891 Ostindoeuropäische, keltische Literaturen
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In 1937, when Bulgakov was working on Master i Margarita and suffering from rejection by the theatre community, an old friend appealed to him: "Вы ведь государство в государстве. Сколько это может продолжаться? Надо сдаваться, все сдались. Один вы остались. Это глупо." And indeed "государство в государстве" ("a state within a state") is an appropriate way of describing a man who was feverishly working on a modernist novel at the height of socialist realism. The very fact that Master i Margarita was written in the oppressive environment of the 1930s makes it a unique modernist work, for it emerges as a protest against socialist realism and a defense of artistic freedom. In this respect the modernist qualities of Bulgakov's novel acquire a new dimension because Master i Margarita becomes a kind of artistic devil, fulfilling the traditional diabolic role of opposing authority. This is why Woland, as a character, is the metonymic expression of the novel's revolt.
Vsevolod M. Garshin's story "Four Days" ("Четыре дня") made the author famous when it was published in 1877. Intended as a strong anti·war statement and based on a true incident during the Russian-Turkish war (1877-78), "Four Days" is the interior monologue of a wounded soldier left for dead on an empty battlefield. His last name, Ivanov, which is traditionally considered to be the most common one in Russia, may suggest the idea of "everyman" in order to generalize the protagonists terrible experience on the battlefield into a broad anti-war message. The protagonist finds himself pinned down next to 0the body of a Turkish soldier whom he had killed just before being wounded. Forced to look at the corpse for a long time, Ivanov experiences terrible guilt, since he has never killed before. After four days of physical and mental agony, during which Ivanov reassesses his formerly idealistic attitude toward war and ends up condemning it as something far from glorious and noble, the protagonist is found by his regiment, and, unlike his real-life prototype, he survives (Henry. 47). Throughout the text we do not lave the confines of the protagonist's mind; as a result, the intense, relentless focus on his mental and physical anguish created by the interior monologue: immobilized by his wound, he becomes a prisoner of his own mind; as a result, the intense, relentless focus on his mental and physical anguish created by the interior monologue technique enhