusions: All the methods applied enable a rapid and accurate detection of post-HSCT chimerism.
Background: To investigate the occupational risk of tuberculosis (TB) infection in a low-incidence setting, data from a prospective study of patients with culture-confirmed TB conducted in Hamburg, Germany, from 1997 to 2002 were evaluated. Methods: M. tuberculosis isolates were genotyped by IS6110 RFLP analysis. Results of contact tracing and additional patient interviews were used for further epidemiological analyses. Results: Out of 848 cases included in the cluster analysis, 286 (33.7%) were classified into 76 clusters comprising 2 to 39 patients. In total, two patients in the non-cluster and eight patients in the cluster group were health-care workers. Logistic regression analysis confirmed work in the health-care sector as the strongest predictor for clustering (OR 17.9). However, only two of the eight transmission links among the eight clusters involving health-care workers had been detected previously. Overall, conventional contact tracing performed before genotyping had identified only 26 (25.2%) of the 103 contact persons with the disease among the clustered cases whose transmission links were epidemiologically verified. Conclusion: Recent transmission was found to be strongly associated with health-care work in a setting with low incidence of TB. Conventional contact tracing alone was shown to be insufficient to discover recent transmission chains. The data presented also indicate the need for establishing improved TB control strategies in health-care settings.
Introduction: ScFv(FRP5)-ETA is a recombinant antibody toxin with binding specificity for ErbB2 (HER2). It consists of an N-terminal single-chain antibody fragment (scFv), genetically linked to truncated Pseudomonas exotoxin A (ETA). Potent antitumoral activity of scFv(FRP5)-ETA against ErbB2-overexpressing tumor cells was previously demonstrated in vitro and in animal models. Here we report the first systemic application of scFv(FRP5)-ETA in human cancer patients.
Methods: We have performed a phase I dose-finding study, with the objective to assess the maximum tolerated dose and the dose-limiting toxicity of intravenously injected scFv(FRP5)-ETA. Eighteen patients suffering from ErbB2-expressing metastatic breast cancers, prostate cancers, head and neck cancer, non small cell lung cancer, or transitional cell carcinoma were treated. Dose levels of 2, 4, 10, 12.5, and 20 μg/kg scFv(FRP5)-ETA were administered as five daily infusions each for two consecutive weeks.
Results: No hematologic, renal, and/or cardiovascular toxicities were noted in any of the patients treated. However, transient elevation of liver enzymes was observed, and considered dose limiting, in one of six patients at the maximum tolerated dose of 12.5 μg/kg, and in two of three patients at 20 μg/kg. Fifteen minutes after injection, peak concentrations of more than 100 ng/ml scFv(FRP5)-ETA were obtained at a dose of 10 μg/kg, indicating that predicted therapeutic levels of the recombinant protein can be applied without inducing toxic side effects. Induction of antibodies against scFv(FRP5)-ETA was observed 8 days after initiation of therapy in 13 patients investigated, but only in five of these patients could neutralizing activity be detected. Two patients showed stable disease and in three patients clinical signs of activity in terms of signs and symptoms were observed (all treated at doses ≥ 10 μg/kg). Disease progression occurred in 11 of the patients.
Conclusion: Our results demonstrate that systemic therapy with scFv(FRP5)-ETA can be safely administered up to a maximum tolerated dose of 12.5 μg/kg in patients with ErbB2-expressing tumors, justifying further clinical development.
Dendritic cells (DC) are known to present exogenous protein Ag effectively to T cells. In this study we sought to identify the proteases that DC employ during antigen processing. The murine epidermal-derived DC line Xs52, when pulsed with PPD, optimally activated the PPD-reactive Th1 clone LNC.2F1 as well as the Th2 clone LNC.4k1, and this activation was completely blocked by chloroquine pretreatment. These results validate the capacity of XS52 DC to digest PPD into immunogenic peptides inducing antigen specific T cell immune responses. XS52 DC, as well as splenic DC and DCs derived from bone marrow degraded standard substrates for cathepsins B, C, D/E, H, J, and L, tryptase, and chymases, indicating that DC express a variety of protease activities. Treatment of XS52 DC with pepstatin A, an inhibitor of aspartic acid proteases, completely abrogated their capacity to present native PPD, but not trypsin-digested PPD fragments to Th1 and Th2 cell clones. Pepstatin A also inhibited cathepsin D/E activity selectively among the XS52 DC-associated protease activities. On the other hand, inhibitors of serine proteases (dichloroisocoumarin, DCI) or of cystein proteases (E-64) did not impair XS52 DC presentation of PPD, nor did they inhibit cathepsin D/E activity. Finally, all tested DC populations (XS52 DC, splenic DC, and bone marrow-derived DC) constitutively expressed cathepsin D mRNA. These results suggest that DC primarily employ cathepsin D (and perhaps E) to digest PPD into antigenic peptides.
Background: The neurophysiological and neuroanatomical foundations of persistent developmental stuttering (PDS) are still a matter of dispute. A main argument is that stutterers show atypical anatomical asymmetries of speech-relevant brain areas, which possibly affect speech fluency. The major aim of this study was to determine whether adults with PDS have anomalous anatomy in cortical speech-language areas. Methods: Adults with PDS (n = 10) and controls (n = 10) matched for age, sex, hand preference, and education were studied using high-resolution MRI scans. Using a new variant of the voxel-based morphometry technique (augmented VBM) the brains of stutterers and non-stutterers were compared with respect to white matter (WM) and grey matter (GM) differences. Results: We found increased WM volumes in a right-hemispheric network comprising the superior temporal gyrus (including the planum temporale), the inferior frontal gyrus (including the pars triangularis), the precentral gyrus in the vicinity of the face and mouth representation, and the anterior middle frontal gyrus. In addition, we detected a leftward WM asymmetry in the auditory cortex in non-stutterers, while stutterers showed symmetric WM volumes. Conclusions: These results provide strong evidence that adults with PDS have anomalous anatomy not only in perisylvian speech and language areas but also in prefrontal and sensorimotor areas. Whether this atypical asymmetry of WM is the cause or the consequence of stuttering is still an unanswered question. This article is available from: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2377/4/23 © 2004 Jäncke et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
First paragraph (this article has no abstract) Persistent stimulation of nociceptors results in sensitization of nociceptive sensory neurons, which is associated with hyperalgesia and allodynia. The release of NO and subsequent synthesis of cGMP in the spinal cord are involved in this process. cGMP-dependent protein kinase I (PKG-I) has been suggested to act as a downstream target of cGMP, but its exact role in nociception hadn't been characterized yet. To further evaluate the NO/cGMP/PKG-I pathway in nociception we assessed the effects of PKG-I inhibiton and activaton in the rat formalin assay and analyzed the nociceptive behavior of PKG-I-/- mice. Open access article.
Background: Tumor development remains one of the major obstacles following organ transplantation. Immunosuppressive drugs such as cyclosporine and tacrolimus directly contribute to enhanced malignancy, whereas the influence of the novel compound mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) on tumor cell dissemination has not been explored. We therefore investigated the adhesion capacity of colon, pancreas, prostate and kidney carcinoma cell lines to endothelium, as well as their beta1 integrin expression profile before and after MMF treatment. Methods: Tumor cell adhesion to endothelial cell monolayers was evaluated in the presence of 0.1 and 1 μM MMF and compared to unstimulated controls. beta1 integrin analysis included alpha1beta1 (CD49a), alpha2beta1 (CD49b), alpha3beta1 (CD49c), alpha4beta1 (CD49d), alpha5beta1 (CD49e), and alpha6beta1 (CD49f) receptors, and was carried out by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, confocal microscopy and flow cytometry. Results: Adhesion of the colon carcinoma cell line HT-29 was strongly reduced in the presence of 0.1 μM MMF. This effect was accompanied by down-regulation of alpha3beta1 and alpha6beta1 surface expression and of alpha3beta1 and alpha6beta1 coding mRNA. Adhesion of the prostate tumor cell line DU-145 was blocked dose-dependently by MMF. In contrast to MMF's effects on HT-29 cells, MMF dose-dependently up-regulated alpha1beta1, alpha2beta1, alpha3beta1, and alpha5beta1 on DU-145 tumor cell membranes. Conclusion: We conclude that MMF possesses distinct anti-tumoral properties, particularly in colon and prostate carcinoma cells. Adhesion blockage of HT-29 cells was due to the loss of alpha3beta1 and alpha6beta1 surface expression, which might contribute to a reduced invasive behaviour of this tumor entity. The enhancement of integrin beta1 subtypes observed in DU-145 cells possibly causes re-differentiation towards a low-invasive phenotype.
Introduction: This open label, multicentre study was conducted to assess the times to offset of the pharmacodynamic effects and the safety of remifentanil in patients with varying degrees of renal impairment requiring intensive care.
Methods: A total of 40 patients, who were aged 18 years or older and had normal/mildly impaired renal function (estimated creatinine clearance ≥ 50 ml/min; n = 10) or moderate/severe renal impairment (estimated creatinine clearance <50 ml/min; n = 30), were entered into the study. Remifentanil was infused for up to 72 hours (initial rate 6–9 μg/kg per hour), with propofol administered if required, to achieve a target Sedation–Agitation Scale score of 2–4, with no or mild pain.
Results: There was no evidence of increased offset time with increased duration of exposure to remifentanil in either group. The time to offset of the effects of remifentanil (at 8, 24, 48 and 72 hours during scheduled down-titrations of the infusion) were more variable and were statistically significantly longer in the moderate/severe group than in the normal/mild group at 24 hours and 72 hours. These observed differences were not clinically significant (the difference in mean offset at 72 hours was only 16.5 min). Propofol consumption was lower with the remifentanil based technique than with hypnotic based sedative techniques. There were no statistically significant differences between the renal function groups in the incidence of adverse events, and no deaths were attributable to remifentanil use.
Conclusion: Remifentanil was well tolerated, and the offset of pharmacodynamic effects was not prolonged either as a result of renal dysfunction or prolonged infusion up to 72 hours.
Background: Common warts (verrucae vulgares) are human papilloma virus (HPV) infections with a high incidence and prevalence, most often affecting hands and feet, being able to impair quality of life. About 30 different therapeutic regimens described in literature reveal a lack of a single striking strategy. Recent publications showed positive results of photodynamic therapy (PDT) with 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) in the treatment of HPV-induced skin diseases, especially warts, using visible light (VIS) to stimulate an absorption band of endogenously formed protoporphyrin IX. Additional experiences adding waterfiltered infrared A (wIRA) during 5-ALA-PDT revealed positive effects. Aim of the study: First prospective randomised controlled blind study including PDT and wIRA in the treatment of recalcitrant common hand and foot warts. Comparison of "5-ALA cream (ALA) vs. placebo cream (PLC)" and "irradiation with visible light and wIRA (VIS+wIRA) vs. irradiation with visible light alone (VIS)". Methods: Pre-treatment with keratolysis (salicylic acid) and curettage. PDT treatment: topical application of 5-ALA (Medac) in "unguentum emulsificans aquosum" vs. placebo; irradiation: combination of VIS and a large amount of wIRA (Hydrosun® radiator type 501, 4 mm water cuvette, waterfiltered spectrum 590-1400 nm, contact-free, typically painless) vs. VIS alone. Post-treatment with retinoic acid ointment. One to three therapy cycles every 3 weeks. Main variable of interest: "Percent change of total wart area of each patient over the time" (18 weeks). Global judgement by patient and by physician and subjective rating of feeling/pain (visual analogue scales). 80 patients with therapy-resistant common hand and foot warts were assigned randomly into one of the four therapy groups with comparable numbers of warts at comparable sites in all groups. Results: The individual total wart area decreased during 18 weeks in group 1 (ALA+VIS+wIRA) and in group 2 (PLC+VIS+wIRA) significantly more than in both groups without wIRA (group 3 (ALA+VIS) and 4 (PLC+VIS)): medians and interquartile ranges: -94% (-100%/-84%) vs. -99% (-100%/-71%) vs. -47% (-75%/0%) vs. -73% (-92%/-27%). After 18 weeks the two groups with wIRA differed remarkably from the two groups without wIRA: 42% vs. 7% completely cured patients; 72% vs. 34% vanished warts. Global judgement by patient and by physician and subjective rating of feeling was much better in the two groups with wIRA than in the two groups without wIRA. Conclusions: The above described complete treatment scheme of hand and foot warts (keratolysis, curettage, PDT treatment, irradiation with VIS+wIRA, retinoic acid ointment; three therapy cycles every 3 weeks) proved to be effective. Within this treatment scheme wIRA as non-invasive and painless treatment modality revealed to be an important, effective factor, while photodynamic therapy with 5-ALA in the described form did not contribute recognisably - neither alone (without wIRA) nor in combination with wIRA - to a clinical improvement. For future treatment of warts an even improved scheme is proposed: one treatment cycle (keratolysis, curettage, wIRA, without PDT) once a week for six to nine weeks. © 2004 Fuchs et al; licensee German Medical Science. This is an Open Access article: verbatim copying and redistribution of this article are permitted in all media for any purpose, provided this notice is preserved along with the article's original URL : http://www.egms.de/en/gms/volume2.shtml
Apparent contradiction between negative effects of UV radiation and positive effects of sun exposure
(2005)
We would like to comment on the three contributions in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute, Vol. 97, No. 3, February 2, 2005: Kathleen M. Egan, Jeffrey A. Sosman, William J. Blot: Editorial: Sunlight and Reduced Risk of Cancer: Is the Real Story Vitamin D? (pp. 161-163) ; Marianne Berwick, Bruce K. Armstrong, Leah Ben-Porat, Judith Fine, Anne Kricker, Carey Eberle, Raymond Barnhill: Sun Exposure and Mortality From Melanoma. (pp. 195-199) ; Karin Ekström Smedby, Henrik Hjalgrim, Mads Melbye, Anna Torrång, Klaus Rostgaard, Lars Munksgaard, et al.: Ultraviolet Radiation Exposure and Risk of Malignant Lymphomas. (pp. 199-209).
Removal of apoptotic cells by macrophages or resident semi-professional phagocytes is a prominent principle with important implications for the pathophysiology of chronic inflammatory diseases, viral infections, or cancer. To characterize mechanisms which may determine the fate of apoptotic cells, I investigated chemokine expression in apoptotic promonocytic U-937 cells or PBMC. Exposure of U-937 cells to the anti-cancer drug etoposide (VP-16), an inducer of apoptosis in these cells, was associated with increased expression of the chemokines IL-8 and macrophage inflammatory protein 1alpha (MIP-1alpha). Upregulation of IL-8 mRNA expression by VP-16 was observed as early as 4 h after onset of treatment and was still detectable after 19h of exposure. A serine protease inhibitor prevented both VP-16-induced apoptosis and release of IL-8, whereas inhibition of p38 MAP-kinases reduced IL-8 secretion only. Moreover, I observed that incubation with 2-chlorodeoxyadenosine (CdA) upregulated release of IL-8 from adherent PBMC in parallel to induction of apoptosis. In these cells a modest but significant induction of TNF-alpha release by CdA was also detected. In addition, CdA augmented release of IL-8 from whole blood cultures. By facilitating adequate recruitment of phagocytes to sites of cell death, stress-induced upregulation of chemokines associated with apoptosis may contribute to mechanisms aiming at efficient removal of apoptotic cells.
Remodeling of extracellular matrix (ECM) is an important physiologic feature of normal growth and development. In addition to this critical function in physiology many diseases have been associated with an imbalance of ECM synthesis and degradation. In the kidney, dysregulation of ECM turnover can lead to interstitial fibrosis, and glomerulosclerosis. The major physiologic regulators of ECM degradation in the glomerulus are the large family of zinc-dependent proteases, collectively refered to matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). The tight regulation of most of these proteases is accomplished by different mechanisms, including the regulation of MMP gene expression, the processing and conversion of the inactive zymogen by other proteases such as serine proteases and finally the inhibition of active MMPs by endogenous inhibitors of MMPs, denoted as tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs). Namely, the MMP-9 has been shown to be critically involved in the dysregulation of ECM turnover associated with severe pathologic conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis or fibrosis of lung, skin and kidney. In the present work I searched for a possible modulation of MMP-9 expression and/or activity in glomerular mesangial cells which are thought as key players of many inflammatory and non-inflammatory glomerular diseases. I found that various structurally different PPARalpha agonists such as WY-14,643, LY-171883 and fibrates potently suppress the cytokine-induced MMP-9 expression in renal MC. Furthermore, I demonstrate that the inhibition of MMP-9 expression by PPARalpha agonists was paralleled by a strong increase of cytokine-induced iNOS expression and subsequent NO formation, suggesting that PPARalpha-dependent effects on MMP-9 expression level primarily result from alterations in NO production which in turn reduces the MMP-9 mRNA half-life. Searching for the detailed mechanism of NO-dependent effects on MMP-9 mRNA stability, I found that NO either given from exogenous sources or endogenously produced increases the MMP-9 mRNA degradation by decreasing the expression of the mRNA stabilizing factor HuR. Furthermore, I demonstrate a reduction in the RNA-binding capacity of HuR containing complexes to MMP-9 ARE motifs in cells treated with NO. Since the reduction of HuR expression can be mimicked by the cGMP analog 8-Bromo-cGMP, I suggest that NO reduces in a cGMP-dependent manner the expression of HuR. Finally, I elucidated the modulatory effect of extracellular nucleotides, mainly ATP, on cytokine-triggered MMP-9 expression. Interestingly, I found that in contrast to NO, gamma-S-ATP the stable analog of ATP potently amplifies the IL-beta mediated MMP-9 expression. The increase in mRNA stability was paralleled by an increase in the nuclear-cytosolic shuttling of the mRNA stabilizing factor HuR. Furthermore, I demonstrate an increase in the RNA-binding capacity of HuR containing complexes to the 3'-UTR of MMP-9 by ATP. In summary, the data presented here may help to find new targets (posttranscriptional regulation) that could be used to manipulate or modulate the expression of not only MMP-9 but also other genes regulated on the level of mRNA stability.
Der Produktion von Interleukin-8 (IL-8), Hämoxygenase-1 (HO-1), und dem vaskulären endothelialen Wachstumsfaktor (VEGF) wird zunehmend größere Bedeutung im Rahmen der Regulation der Immunantwort bei Entzündung, Infektion und Tumorwachstum zugemessen. Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Untersuchung der Regulation dieser Botenstoffe in vitro durch Verwendung der humanen Dickdarmkarzinomzellinie DLD-1. Die Substanz Pyrrolidinedithiocarbamate (PDTC) verstärkt nicht nur die durch Tumornekrosefaktor-a (TNF-a) vermittelte Ausschüttung von IL-8, sondern induziert auch als alleiniger Stimulus die IL-8-Sekretion. Mutationsanalysen des IL-8-Promotors und "Electrophoretic Mobility Shift" Untersuchungen (EMSA) zeigten, daß die Aktivierung des Transkriptionsfaktors AP-1 (Aktivator Protein-1) und die Bindungsaktivität von konstitutiv aktiviertem NF-KB in DLD-1 Zellen für die PDTC induzierte IL-8 Expression zwingend erforderlich waren. Weiterhin war PDTC in der Lage in DLD-1 Zellen neben IL-8 auch die Expression von HO-1 und VEGF zu verstärken. Die Induktion von IL-8 durch PDTC war nicht nur auf DLD-1 Zellen beschränkt, sondern wurde auch in Caco-2 Zellen (ebenfalls Dickdarmkrebszellen) und in humanen mononukleären Blutzellen beobachtet. Die Verwendung von PDTC wird seit kurzem als Kombinationspräparat für Zytostatia zur Behandlung von verschiedenen bösartigen Tumoren, unter ihnen auch Darmkrebs, vorgeschlagen. Aus unseren Versuchen läßt sich ableiten, daß die Induktion von IL-8, HO-1 und VEGF die therapeutische Anwendung dieser Substanz nachteilig beeinflussen könnte. Dies ergibt sich daraus, daß alle drei genannten Faktoren durch proangiogene Wirkungen das Tumorwachstum fördern. Die Expression der induzierbaren Stickoxidsynthase und die Produktion von Stickoxid (NO) korreliert mit der Angiogenese bei verschiedenen Krebserkrankungen darunter Melanome, Tumore im Hals- und Kopfbereich und Darmkrebs. Da tumorbegünstigende Funktionen von NO mit vermehrter Angiogenese in Verbindung gebracht werden, wurden die Effekte von NO hinsichtlich der Produktion von ausgesuchten Chemokinen, die an der Steuerung des Tumorwachstums beteiligt sind, untersucht. Zu diesen Chemokinen gehören das proangiogene IL-8 sowie das tumorsuppressiv durch Interferon induzierbare Protein-10 (IP-10) und das Monokin induziert durch Interferon-y (MIG). Diese Chemokine werden, nach Stimulation mit IL- 1ß und lnterferon-? (IFN-?) von DLD-1 Zellen, ausgeschüttet. Unter diesen Bedingungen wird die IL-8 Freisetzung alleine durch IL-1ß vermittelt, aber nicht durch INFy. Im Gegensatz zu IL-8 hängt die Sekretion von IP-10 und MIG von der Aktivierung durch IFNy ab. Die Effekte von NO wurden analysiert indem DLD-1 Zellen mit dem NO-Donor DETA-NO inkubiert wurden. DETA-NO besitzt eine Halbwertzeit von 16,5h und simuliert damit die Effekte der endogenen NO-Synthase. Synthese und Freisetzung von IL-8 wurden durch die Behandlung mit NO stark gesteigert. Außerdem wurde in Zellen die dem NO-Donor ausgesetzt wurden die basale Sekretion des VEGF signifikant verstärkt. Dies steht im Gegensatz zur IL-Iß/IFNy-induzierten Produktion von IP-10 und MIG, beide wurden durch Koinkubation mit NO unterdrückt. Ebenso wurde die Regulation der IFNy abhängigen induzierbaren Stickoxidsynthase in DLD-1 Zellen von NO unterdrückt. Die vorliegenden Daten ergänzen vorherige Studien, in denen NO mit Tumorangiogenese und verstärkten Tumorwachstum in Verbindung gebracht wird. Die NO vermittelte Induktion von IL-8 und VEGF, ebenso wie die Verminderung der IP-10 and MIG Expression, könnte zu diesem Phänomen beitragen. Unsere Studien stützen die Hypothese, daß spezifische lnhibitoren der iNOS therapeutischen Nutzen bei humanen Neoplasien haben könnten.
A gene trap strategy was used to identify genes induced in hematopoietic cells undergoing apoptosis by growth factor withdrawal. IL-3 dependent survival of hematopoietic cells relies on a delicate balance between proliferation and apoptosis that is controlled by the availability of cytokines (Thompson, 1995; Iijima et al., 2002). From our previous results of gene trap assay, we postulated that transcriptionally activated antagonistic genes against apoptosis might actually block or delay cell death (Wempe et al., 2001) causing cells to have carcinogenic behavior. The analysis attempted to better understand the outcome of a death program following IL-3 deprivation and to identify those survival genes whose expression is affected by time dependent manner. As described in the chapter 4, there would be two major conclusions evident from the three separate experiments (Genetrap, Atlas cDNA array and Affymetrix chips): Firstly 56% of trapped genes, that are up-regulated by IL-3 withdrawal (28 of 50), are directly related to cell death or survival. Secondly, unlike most array technologies, gene trapping only selects for the transiently induced genes that is independent of pre-existing steady state mRNA levels. In regarding correlations of the genes with potential carcinogenesis, the pre-existing mRNA makes difficult to describe the unique characteristics of deregulated tumor tissue genes. For a joint project with Schering (Schering AG, Berlin), the genes of our GTSTs were examined. The first screen with custom array was used to look for whether the survival genes of our GTSTs are involved in various cancer cell lines, whilst the second screen with Matched Tumor/Normal Array was used to characterize if the selected seven genes (ERK3, Plekha2, KIAA1140, PI4P5Ka/g, KIAA0740, KIAA1036 and PEST domains) are transformation-related genes or not in different tumor tissues. Twenty-six genes were identified as either induced or repressed in one or more cell lines. Genetic information is expressed in complex and ever changing patterns throughout a life span of cells. A description of these patterns and how they relate to the tissue specific cancer is crucial for our understanding of the network of genetic interactions that underlie the processes of normal development, disease and evolution. The development of cancer and its progression is clearly a multiplex phenotype, as a function of time, involving dozens of primary genes and hundreds of secondary modifier genes. There would be a major conclusion evident from the three separate experiments (Genetrap, Affymetrix mouse chip and Matched Tumor/Normal Array): ERK3 could play a significant role in breast, stomach and uterus carcinogenesis with tissue specific regulations. It is clear that ERK3 is obvious putative survival gene in these tumor tissues. Especially, in breast tumors, seven times up-regulation was considerable and the activation of ERK3 could be a feature of breast tumors. My results imply that the unique deregulation of ERK3 is perhaps the major consequence of possible transformation of normal cells into malignant cancer cells, even though further analysis remains to be determined whether an alterated activity of associated survival genes is primarily responsible for a carcinogenesis. However unlike all the other known MAP Kinases, no stimuli and no nuclear substrates of ERK3 is reported. Therefore, it will be necessary first to determine the spectrum of substrates and to identify the proximal effectors for the ERK3 in breast carcinoma cells.
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a positive-stranded RNA virus with a 7.2 kb genome that is capped and polyadenylated. The virus is currently unclassified : the organisation of the genome resembles that of the Caliciviridae but sequence analyses suggest that it is more closely related to the Togaviridae. HEV is an enterically transmitted virus that causes both epidemics and sporadic cases of acute hepatitis in many countries of Asia and Africa but only rarely causes disease in more industrialised countries. Initially the virus was believed to have a limited geographical distribution. However, serological studies suggest that that HEV may be endemic also in the United states and Europe even though it infrequently causes overt disease in these countries. Many different animal species worldwide recently have been shown to have antibodies to HEV suggesting that hepatitis E may be zoonotic. Although two related strains have been experimentally transmitted between species, direct transmission from animal to a human has not been documented. Our main objective in this study is to evaluate the suitability of current available HEV antibody assays for use in low-endemicity areas such as in Germany. Methods: We selected sera on the basis of at least borderline reactivity in the routinely used Abbot EIA. Most were tested as part of routine screening of long-term expatriates in endemic countries. The following assays (recombinant antigens : ORF2 and ORF3) were used: Abbot EIA, Genelabs ELISA, Mikrogen recomBlot and a 'Prototype' DSL-ELISA. We observed a wide range of sensitivity ( average of 56.8%) and specificity ( an average of 61.4%) in these used assays. These results implies that , these assays might be unreliable for detection of HEV infection in areas where hepatitis E is not endemic. However, most anti- HEV assays have not been correlated with the HEV RNA determined by reverse transcription. Many of these unexpected results and discrepancies can be alluded to the following reasons: I. The choice and the size of the HEV antigen. II. Duration of the antibody persistence III. A cross reactivity with different agent IV. Due to geographic species V. A low sensitivity of the available assays. VI. And infection with non-pathogenic HEV strain. (zoonotic strain?). We therefore suggest that, further studies will be required to improve the sensitivity and specificity of the available commercial assays on the market.
In the present study the cryo-immunogold technique was used and optimized for investigating the ultrastructure and immunolabeling of synaptic proteins. It is evidently a suitable method for the localization of membrane proteins since the antigens are not treated with any chemical denaturation before immunolabeling except for the fixation and since the antigens are directly exposed to the surface of the cryo-ultrasections. The v-SNARE VAMP II and the vesicle-associated proteins SV2 and Rab3A were detected extensively at small vesicles in the mossy fiber terminals. The t-SNARE SNAP-25, and N-type and P/Q type Ca2+ channels were allocated to the plasma membrane both at the active zone and outside the active zone. SNAP-25 and N-type Ca2+ channels appeared also at synaptic vesicles. A significantly increased immunolabeling of VAMP II, SV2, Rab3A, SNAP-25 and N-type Ca2+ channels was found at the active zones of fast synapses, indicating a concentration of these proteins at sites of exocytosis. The widespread distribution of the t-SNARE SNAP-25 at the axonal plasma membrane reveals that membrane-targeting specificity cannot be determined solely by v/t-SNARE interactions. Additional control components are required to assure the docking and exocytosis of the synaptic vesicles at active zones. The novel protein Bassoon was only found at active zones of central synapses and showed the highest specific labeling among all proteins investigated. Its labeling pattern implies an association of Bassoon with the presynaptic dense projections, the structural guide for vesicle exocytosis. The involvement of Bassoon in the organization of the neurotransmitter release site suggests that Bassoon may play an important role in determining the specificity of vesicle docking and fusion. In the neurosecretory endings of neurohypophysis the synaptic proteins VAMP II, SNAP- 25, SV2, Rab3A, and the N-type Ca2+ channels showed a preferential labeling over microvesicles. Moreover, the immunolabeling intensity of these proteins over microvesicles corresponded closely to that over synaptic vesicles. This suggests that these synaptic proteins share an identical association with synaptic vesicle and microvesicles. A significant labeling of SNAP-25, the N-type Ca2+ channels and VAMP II was also detected at the plasma membrane near the clustered microvesicles, indicating the competence of microvesicles for docking and exocytosis along the plasma membrane in the absence of active zones. No significant labeling of VAMP II, SNAP-25, SV2 and N-type Ca2+ channel was observed at the membrane of neurosecretory granules. This is in agreement with the notion that synaptic vesicles and microvesicles possess regulatory mechanisms for exocytosis different from those of granules. In contrast, a/ß-SNAP and NSF were found on the granules, and Rab3A and the P/Q-type Ca2+ channels on granules in a subset of terminals. Rab3A is associated specifically with the oxytocin-containing granule population. Interestingly, some plasma membrane proteins, such as SNAP-25 and even N-type Ca2+ channels and P/Q-type Ca2+ channels, were observed not only at the plasma membrane but also at the vesicular organelles. This suggests that these vesicular organelles may be involved in transporting newly synthesized proteins from the soma to the plasma membrane of the terminal. Furthermore, the vesicular pool of the Ca2+ channels may serve in the stimulationinduced translocation into the plasma membrane when required. Using the conventional preembedding method with Epon and the post-embedding method with LR Gold, VAMP II was localized at vesicular organelles of varying size and on horseradish peroxidase filled endocytic organelles in cultured astrocytes, with and without stimulation in the presence of the horseradish peroxidase. This indicates that VAMP II is involved in the cycle of vesicular exocytosis and endocytosis in astrocytes. U373 cells are capable of expressing all three members of the synaptic SNARE complex (v-SNARE VAMP II, t-SNARE syntaxin I and SNAP25). This indicates the competence of U373 to carry out regulated exocytosis by means of the classical SNARE mechanism. In addition, the ubiquitous v-SNARE cellubrevin and the endosome-associated small GTPbinding protein Rab5 could be expressed in U373 cells. All recombinant synaptic proteins investigated in U373 cells revealed a punctuate cellular distribution under the fluorescence microscope, suggesting that they are mainly associated with intracellular compartments. The cryo-electron microscopy provided direct evidence for the association of all expressed proteins with electron-lucent vesicular organelles. It further supports the potential of U373 MG cells to release low molecular weight messengers by a regulated exocytosis mechanism. In addition, myc-VAMP II was found on dispersed granules. Probably, VAMP II also participates in the exocytosis event of granules in U373 cells. Gold labeling for the two presumptive t-SNAREs syntaxin I and SNAP-25 in U373 cells was confined to the vesicular organelles. At the ultrastructural level no significant labeling was identified at the plasma membrane. The high level of colocalization of the two SNARE proteins VAMP II and syntaxin I in the cell body and in cell processes suggests that the two proteins are mostly sorted into identical vesicular organelles. A partial colocalization of VAMP II and cellubrevin as well as of VAMP II and Rab5 was observed under the fluorescence microscope. At the ultrastructural level, a colocalization of VAMP II and cellubrevin as well as of VAMP II and Rab5 was found on some clustered vesicles. The partial colocalization of VAMP II and cellubrevin implies that they similarly function as v-SNAREs. The partial colocalization of Rab5 with VAMP II in U373 cells suggests that the endosomal protein Rab5 is associated with VAMP II-containing organelles during some stages of their life cycle.
Role in routing to the plasma membrane of the L 0 domain of the multidrug resistance protein MRP1
(2003)
Die mehrfache Chemotherapieresistenz (Multidrug Resistance) beruht auf vermehrtem Transport von Xenobiotika aus der Zelle, was zu einer dramatischen Verringerung der intrazellulären Konzentration von chemotherapeutischen Substanzen führt. Dieser Effekt wird von transmembranen Transporter-Proteinen der ABC-Familie verursacht. Zu dieser Familie gehört MRP1, die eine große Vielfalt an Substraten transportieren kann. MRP1 ist ein 190 kDa Glykoprotein mit einer vermuteten Topologie, die zusätzlich zum typischen P-gp ähnlichen Kern (Delta MRP1) eine amino-proximale transmembrane Domäne aufweist, die aus fünf transmembranen Alpha-Helices besteht. Sie ist durch einen cytoplasmatischen Verbindungs-Loop (L0) mit Delta MRP1 verbunden. Wenn MRP1 in polarisierten Zellen exprimiert wird, wird es zu der basolateralen Membran geleitet. In der vorliegenden Arbeit sollte nun die Funktion des amino-terminalen Bereichs von MRP1, der aus der ersten transmembranen Domäne TMD0 und dem cytoplasmischen Verbindungs-Loop L0 besteht, durch Expression und Koexpression von diversen MRP1 Mutanten in polarisierten MDCKII Zellen untersucht werden. Es wurde gezeigt, dass in der L0 Region eine amphipathische Helix vorhanden ist, die für die Funktionalität der MRP1 notwendig ist; dass das isolierte L0-Peptid in der Lage ist, sich mit Delta MRPI zu assoziieren (dadurch erlangt das Protein wieder seine Funktion und lokalisiert sich in der basolateralen Membrane); dass TMD0L0 sich teilweise in der basolaterale Membrane befindet und dass seine Anwesenheit genügt, um die Glycosilierung (Fig. 4.17 in der Dissertation) und die Lokalisierung in der basolateralen Membrane des Delta MRP1 zu ermöglichen (Fig. 4.18 in der Dissertation); dass die Koexpression der zwei komplementären Fragmente eine wild-type-ähnliche Transportaktivität ergibt (Fig. 4.19 in der Dissertation) und dass die beiden Fragmente interagieren (Fig. 4.21 in der Dissertation). Es wurde ausserdem ein chimerisches Protein hergestellt, welches aus TMD0 von MRP1 und L0 von MRP2 besteht und in MDCKII und MDCKII-Delta MRP1 Zellen exprimiert. Es wurde festgestellt, dass das unvollständig glycosiliert ist (Fig. 4.24 in der Dissertation) und dass es sich im endoplasmatischen Reticulum lokalisiert (Fig. 425 in der Dissertation).
In this study we investigated the regulation of IL-18BPa by IFN-y in the context of colon cancer and human autoimmune diseases. IL-18BPa is a naturally occuring inhibitor that counteracts IL-18 bioactivity. By enhancing IFN-y production IL-18 has been introduced as pivotal mediator of TH1 immune responses. Indeed, many IL-18 effects are mediated by IFN-y. IL-18 bioactivity is connected with the pathogenesis of different inflammatory diseases, for instance, septic shock, colitis, Crohn's disease, myasthenia gravis, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis, and organ transplant rejection. In addition, IL-18 has tumor-suppressive properties. IFN-y induced IL-18BPa expression was shown on protein and mRNA level in different colon carcinoma cell lines, organ cultures of colonic intestinal biopsy specimens, HaCaT keratinocytes as well as rheumatoid arthritis fibroblastlike synoviocytes (RA-FLS). The IFN-y-mediated induction of IL-18BPa appears to be a more general phenomenom. The capability of IFN-y to induce IL-18BPa also has been confirmed on the promoter level by performing luciferase reporter gene studies with two IL- 18BP promoter fragments. A GAS-site proximal to the transcription start site has been identified to be relevant for IFN-y-mediated induction of these two IL18BP promoter fragments. The induction of IL-18BPa is most likely mediated by STAT-1 in DLD-1 colon carcinoma cells. Sodium butyrate inhibited IFN-y-induced IL-18BPa expression in these cells. On the basis of our observations, we postulate a negative feedback mechanism, by which IFN-y-dependent and -independent IL-18 action might be counterregulated. In this model sodium butyrate is an additional player, that may interrupt the postulated negative feedback loop. A coculture system was performed to simulate an inflammatory TH1 response. This model which is more close to the in vivo situation, confirmed upregulation of IL-18BPa by endogenously produced IFN-y. The role of IL-18BPa is manifold and depends on IL-18 function in each particular case. In autoimmune diseases, for instance, which are often characterized by a TH1 polarized immune response, IL-18BPa might counterregulate IL-18 and/or IL-18-induced IFN-y bioactivity. Important examples are Crohn's disease and rheumatoid arthritis. In CD therapeutic use of IL-18BPa may therefore restore a hypothetically disturbed IL-18/IL-18BP balance. Concerning RA, IL-18BPa expression might contribute to protective functions of IFN-y, observed in different murine models for arthritis and in rheumatoid arthritis patients. Moreover, IL-18BPa might inhibit IL-18-mediated induction of subsequent cardinal inflammatory cytokines responsible for the pathogenesis of these diseases. Indeed, the pharmaceutical industry successfully used IL-18BP as therapeutic agent in a murine model of RA and in phase I clinical trials. On the contrary, in the context of carcinogenesis IFN-y- mediated IL-18BPa expression might be disadvantageous. By counterregulating the IL-18 arm of immune defenses against tumors, IL-18BP may have the potential to promote carcinogenesis. Our hypothesis is underlined by the observation that sodium butyrate, known to be protective in colon cancer, inhibited IFN-y-induced IL-18BPa expression. In parallel, IL-18-induced IFN-y is also responsible for iNOS induction. iNOS-derived NO provides a second possible way for inhibition of IFN-y-dependent and -independent tumor suppressive effects of IL-18. Finally, IFN-y-induced IL-18BPa expression was confirmed on the promoter level. This induction on the promoter level was associated with STAT-1 binding to the GAS element proximal to the start of transcription. It is tempting to speculate that blockage of the cytokine cascade upstream of IL-1 and TNF- a on the level of IL-18 may be of therapeutic benefit. Our data reflect the relationship between inflammation and cancer, in that inflammatory cells and cytokines found in tumors are likely to contribute to tumor growth, progression, and immunosuppression than they are to mount an effective host antitumour response.
Mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are found in all eukaryotic cells and represent crucial elements in the signal transduction from the plasma membrane to the nucleus. Although a broad variety of extracellular stimuli activate MAPKs, they evoke very distinct cellular responses. The amplitude and duration of MAPK activation determine signal identity and ultimately cell fate. A tight and finely tuned regulation is therefore critical for a specific cellular response. The role and the regulation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 5 (ERK5), a MAPK with a large and unique C-terminal tail, were studied in different cellular systems. The study highlights two aspects of ERK5 regulation: control of the phosphorylation state and regulated protein stability. In analogy to other MAPKs ERK5 is activated by dual phosphorylation of threonine and tyrosine residues in its activation motif. A first part of the study concentrates on whether and how the protein tyrosine phosphatase PTP-SL is involved in the downregulation of the ERK5 signal. The direct interaction of both proteins is shown to result in mutual modulation of their enzymatic activities. PTP-SL is a substrate of ERK5 and, independent of its phosphorylation, binding to the kinase enhances its catalytic phosphatase activity. On the other hand, interaction with PTP-SL does not only downregulate enzymatic ERK5 activity but also effectively impedes its translocation to the nucleus. The second part of this study focuses on the interaction of ERK5 with c-Abl and its oncogenic variants Bcr/Abl and v-Abl. In this study these tyrosine kinases are demonstrated to regulate ERK5 by two mechanisms: first, by induction of kinase activity and secondly, by stabilisation of the ERK5 protein. Stabilisation involves the direct interaction of unique ERK5 domains with Abl kinases and is independent of MAPK cascade activation. The level of ERK5 and its intrinsic basal activity – rather than its activation – are essential for v-Abl-induced transformation as well as for survival of Bcr/Abl-positive leukaemia cells. Stabilisation of ERK5 thus contributes to cell survival and should therefore be considered as an additional aspect in therapy of chronic myeloid leukaemia. Taken together, the results obtained in this study demonstrate that diverse pathways regulate ERK5 signalling by affecting kinase activity, localisation and protein stability. While the phosphatase PTP-SL is involved in negative regulation of ERK5, Abl kinases potently activate ERK5 and increase its half-life. Protein stabilisation thus is presented as a novel mechanism in the regulation of MAPKs.
One of the known apoptotic pathways in mammalian cells involves release of mitochondrial Cytochrome c into the cytosol. Cyt c then together with ATP or dATP induces a conformational change in the adaptator protein Apaf-1 (a homologue of the C. elegans CED4 protein) (Zou, Henzel et al. 1997), leading to its oligomerization and the recruitment of several pro-Casp-9 molecules. This protein complex assembly called "apoptosome" leads to the activation of Casp-9 which then initiates or amplifies the caspase cascade. The cell death program can be stalled at several points and we were interested in identifying new proteins inhibiting cell death downstream of Cyt c release. This thesis describes how I have screened a cDNA library derived from a pool of human breast carcinomas in a yeast-based survival screen, using the S. pombe yeast strain HC4 containing an inducible CED4 construct(James, Gschmeissner et al. 1997). The screen resulted in the identification of six proteins displaying cell death-inhibiting activity in S. pombe as well as anti-apoptotic potential in mammalian cells. Those six molecules were RoRet (Ruddy, Kronmal et al. 1997), Aven (Chau, Cheng et al. 2000), Fte-1/S3a (Kho, Wang et al. 1996), PGC2 (Padilla, Kaur et al. 2000; Goetze, Eilers et al. 2002), SAA1-2ß (Moriguchi, Terai et al. 2001) and FBP (Brockstedt, Rickers et al. 1998) of which I selected RoRet, Aven and Fte-1/S3a for further analysis. RoRet is a new anti-apoptotic molecule that can inhibit the mitochondrial pathway via its PRY-SPRY domain. RoRet does not seem to bind to Apaf-1, and does not co-localize with the activated Apaf-1/Caspase-9 complex. Aven was published to act as an anti-apoptotic protein and suggested to function via the recruitment of Bcl-XL to Apaf-1. This work shows that its C-terminal domain can bind to Apaf-1 and has a strong anti-apoptotic activity by itself. Moreover, Aven co-localizes with the activated Apaf-1/Caspase-9 complex suggesting that it is a component of the apoptosome. Furthermore, the expression of Aven is regulated in mammary glands during the pregnancy cycle. Fte-1/S3a has been already implicated in increased transformation capacity of v-Fos in fibroblasts (Kho and Zarbl 1992; Kho, Wang et al. 1996). This work shows that it has anti-apoptotic activity and can protect against Bak- and Apaf-1-induced apoptosis. It can bind directly to activated Apaf-1 at the linker domain between the WD40 repeats and the CED4-like domain, suggesting that it may protect by sequestering the activated Apaf-1 to some organelles whose nature remains to be determined. Moreover, expression studies on mRNA and protein level showed upregulation of Fte-1/S3a in colon, lung and kidney carcinoma. Hmgb1 (Flohr, Rogalla et al. 2001; Pasheva, Ugrinova et al. 2002; Stros, Ozaki et al. 2002) was identified during a survival screen performed with a NIH 3T3 mouse fibroblast cDNA library in a Bak-expressing yeast S. pombe strain. HMGB1 can protect against Bak-, UV-, FasL- and TRAIL-induced apoptosis. Significant overexpression of HMGB1 was found in breast and colon carcinoma, and elevated mRNA amounts were detected in uterus, colon and stomach carcinoma, suggesting that it may be a tumour marker (Brezniceanu et al., 2003).
P2X receptor subunits assemble in the ER of Xenopus oocytes to homomultimeric or heteromultimeric complexes that appear as ATP-gated cation channels at the cell surface. In this work it was intended to investigate the posttranslational modifications such as N-linked glycosylation and disulfide bond formation that is undergone by P2X1 receptors. In addition, the aim of this study was to examine the expression and the quaternary structure of selected P2X receptor isoforms in Xenopus oocytes. The investigation of the quaternary structure of the metabolically or surface labeled His-P2X2 receptor by BN-PAGE revealed that, while the protein complex is only partially assembling in oocytes, the plasma membrane form of the His-P2X2 receptor assembled into trimeric and even hexameric complex as was shown by the BN-PAGE analysis. Besides this finding, it is shown that the His-P2X5 protein that was purified from metabolically or surface labeled oocytes appeared as one single band corresponding to a trimer when analyzed by BN-PAGE. The present study signified that His-P2X6 alone does not reach a defined assembly status and possibly needs the hetero-polymerisation with other P2X subunits to assemble properly for insertion into the plasma membrane. Another finding of this study is that the P2X1 and P2X2 subunits could exist as heteromultimeric protein complexes in the plasma membrane of cells. Purification of surface expressed His-P2X2 subunit allowed the detection of co-injected P2X1 subunit and vice versa in Xenopus oocytes. Incubation with glutardialdehyde led to the cross-linking of P2X2 and P2X1 subunits to dimers and trimers. BN-PAGE analysis of the P2X2/P2X1 complex isolated under nondenaturing conditions from surface-labeled oocytes yielded one distinct band corresponding to a trimeric complex. The analysis of a C-terminally GFP tagged His-P2X1 fusion protein by confocal fluorescence microscopy revealed small clusters of the protein complexes, approximately 4-6 µm in diameter from a diffuse distribution of the protein in the plasma membranes of Xenopus oocytes. The cross-linking or BN-PAGE analysis of the fusion protein resulted in proteins that migrated quantitatively as trimers when purified in digitonin. The analysis of some chimeric constructs confirmed the results of others, which showed that desensitization can be removed from the P2X1 or P2X3 receptor by providing the N-domain from the P2X2 receptor (Werner et al., 1996) The exchange of this domain did not alter the quaternary structure of the chimeras, which showed to be present as trimers when expressed in oocytes. In addition, glycan minus mutants of His-P2X1 receptor were analyzed to examine whether carbohydrate side chains are important for P2X1 subunit assembly, surface expression, or ligand recognition. SDS-PAGE analysis of glycan minus mutants carrying Q instead of N at five individual NXT/S sequons reveals that 284N remains unused because of a proline in the 4 position. The four other sites (153Asn, 184N, 210N, and 300N) carry N-glycans, but solely 300N acquires complex-type carbohydrates. Like parent P2X1 receptor, glycan minus mutants migrate as homotrimers when resolved by blue native PAGE. Recording of ATP-gated currents revealed that elimination of 153N or 210N diminishes or increases functional expression levels, respectively. In addition, elimination of 210N causes a 3-fold reduction of the potency for ATP. If three or all four N-glycosylation sites are simultaneously eliminated, formation of P2X1 receptors is severely impaired or abolished, respectively. It is concluded that at least one N-glycan per subunit of either position is absolutely required for the formation of P2X1 receptors. The SDS-PAGE analysis of surface-labeled His-P2X2 and His-P2X5 receptors revealed that, while the His-P2X2 subunit acquires three complex-type carbohydrates, in case of His-P2X5 polypeptide, only two of the three N-glycans could obtain complex-type carbohydrates during transit of the Golgi apparatus. Furthermore, it was shown that DTT treatment blocked the appearance of newly made His-P2X1 at the plasma membranes of Xenopus oocytes. Also, it was revealed that the effects of DTT on His-P2X1 biogenesis are fully reversible. Removal of the reducing agent leads to subsequent folding and assembly into His-P2X1 receptor complex, followed by transport to the cell surface. The characterization of cysteine minus mutants by SDS PAGE and BN-PAGE demonstrated that, the cysteine substitution in the first cysteine rich domain (C1 - C6) does not have a major effect on assembly for the mutant receptors. In contrast, the replacement of the four cysteine residues (C7 - C10) from the second cysteine rich domain demonstrate a critical importance of this domain for the functional surface expression of P2X1 receptor. The investigations of several double cysteine mutants revealed that according to a similarity in the sensitivity to ATP, the C1 and C6, as well as C2 and C4 and finally C3 and C5 are pairs forming two disulfide bonds in each P2X1 subunit.
Die Dissertation kombiniert die Methode der funktionellen Magnetresonanztomographie (fMRT) zur genauen räumlichen Lokalisation aufgabenkorrelierter parietaler Aktivierungen mit Transkranieller Magnetstimulation (TMS) zur systematischen Untersuchung der funktionellen Relevanz dieser Aktivierungen für die tatsächliche Leistungsfähigkeit. Die experimentelle Kombination beider Methoden ermöglichte die gezielte Stimulation der im tMRT identifizierten, mit visuospatialen Fähigkeiten assoziierten Hirnareale. Durch die systematische Auswertung der TMS-induzierten visuospatialen Leistungsveränderungen wurde die spezifische funktionelle Bedeutung dieser Hirnareale für visuospatiale Leistungen experimentell untersucht. Der zugrunde gelegte Versuchsplan umfasste sowohl visuospatiale Leistungen auf der Grundlage visuell dargebotener als auch mental vorgestellter Aufgaben. Dies ermöglichte die systematische Untersuchung, ob und inwieweit mentale visuospatiale Informationsverarbeitung die gleichen oder ähnliche Aktivierungsmuster im fMRT aufweist wie visuospatiale Verarbeitung visuell dargebotener Stimuli, und ob sich diese Aktivierungsmuster vorgestellter Stimuli unter dem Einfluss von rTMS in gleicher Weise als funktionell relevant erweisen. Aufgrund der separaten unilateralen Stimulation beider Hemisphären konnten darüber hinaus die unterschiedlichen behavioralen Auswirkungen einer Aktivierungsunterdrückung des linken und rechten Parietalkortex systematisch untersucht werden. Obwohl die Ausführung visuospatialer Aufgaben, sowohl auf der Grundlage visuell dargebotener als auch mental vorgestellter Stimuli, im fMRT mit einer bilateralen Aktivierung im Parietalkortex korrelierte, führte lediglich die TMS-induzierte temporäre Unterbrechung der neuronalen Aktivierung im rechten Parietalkortex zu einer signifikanten Verschlechterung in der Leistungsfähigkeit der damit assoziierten visuospatialen Aufgaben. Auf der Grundlage dieser Ergebnisse wurde ein modulares Modell der visuospatialen Imagination formuliert, in welchem den aufgabenkorrelierten bilateralen Aktivierungen aufgrund ihrer raum-zeitlichen Separierbarkeit unterschiedliche mentale Prozesse und aufgrund der mit TMS aufgezeigten funktionellen hemisphärischen Asymmetrie parietaler Aktivierung für visuospatiale Informationsverarbeitung unterschiedliche Kompensationsmechanismen zugeordnet wurden.
Diese Zusammenfassung ist in zwei Abschnitte gegliedert. Im Abschnitt 6.1. wird die physiologische Bedeutung der Glutamatrezeptoren (GluR) und ihr biologischer Hintergrund kurz erklärt. Am Ende dieses Abschnitts wird der Stand der Strukturanalyse des GluR-B Ionenkanals zu Beginn des Projektes zusammengefasst. Im nachfolgenden Abschnitt 6.2. sind die wesentlichen Ergebnisse der hier vorgelegten Arbeit zusammengefasst. 6.1. Die Bedeutung von Glutamatrezeptoren - Stand der Strukturanalyse zum Beginn dieser Arbeit Die Kommunikation zwischen Nervenzellen erfolgt vorwiegend an hochspezialisierten Kontaktstellen den chemischen Synapsen. Der enge Raum zwischen sendender und empfangender Nervenzelle wird auch als synaptischer Spalt bezeichnet. Der Prozess der synaptischen Übertragung beruht auf der präsynaptischen Freisetzung von chemischen Botenstoffen, sogenannten Neurotransmittern in den synaptischen Spalt. Die Aminosäure L- Glutamat (Glu) ist der wichtigste erregende Neurotransmitter im menschlichen Gehirn und Rückenmark. Dementsprechend bedeutend ist die Rolle der ionotropen Glutamatrezeptoren (iGluRs), die sie bei der elektrochemischen Erregungsübertragung am synaptischen Spalt spielen (Seeburg, 1993), (Hollmann and Heinemann, 1994), (Dingledine et al., 1999). Die Freisetzung von Neurotransmittern wird durch ein elektrisches Signal (Aktionspotential) ausgelöst, das sich entlang der Nervenfaser, dem Axon, bis zur Nervenendigung, der Synapse, fortpflanzt. Nach der Freisetzung diffundieren die Neurotransmitter durch den synaptischen Spalt und binden an sogenannte Rezeptoren. Ionotrope Glutamatrezeptoren sind Ionenkanäle, die in die Membran der nachgeschalteten (postsynaptischen) Nervenzelle eingebaut sind. Sie zählen deshalb zu den Membranproteinen. Als ligandgesteuerte kationenselektive Ionenkanäle machen Glutamatrezeptoren (GluRs) die postsynaptische Membran nach Aktivierung durch Ligandbindung für bestimmte Kationen durchlässig. Der Einstrom von Ionen bewirkt eine Änderung des Membranpotentials. Die Stärke der synaptischen Übertragung ist lebenslang modulierbar; die sogennante synaptische Plastizität wird als eine entscheidende Grundlage für die Erklärung von Lernen und Gedächtnis angesehen. Drei synthetische Agonisten aktivieren die GluRs selektiv und wurden deshalb für die Klassifizierung der ionotropen Glutamatrezeptoren herangezogen. Bei den Agonisten handelt es sich um -Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazol-4-propionat (AMPA), Kainat and N- Methyl-D-Aspartat (NMDA). Die ersten beiden Subtypen werden auch als non-NMDA- Rezeptoren zusammengefasst. Die Aktivierung und Desensitivierung der non-NMDA Rezeptoren ist schneller als die der NMDA-Rezeptoren. Aus molekularbiologischer Sicht (siehe Kapitel 1.3.2.) zeigen die drei Klassen der ionotropen Glutamatrezeptoren eine beträchliche Diversität. So gibt es vier verschiedene Unterheiten vom AMPA-Subtyp, nämlich GluR-A, GluR-B, GluR-C und GluR-B. In dieser Arbeit steht die Strukturanalyse eines aus GluR-B Untereinheiten bestehenden AMPA-Rezeptors im Vordergrund. (Die weitere Unterteilung der NMDA- und Kainatrezeptoren kann dem Kapitel 1.3.2. auf Seite 6 entnommen werden.) Bestimmte Abschnitte der Aminosäurensequenz von Glutamatrezeptoren sind durch hydrophobe Bereiche gekennzeichnet ((M1-M4) in Abbildung 6.1.A (A.)). Das durch verschiedene Untersuchungen etablierte Modell der Glutamatrezeptor-Topologie zeigt 3 Transmembrandomänen (M1, M3 und M4) und eine Membranschleife (M2) (Hollmann et al., 1994), (Kuner et al., 1996). Der Aminoterminus ist extrazellulär, der Carboxyterminus hingegen intrazellulär. Daraus ergibt sich die in Abbildung 6.1.A (B.) abgebildete Topologie (Paas, 1998). S1 und S2 kennzeichnen die Ligandbindungsdomäne. Glutamatrezeptoren (GluR) sind Oligomere, die sich mit grosser Wahrscheinlichkeit aus vier Untereinheiten (Rosenmund et al., 1998), (Ayalon and Stern-Bach, 2001) zusammensetzen (siehe Kapitel 1.3.3.). Die Zusammenlagerung verschiedener Untereinheiten zu einem funktionellen Kanal setzt voraus, dass die Untereinheiten zum gleichen Subtyp gehören, d.h. AMPA Untereinheiten können nur mit anderen AMPA Untereinheiten einen Ionenkanal bilden. Das gleiche gilt für die Zusammensetzung von NMDA und Kainat-Rezeptoren. Das Modell eines tetrameren Glutamatrezeptors ist im Bild C. der Abbildung 6.1.A zu sehen. Die Bestimmung der Quartärstruktur eines vollständigen Glutamatrezeptors ist bislang nicht veröffentlicht. Die strukturelle Analyse von Proteinen erfordert die Isolierung von reinem und funktionellem Protein. Im Vergleich zu den meisten löslichen Proteinen erfordert die Isolierung von Membranproteinen oft besonderer Optimierung. Falls das Vorkommen des Proteins in natürlichem Gewebe gering ist, so kann die strukturelle Analyse durch rekombinante Expression in einem geeigneten Wirtsorganismus zugänglich gemacht werden. Die Isolierung von Milligramm-Mengen eines rekombinanten homomeren GluR-B Rezeptors aus dem entsprechenden Baculovirusexpressionssystem (Keinänen et al., 1994) wurde in unserem Labor etabliert (Safferling et al., 2001) und wurde im ersten Jahr dieses Projektes fortgeführt. Durch zonale Ultrazentrifugation konnte gezeigt werden, dass die molekulare Masse des GluR-B Proteinkomplexes ca. 495 kD beträgt. Dieser Wert liegt in der Nähe des theoretischen Molekulargewichts eines tetrameren Ionenkanals, dessen Molmasse sich aus vier GluR-B Untereinheiten (104 kD) und einer Detergenzmizelle von ca. 63-97 kD zusammensetzt (Safferling et al., 2001). Die elektronenmikroskopische Analyse des Proteinkomplexes von W. Tichelaar aus unserer Gruppe erfolgte 1999 durch Negativfärbung. Für die Strukturanalyse mit Hilfe der Software IMAGIC wurden 10 000 Proteinteilchen selektiert. Das Ergebnis der Bildrekonstruktion ist in der folgenden Abbildung 6.1.B gezeigt. Die projezierten Dimensionen des Models entsprechen einem Molekül mit den Dimensionen 17 nm × 11 nm × 14 nm. Das Model zeigt keine ausgezeichnete Symmetrie, die auf die Stöchiometrie des GluR hinweisen könnte. Das Molekül zeigt mit Färbemittel gefüllte Vertiefungen und innere Strukturen, die vielleicht an der Ionenleitung beteiligt sind. 6.2. Funktionelle und strukturelle Charakterisierung des GluR-B Ionenkanals In der Fortsetzung des oben beschriebenen Projektes wurden für die rekombinante Expression desselben Rezeptors (GluR-B homomer) stabil transformierte Insektenzellen eingesetzt. Dazu wurde die für die GluR-B Untereinheit kodierende und in Plasmiden enthaltene DNA in Insektenzellen transformiert (siehe APPENDIX A.2.2.). Im Vergleich zu dieser auf Dauerhaftigkeit angelegten Integration der Rezeptor DNA wird die Proteinexpression beim Baculovirusexpressionssystem durch Infektion mit rekombinanten Baculoviren initiiert. Der Vergleich zeigte, dass die mit Baculoviren erzielten Ausbeuten bei GluR-B etwa doppelt so hoch waren als bei stabil transformierten Zellen. Allerdings fallen bei stabil transformierten Zellen die eventuellen Nachteile der viralen Belastung auf die zellulären Sekretionsprozesse weg. Im Verlauf der elektronenmikroskopischen Analyse von baculoviral erzeugtem GluR-B Protein hat sich gezeigt, dass Proteine viralen Ursprungs unter Umständen selbst doppelt aufgereinigte GluR-B Proben verunreinigen können (siehe APPENDIX A.2.1.). Dieser Punkt ist bei einer Einzelbildverarbeitung von grosser Relevanz, falls die virusspezifischen Proteinverunreinigungen eine ähnliche Grösse haben wie das eigentliche Zielprotein. Das Hauptziel dieser Arbeit war es, das Potenzial stabil transformierter Insektenzellen für die Expression von homomeren GluR-B Ionenkanälen zu bewerten und dabei die Stöchiometrie der Untereinheiten in diesem Ionenkanal aufzuklären. Zu diesem Zweck wurden biochemische und elektronenmikrosopische Techniken eingesetzt. Zur Isolierung des GluR-B Ionenkanals aus stabil transformierten Insektenzellen wurde das bestehende Aufreinigungsprotokoll für die Affinitätchromatographie an immobilisierten Metallionen (IMAC) (Safferling et al., 2001) optimiert, indem das Chargenverfahren durch das Durchflussverfahren ersetzt wurde (zur genaueren Erklärung der Optimierung siehe RESULTS 4.1.2.). Abbildung 6.C zeigt ein silbergefärbtes Gel mit den Eluaten der IMAC und Eluaten der abschliessenden Affinitätschromatographie mit immobilisiertem M1-Antikörper. Die auf den Bahnen 5-8 aufgetragen GluR-B Proben wurden auch für die Einzelteilchenanalyse mittels Elektronenmikroskopie verwendet. Die Ligandbindungsaktivität von GluR-B wurde durch Filterbindungsexperimente mit dem Radioliganden [3H]-AMPA vor und nach der Isolierung aus den Membranfragmenten bestimmt. Die KD-Werte sind für beide Proben ähnlich gross. Der Bmax-Werte ist für die aufgereinigte Probe wie erwartet sehr viel (mehr als 200×) höher. Die Ergebnisse der Ligandbindungsexperimente sind im Kapitel 4.2.1 tabellarisch zusammengefasst. Die oligomere Struktur des isolierten Ionenkanals wurde durch Quervernetzungsexperimente (Cross-linking) und Einzelteilchenanalyse von negativ gefärbten Proteinmolekülen bewertet. Die Quervernetzungsexerimente selbst erbrachten kein eindeutiges Ergebnis im Hinblick auf oligomere Struktur des komplett zusammengesetzten Rezeptors. Kontrollexperimente mit dem Lysat vom Rattenhippocampus zeigten, dass mit DTSSP ein geeigneter Cross-Linker verwendet wurde (siehe RESULTS 4.3.2.). Neben einem aus 4 Banden bestehenden Muster (siehe RESULTS 4.3.1.) lieferten die Quervernetzungsexperimente mit isoliertem GluR-B aber einen deutlichen Hinweis auf die Stabilität von dimeren GluR-B Strukturen, die im Einklang mit einer jüngst veröffentlichten Arbeit stehen (Ayalon and Stern-Bach, 2001). Diese Veröffentlichung liefert zusätzliche (Armstrong et al., 1998) Hinweise auf die Bedeutung von Dimeren in der Glutamatrezeptorstruktur und postuliert, dass sich ein kompletter Glutamaterezeptor aus einem Dimer-Paar zusmmensetzt, wobei die Dimere zuerst gebildet werden. Die nachfolgende Abbildung 6.2.B zeigt negativ gefärbte GluR-B Ionenkanäle bei einer 46000× Vergrösserung. Die Aufnahme stammt von einem Philips EM 400 Elektronenmikroskop. Für die 3D Rekonstruktion wurden 500 der in Abbildung 6.2.B gezeigten Rezeptormoleküle ausgewählt. Dieser relativ kleine Datensatz besteht aus GluR-B Ionenkanälen deren Präservierung in Uranylacetat als besonderes vielversprechend eingeschätzt wurde. Dieser positive Effekt wurde auf die Verwendung frisch von einer Wasseroberfläche aufgefischter Kohlefilme zurückgeführt (siehe RESULTS 4.4.3.3.). Während der Klassifizierung dieses Datensatzes fiel auf, dass die beim Band-Pass-Filtern für die niedrigen Frequenzen gesetzten Cut-offs einen deutlichen Einfluss auf die erste Klassifizierung der unterschiedlichen zweidimensionalen Ansichten des Proteinkomplexes haben (siehe RESULTS 4.4.3.4.). Aus diesem Grund wurde der gleiche Datensatz mit 5 verschiedenen low-frequency cut-offs (LFCO) gefiltert (siehe Table 4.4.3.4.) und getrennt klassifiziert. Von den 5 resultierenden Klassifikationen wurden 3 (LFCO 0,005, 0,03 und 0,05) für die weiterführende 3D Rekonstruktion ausgewählt. Die Evaluierung der resultiernden 3D Modelle ergab, dass der mit einem LFCO von 0,03 gefilterte Datensatz eine Klassifikationen erlaubte, die zu einem 3D Modell (Modell GluR-BII/a siehe RESULTS Figure 4.4.3.4.H) führte, das im Vergleich zu den beiden anderen Rekonstruktionen konsistenter war. Am stärksten spricht für dieses Modell die Übereinstimmung der Input-Projektionen mit den Reprojektionen der 3D Rekonstruktion (siehe siehe RESULTS Figure 4.4.3.4.H). Zur Verfeinerung des Modells GluR-BII/a wurden die beiden Projektionen mit der höchsten Standardabweichung vom Klassendurchschnitt (class average) eliminiert. Die verbleibenden 11 Projektionen bildeten die Input-Projektionen für die Berechung eines verfeinerten Modells, GluR-BII/b, das auf einer neuen Zuordnung der Euler-Winkel beruht. Das Ergebnis dieser Berechung ist in der nachfolgenden Abbildung gezeigt. Das Modell in Abbildung 6.2.C zeigt einen zentralen Kanal und hat die Dimensionen 18 nm × 14 nm × 11 nm. Die Stöchiometrie der Untereinheiten ist aus dem Modell, das mit grosser Wahrscheinlichkeit einen komplett zusammengesetzten GluR darstellt, nicht ablesbar. Ebensowenig zeigt das Modell eine eindeutig vierzählige oder fünfzählige Symmetrie. Allerdings ist die erkennbare zweizählige Symmetrie im Einklang mit dem vorgeschlagenen Pair-of-Dimer Modell (Ayalon and Stern-Bach, 2001), das auf eine teramere Struktur des oligomeren Ionenkanals schliessen lässt. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit zeigen, dass stabil transifzierte Insektenzellen eine durchaus geeignete Quelle für GluR-B Ionenkanäle sind. Nachteilig sind die geringen Ausbeuten. Allerdings kann durch weitere Selektion der Zellen die GluR Expression noch gesteigert werden (siehe APPENDIX A.2.2.). Bei höheren GluR-B Ausbeuten könnte zukünftig auch die Detektion des Rezeptors in vitrifizierten Proben in Verbindung mit Kryo-Elektronen- mikroskopie und auch die 2D-Kristallisation gelingen. Die während dieses Projekts gemachten Kristallisationsexperimente (siehe APPENDIX A.3.) und Kryo-Experimente mit GluR-B Protein aus dem Baculovirusexpressionssystem (siehe RESULTS 4.4.1. und 4.4.2.) ergaben negative Ergebnisse. Das Potential der Kryo-Methode konnte allerdings in Kontrollexperimenten mit Tabak-Mosaik-Virus (TMV) gezeigt werden. Kryo-Daten von GluR-B würden die Berechnung eines genaueren Strukurmodells erlauben. Die Reprojektionen des hier besprochenen Strukturmodells GluR-BII/b aus der Abbildung 6.2.C könnten als Referenzen für das Alignment der vitrifizierten GluR Ionenkanäle dienen. Für das langfristige Ziel der Rekonstituition des Rezeptors in Liposomen sollte die Delipidierung des Membranproteins während der Aufreinigung möglichst reduziert werden. Hier erscheinen zwei Ansätze sinnvoll. Die Aufreinigung des Proteins in einem Schritt durch die Erweiterung des tags am Carboxyterminus von nur 6 auf 10 Histidin-Reste. Ausserdem gibt es Hinweise, dass die Anwesenheit von Lipiden während der Aufreinigung für seine Rekonstituierbarkeit förderlich ist (Huganir and Racker, 1982).
More than 70 years ago, the effects of extracellular adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP), a newly identified and purified biomolecule at that time (Fiske and Subbarow, 1925; Lohmann, 1929) were observed by Drury and Szent-Györgyi (1929). Since then, many pharmacological studies were carried out with extracellular adenine nucleotides in various intact organ systems, isolated tissues, and purified cell preparations. Yet it was not until 1972 that Burnstock introduced the concept of "purinergic nerves" and suggested that ATP might fulfil the criteria generally regarded as necessary for establishing a substance as a neurotransmitter, summarised by Eccles (1964):
• synthesis and storage of transmitter in nerve terminals
Strips of guinea-pig taenia coli (GPTC) were shown to take up large amounts of tritium-labelled adenosine when incubated with tritium-labelled adenosine, adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP), adenosine 5'-diphosphate (ADP) and ATP. The nucleoside was rapidly converted into and retained largely as [ 3 H]-ATP (Su et al., 1971).
• release of transmitter during nerve stimulation
Spontaneous relaxation of GPTC as well as relaxations induced by nerve stimulation or nicotine, respectively, in the presence of compounds which block adrenergic and cholinergic responses were accompanied by a remarkable increase in release of tritium-labelled material from taenia coli incubated in [ 3 H]-adenosine (Su et al., 1971).
• postjunctional responses to exogenous transmitters that mimic responses to nerve stimulation
Burnstock et al. (1966) characterised ATP and ADP as the most potent inhibitory purine compounds in the gut and observed that the effects of ATP mimic more closely the inhibitory response of the taenia to non-adrenergic nerve-stimulation than to adrenergic nerve stimulation (Burnstock et al., 1970).
enzymes that inactivate the transmitter and/or uptake systems for the transmitter or its breakdown products
When ATP was added to a perfusion fluid recycled through the vasculature of the stomach, very little ATP remained, but the perfusate contained substantially increased amounts of adenosine and inosine, as well as some ADP and AMP (Burnstock et al., 1970).
• drugs that can produce parallel blocking of potentiating effects on the responses of both exogenous transmitter and nerve stimulation
Tachyphylaxis to ATP produced in the rabbit ileum resulted in a consistent depression of responses to non-adrenergic inhibitory nerve stimulation, whereas responses to adrenergic nerve stimulation remained unaffected (Burnstock et al., 1970). Lower concentrations of quinidine reduced and finally abolished relaxation of GPTC induced by noradrenaline (NA) and by adrenergic nerve stimulation. Using higher concentrations of the compound, relaxant responses of GPTC to ATP as well as to non-adrenergic inhibitory nerve stimulation were abolished (Burnstock et al., 1970). ...
Human epidermal-type fatty acid binding protein (E-FABP) belongs to a family of intracellular non-enzymatic 14-15 kDa lipid binding proteins (LBP) that specifically bind and facilitate the transport of fatty acids, bile acids or retinoids. Their functions have also been associated with fatty acid signalling, cell growth, regulation and differentiation. As a contribution to better understand the structure-function relationship of this protein, the features of its solution structure determined by NMR spectroscopy are reported here. Both unlabeled and 15N-enriched samples of recombinant human E-FABP were used for multidimensional high-resolution NMR. The sequential backbone as well as side-chain resonance assignments have been completed. They are reported here and are also available at the BioMagResBank under the accession number BMRB-5083. The presence of six cysteines in the amino acid sequence of human E-FABP is highly unusual for LBPs. Four of the six cysteines are unique to the E-FABPs: C43, C47, C67 and C87. In the three-dimensional structure of E-FABP, two cysteine pairs (C67/C87 and C120/C127) were identified by X-ray analysis to be close enough to allow disulfide bridge formation, but a S-S bond was actually found only between C120 and C127 [Hohoff et al., 1999]. Since the exclusion of a disulfide bridge between C67 and C87 improved the Rfree factor of the crystallographic model, the existence of a covalent bond between these two side- chains was considered unlikely. This agrees with the NMR data, where SCH resonances have been observed for the cysteine residues C43, C67 (tentative assignment) and C87, thus excluding the possibility of a second disulfide bridge in solution. Based on the NOE and hydrogen exchange data, an ensemble of 20 energy-minimized conformers representing the solution structure of human E-FABP complexed with stearic acid has been obtained. The analysis of homonuclear 2D NOESY and 15N-edited 3D NOESY spectra led to a total of 2926 NOE-derived distance constraints. Furthermore, 37 slow- exchanging backbone amide protons were identified to be part of the hydrogen-bonding network in the >-sheet and subsequently converted into 74 additional distance constraints. Finally, the disulfide bridge between C120 and C127 was defined by 3 upper and 3 lower distance bounds. The structure calculation program DYANA regarded 998 of these constraints as irrelevant, i.e., they did not restrict the distance between two protons. Out of the remaining 2008 non-trivial distance constraints, 371 were intraresidual (i = j), 508 sequential (|i - j| = 1), 233 medium-range (1 < |i - j| £ 4), and 896 long-range (|i - j| > 4) NOEs. The protein mainly consists of 10 antiparallel -strands forming a >-barrel structure with a large internal cavity. The three-dimensional solution structure of human E-FABP has been determined with a root-mean-square deviation of 0.92 ± 0.11 Å and 1.46 ± 0.10 Å for the backbone and heavy atoms, respectively, excluding the terminal residues. Without the portal region (i.e., for residues 4-26, 40-56, 63-75 and 83-134; the portal region apparently represents the only opening in the protein surface through which the fatty acid ligand can enter and exit the internal binding cavity), an average backbone RMSD of 0.85 ± 0.10 Å was obtained, thus reflecting the higher conformational dispersion in the portal region. Superposition with the X-ray structure of human E-FABP (excluding the terminal residues) yielded average backbone RMSD values of 1.00 ± 0.07 Å for the entire residue range and 0.98 ± 0.06 Å without the portal region. This indicates a close similarity of the crystallographic and the solution structures. The structure coordinates have been deposited at the RCSB data bank under PDB ID code 1JJJ. The measurement of 15N relaxation experiments (T1, T2 and heteronuclear NOE) at three different fields (500, 600 and 800 MHz) provided information on the internal dynamics of the protein backbone. Nearly all non-terminal backbone amide groups showed order parameters S2 > 0.8, with an average value of 0.88 ± 0.04, suggesting a uniformly low backbone mobility in the nanosecond-to-picosecond time range throughout the entire protein sequence. Moreover, hydrogen/deuterium exchange experiments indicated a direct correlation between the stability of the hydrogen-bonding network in the >-sheet structure and the conformational exchange (Rex) in the millisecond-to-microsecond time range. The features of E-FABP backbone dynamics elaborated here differ from those of the phylogenetically closely related heart-type FABP and the more distantly related ileal lipid binding protein. The results on protein dynamics obtained in this work allow to conclude that the different LBP family members E-FABP, H-FABP and ILBP are characterized by varying stabilities in the protein backbone structures. Hydrogen/deuterium exchange experiments displayed significant differences in the chemical exchange with the solvent for the backbone amide protons belonging to the hydrogen-bonding network in the >-sheets. The >-barrel structure of H- FABP appears to be the most rigid, with exchange processes presumably slower than the millisecond-to-microsecond time range. ILBP, on the other hand, shows the fastest hydrogen exchange as well as a significant number of exchange parameters (Rex), implying a decreased stability in the >-sheet structure. E-FABP, finally, appears to rank between these two proteins based on the hydrogen/deuterium exchange, with Rex terms in the >-strands indicating millisecond-to-microsecond exchange processes like in ILBP.
Die Beschäftigung mit Muskarinrezeptoren reicht bis in das vergangene Jahrhundert zurück als, in Folge der verschiedenen Wirkungen des Neurotransmitters Acetylcholin, einerseits Nikotin- und andererseits Muskarinrezeptoren sowie deren Subtypen entdeckt und charakterisiert werden konnten. Aufgrund der weiten Verbreitung von Muskarinrezeptoren innerhalb des zentralen und peripheren Nervensystems sowie in entsprechend innervierten Organen sind diese nach wie vor als Target für bestimmte klinische Indikationen von großem Interesse. Besonders im Bereich der chronisch obstruktiven Atemwegserkrankungen (COPD) sind Bronchodilatoren Mittel der Wahl. Obwohl die derzeitige Behandlungsstrategie im wesentlichen auf dem Einsatz des unselektiven muskarinischen Antagonisten Ipratropiumbromid, allein oder in Kombination mit einem kurzwirksamen b2-Sympathomimetikum, beruht, ist ihr Einsatz aufgrund der dabei auftretenden unerwünschten Nebenwirkungen limitiert. Neben M3- Rezeptoren findet man in der menschlichen Lunge auch präsynaptische M2- Rezeptoren, deren Blockade zu einem Anstieg der Acetylcholinfreisetzung führt. Demzufolge würde die Entwicklung eines hochselektiven und/oder langwirksamen muskarinischen M3-Rezeptorantagonisten einen großen Fortschritt für die Behandlung von Patienten mit COPD und auch Asthma bedeuten. Untersuchung der Stereoisomere des Glycopyrroniumbromids und der entsprechenden tertiären Analoga: Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden sowohl die vier reinen Stereoisomere des Glycopyrroniumbromids als auch die entsprechenden vier tertiären Analoga untersucht. Bislang wird das Diastereomerengemisch (RS/SR), das als RobinulÒ im Handel ist, vorwiegend als Antisialagogum in der Prämedikation der Narkose oder als Spasmolytikum therapeutisch eingesetzt. Die molekulare Struktur des Glycopyrroniumbromids weist zwei Chiralitätszentren auf, woraus sich vier stereoisomere Verbindungen ergeben. Die pharmakologische Untersuchung sowohl der quartären als auch der korrespondierenden tertiären Isomere in den funktionellen Standardmodellen, Kaninchen-Vas-deferens für M1-Rezeptoren, linker Vorhof des Meerschweinchenherzens für M2-Rezeptoren und die Längsmuskulatur des Meerschweinchenileum für M3-Rezeptoren, ergab, dass sich alle Verbindungen an den untersuchten Muskarinrezeptorsubtypen als potente Antagonisten verhielten. Ihre Rezeptorselektivität war jedoch relativ gering, wobei im Allgemeinen die niedrigste Affinität zum M2-Rezeptor beobachtet wurde. Innerhalb der Stereoisomeren zeigten die (R/R')- und (S/R')-konfigurierten Verbindungen den stärksten, die (S/S')-konfigurierten Isomere hingegen den geringsten antagonistischen Effekt. Diese Ergebnisse konnten durch Radioligand- Bindungsstudien bestätigt werden. Bemerkenswert war jedoch, dass insbesondere am M3-Rezeptor eine extrem langsame Dissoziation der Substanzen vom Rezeptor festgestellt wurde. Verbunden mit der hohen Affinität und der in Bindungsstudien ermittelten Dissoziationshalbwertszeit von 120 min könnte das quartäre (R/R')-konfigurierte Stereoisomer des Glycopyrroniumbromids eine geeignete Alternative zur Behandlung der COPD darstellen: Die lange Halbwertszeit sollte eine Einmalgabe pro Tag erlauben und somit die Patientencompliance erhöhen, die hohe Affinität eine geringe Dosierung ermöglichen und die kinetische Selektivität' sowie die quartäre Struktur könnten zur Minimierung unerwünschter Nebenwirkungen führen. Aufgrund dieser Vorteile wurde die Substanz patentiert und der pharmazeutischen Industrie für weiterführende Untersuchungen zur Verfügung gestellt. Untersuchungen an der Längsmuskulatur des Meerschweinchenileum in Hinblick auf die Verteilung von P2-Rezeptoren: Aufgrund der Pionierarbeit, die Ende der 70er Jahre von Burnstock und seinen Mitarbeitern geleistet wurde, wandelte sich das Bild von ATP als einer Energiequelle der Zelle zu einem Neurotransmitter ubiquitären Vorkommens mit entsprechenden Zielstrukturen, den P2-Rezeptoren. Inzwischen ist allgemein anerkannt, dass zwischen metabotropen P2Y-Rezeptoren und ionotropen P2X- Rezeptoren unterschieden werden kann. Mit Hilfe von Klonierungstechniken konnte diese Klassifizierung validiert und außerdem eine Vielzahl unterschiedlicher Subtypen identifiziert werden. Bis heute wurden sieben P2X- (P2X1-7) und sechs P2Y- Rezeptorsubtypen (P2Y1, P2Y2, P2Y4, P2Y6, P2Y11, P2Y12) kloniert und pharmakologisch charakterisiert. Sie gelten unumstritten als Vertreter der P2-Rezeptorfamilie. Heute besteht eine der größten Herausforderungen auf diesem sich explosionsartig expandierendem Gebiet darin, die geklonten P2-Rezeptoren mit den verschiedenen physiologischen Antworten, die durch native P2-Rezeptoren vermittelt werden, in Einklang zu bringen. Da die Längsmuskulatur des Meerschweinchenileum ein bekanntes Modell, z.B. für Untersuchungen an Muskarinrezeptoren, darstellt, war das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit, dieses Modell in Bezug auf die Verteilung von P2-Rezeptoren hin zu untersuchen. Neben Agonisten, die eine Präferenz für entweder ionotrope (a,b-meATP) oder metabotrope (ADPbS) P2-Rezeptoren aufweisen, wurden im wesentlichen eine Reihe gut untersuchter Antagonisten mit zum Teil hoher Affinität für einen Rezeptorsubtyp für die funktionellen Untersuchungen verwendet. Die neuronale Lokalisation des P2X-Rezeptors konnte durch die komplette Aufhebung der durch a,b-meATP-vermittelten Kontraktionen nach Zugabe von TTX charakterisiert werden. Die ebenfalls fast vollständige Hemmung der Kontraktion nach Einsatz von Atropin wies auf einen indirekten, durch Acetylcholin vermittelten Effekt hin. Aufgrund dieser Beobachtungen wurden sämtliche Versuche mit P2-Antagonisten unter Zusatz von 70 µM Physostigmin in der Nährlösung durchgeführt. Die eingesetzten Antagonisten Suramin, NF023 und NF279 erwiesen sich als kompetitive Antagonisten, während PPADS neben der Rechtsverschiebung einen Maximumabfall der Agonistenkurven bewirkte. Ein Vergleich der funktionell ermittelten pA2-Werte mit den Wirkstärken an rekombinanten P2-Rezeptoren von Ratte und Mensch lässt vermuten, dass es sich hierbei um einen P2X3- Rezeptorsubtyp handelt, der über die Freisetzung von Acetylcholin eine Kontraktion der glatten Muskulatur über einen indirekten Mechanismus auslöst. Da sich P2X-Rezeptoruntereinheiten neben homomeren auch zu heteromeren, funktionell aktiven Kanälen vereinen können, könnte es sich bei dem vorliegenden soma-dendritischen P2X-Rezeptor aber auch um ein Heteromer handeln, bei dem der P2X3-Rezeptor den Phänotyp bestimmt. Solange noch keine eindeutige Identifizierung dieses Rezeptors speziesspezifisch auf molekularer Ebene erfolgt ist, sollte man deshalb die Bezeichnung P2X3(-ähnlicher)-Rezeptor verwenden. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine Stimulation des präsynaptischen P2X3(- ähnlichen)-Rezeptors zur Ausschüttung von Acetylcholin führt, das wiederum postsynaptisch einen kontraktionsvermittelnden Muskarinrezeptor aktiviert. Um zu beweisen, dass es sich dabei um denselben Muskarinrezeptorsubtyp handelt, der bereits auf direktem Weg durch APE oder mittels EFS als M3-Rezeptor charakterisiert werden konnte, wurden die Affinitäten muskarinischer Antagonisten als Kriterien herangezogen. Die erhaltenen Korrelationen wiesen eindeutig darauf hin, dass dieser postsynaptisch im GPI lokalisierte Muskarinrezeptor dem nativen und rekombinanten, kontraktionsvermittelnden M3-Rezeptorsubtyp entspricht. Durch Zugabe von ADPbS konnten im GPI Kontraktionen ausgelöst werden, die allerdings mit TTX und Atropin nur zum Teil gehemmt wurden. Diese Beobachtungen führten zu der Erkenntnis, dass postsynaptisch P2Y-Rezeptoren lokalisiert sind. Ihre Subtypcharakterisierung erfolgte unter Zusatz von 0.3 µM Atropin in der Nährlösung, um den Einfluss der neuronalen P2X3-Rezeptoren zu unterbinden. Suramin, NF023 und NF279 zeigten wiederum einen kompetitiven Antagonismus gegen ADPbS, während PPADS auch hier eine Rechtsverschiebung mit Maximumdepression der Agonistenkurve hervorrief. Ein erneuter Vergleich mit beschriebenen Affinitätswerten von rekombinanten P2- Rezeptoren ließ den Schluss zu, dass der im GPI postsynaptisch gefundene P2Y- Rezeptor Eigenschaften des P2Y1-Rezeptorsubtyps aufweist. Eine Bestätigung dafür gaben außerdem die P2Y1-selektiven Bisphosphate A3P5P und MRS2179, obgleich sie geringere pIC50-Werte aufzeigten als in der Literatur beschrieben. Mit der Charakterisierung des neuronalen P2X3-Rezeptors und des postsynaptischen P2Y1-Rezeptors ist das GPI ein bisher einzigartiges funktionelles pharmakologisches Modell, in dem beide P2-Rezeptorsubtypen durch Einsatz des jeweiligen Agonisten, a,b-meATP oder ADPbS, pharmakologisch isoliert werden können. Charakterisierung von P2-Rezeptoren in der Längsmuskulatur des Rattenileum: Eine im Vergleich zum GPI gänzlich andere Situation zeigte sich im RI. Die getesteten P2-Agonisten ADPbS, a,b-meATP, a,b-meADP und ATPgS erzeugten Kontraktionen im untersuchten Gewebe, wobei sich a,b-meATP als effektivster Agonist erwies. Im Unterschied zum GPI führte eine wiederholte Gabe von a,b- meATP allerdings nicht zu einer Desensibilisierung des Rezeptors. Die durch Zugabe von TTX und Atropin erreichte Kontraktionshemmung lässt auf das Vorhandensein von sowohl prä- als auch postsynaptischen P2X-Rezeptoren schließen. Eine Trennung der durch diese Rezeptoren hervorgerufenen Effekte war im funktionellen Experiment jedoch nicht durchführbar. Keinerlei Effekt zeigte allerdings der Zusatz von TTX und Atropin auf die durch ADPbS ausgelösten Kontraktionen. Suramin, NF023 und PPADS erwiesen sich als sehr schwache Antagonisten an diesem Präparat. Auffällig war hingegen, dass die durch den Antagonisten verschobenen Kurven jeweils steiler und im Maximum höher waren als die Kontroll-Agonistenkurve. Man kann also hier nur spekulieren, dass durch die Antagonisten zunächst ein relaxationsvermittelnder Rezeptor geblockt wurde und in Folge nur noch der Effekt des kontraktionsvermittelnden Rezeptors sichtbar war. Obwohl Gewebe der Ratte häufig als funktionelle Modelle in der experimentellen Pharmakologie eingesetzt werden, konnten auf Grund fehlender subtypselektiver Agonisten und Antagonisten die kontraktionsvermittelnden P2-Rezeptorsubtypen im RI nicht identifiziert werden. Des weiteren zeigt ein Vergleich mit dem GPI, dass bedeutende Unterschiede bei der Verwendung gleichen Gewebes zweier verschiedener Spezies existieren können, die bei der vergleichenden Betrachtung von Affinitätswerten von Agonisten und Antagonisten zur Charakterisierung von Rezeptorsubtypen beachtet werden müssen.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden Verfahren der Mathematik und Informatik entwickelt und eingesetzt, um Struktur, Dynamik und biologische Aktivität aus NMR spektroskopischen und empirischen Parametern zu bestimmen. Dolastatin 10 und Epothilon A sind potentielle Wirkstoffe gegen Krebs, da sie durch Wechselwirkung mit Tubulin die Zellteilung unterbinden. Die 3D Struktur beider Wirkstoffe in Lösung und die Struktur von an Tubulin gebundenem Epothilon A wird aus NMR spektroskopischen Parametern bestimmt. Dolastatin 10 liegt in einem konformationellen Gleichgewicht zwischen der cis -- und trans -- Konformation in der ungewöhnlichen Aminosäure DAP vor. Beide Konformationen des flexiblen Pentapeptids können bestimmt werden mit RMSD = 1.423 Å für das cis -- Konformer und RMSD = 1.488 Å für das trans -- Konformer. Während das trans -- Konformer gestreckt vorliegt, faltet das cis -- Konformer am DAP zurück. Epothilone A ist durch einen Makrozyklus weniger flexibel und sowohl die an Tubulin gebundene Struktur (RMSD = 0.537 Å) als auch freie Form (RMSD = 0.497 Å) kann mit geringen RMSD -- Werten bestimmt werden. Die Struktur der freien Form, welche in Lösung hauptsächlich vorliegt, ist mit der Röntgenstruktur weitgehend identisch. In der an Tubulin gebundenen Form wird eine essentielle Umorientierung der Seitenkette beobachtet, die für die Wechselwirkung mit Tubulin entscheidend ist. Dipolare Kopplungen eines Proteins sind geeignet, eine 3D Homologiesuche in der PDB durchzuführen, da die relative Orientierung von Sekundärstrukturelementen und Domänen durch sie beschrieben wird 85 . Die frühe Erkennung 3D homologer Proteinfaltungen eröffnet die Möglichkeit, die Bestimmung von Proteinstrukturen zu beschleunigen. Eine Homolgiesuche unter Nutzung dipolarer Kopplungen ist in der Lage, Proteine oder zumindest Fragmente mit ähnlicher 3D Struktur zu finden, auch wenn die Primärsequenzhomologie gering ist. Darüber hinaus wird eine Transformation für experimentelle dipolare Kopplungen entwickelt, die die indirekte Orientierungsinformation eines Vektors relativ zu einem externen Tensor in den möglichen Bereich für den Projektionswinkel zwischen zwei Vektoren und somit in eine intramolekulare Strukturinformation übersetzt. Diese Einschränkungen können in der Strukturbestimmung von Proteinen mittels Molekulardynamik genutzt werden 92 . Im Gegensatz zu allen existierenden Implementierungen wird die Konvergenz der Rechnung durch die auf diese Weise eingeführten dipolare Kopplungsinformation kaum beeinflusst. Die dipolaren Kopplungen werden trotzdem von den errechneten Strukturen erfüllt. Auch ohne die Nutzung bereits bekannter Protein oder Fragmentstrukturen kann so ein erheblicher Teil der NOE -- Information substituiert werden. Die Dynamik des Vektors, der die beiden wechselwirkenden Dipole verbindet, beeinflusst den Messwert der dipolaren Kopplung. Dadurch wird Information über die Dynamik von Molekülen auf der µsZeitskala zugänglich, die bisher nur schwer untersucht werden konnte. Die Messung dipolarer Kopplungen für einen Vektor in verschiedenen Orientierungen erlaubt die Analyse seiner Bewegung 89 . Im besonderen ist die Ableitung eines modellfreien Ordnungsparameters 2 S möglich. Weiterhin lassen sich ebenso modellfrei eine mittlere Orientierung des Vektors, axialsymmetrische Anteile und nichtaxialsymmetrische Anteile der Dynamik ableiten und auswerten. Die Anwendung der so entwickelten Protokolle auf experimentelle Daten 90 lässt Proteine deutlich dynamischer erscheinen als auf der Zeitskala der Relaxationsexperimente zu erkennen ist. Der mittlere Ordnungsparameter sinkt von 0.8 auf 0.6. Dies entspricht einer Erhöhung des Öffnungswinkels der Bewegung von ca. 22 ° auf ca. 33°. Die Bewegungen weichen teilweise bis zu 40% und im Mittel 15% von der Axialsymmetrie ab. Neuronale Netze erlauben eine schnelle (ca. 5000 chemische Verschiebungen pro Sekunde) und exakte (mittleren Abweichung von 1.6 ppm) Berechnung der 13 C NMR chemischen Verschiebung 115 . Dabei kombinieren sie die Vorteile bisher bekannter Datenbankabschätzungen (hohe Genauigkeit) und Inkrementverfahren (hohe Geschwindigkeit). Das 13 C NMR Spektrum einer organischen Verbindung stellt eine detaillierte Beschreibung seiner Struktur dar. Resultate des Strukturgenerators COCON können durch den Vergleich des experimentellen mit den berechneten 13 C NMR Spektren auf ca. 1 o/oo der vorgeschlagenen Strukturen eingeschränkt werden, die eine geringe Abweichung zum experimentellen Spektrum haben 122 . Die Kombination mit einer Substrukturanalyse erlaubt weiterhin die Erkennung wahrscheinlicher, geschlossener Ringsysteme und gibt einen Überblick über die Struktur des generierten Konstitutionssubraumes. Genetische Algorithmen können die Struktur organischer Moleküle ausgehend von derer Summenformel auf eine Übereinstimmung mit dem experimentellen 13 C NMR Spektrum optimieren. Die Konstitution von Molekülen wird dafür durch einen Vektor der Bindungszustände zwischen allen Atom -- Atom Paaren beschrieben. Selbige Vektoren sind geeignet, in einem genetischen Algorithmus als genetischer Code von Konstitutionen betrachtet zu werden. Diese Methode erlaubt die automatisierte Bestimmung der Konstitution von Molekülen mit 10 bis 20 Nichtwasserstoffatomen 123 . Symmetrische neuronale Netze können fünf bzw. sieben dimensionale, heterogene Parameterrepräsentationen der 20 proteinogenen Aminosäuren unter Erhalt der wesentlichen Information in den dreidimensionalen Raum projizieren 134 . Die niederdimensionalen Projektionen ermöglichen eine Visualisierung der Beziehungen der Aminosäuren untereinander. Die reduzierten Parameterrepräsentationen sind geeignet, als Eingabe für ein neuronales Netz zu dienen, welches die Sekundärstruktur eines Proteins mit einer Genauigkeit von 66 % im Q 3 -- Wert berechnet. Neuronale Netzte sind aufgrund ihrer flexiblen Struktur besonders geeignet, quantitative Beziehungen zwischen Struktur und Aktivität zu beschreiben, da hier hochgradig nichtlineare, komplexe Zusammenhänge vorliegen. Eine numerische Codierung der über 200 in der Literatur beschriebenen Epothilonderivate erlaubt es, Modelle zur Berechnung der Induktion der Tubulin Polymerisation (R = 0.73) und der Inhibierung des Krebszellenwachstums (R = 0.94) zu erstellen 136 . Die trainierten neuronalen Netze können in einer Sensitivitätsanalyse genutzt werden, um die Bindungsstellen des Moleküls zu identifizieren. Aus der Berechnung der Aktivität für alle Moleküle des durch die Parameter definierten Strukturraums ergeben sich Vorschläge für Epothilonderivate, die bis zu 1 000 mal aktiver als die bisher synthetisierten sein könnten.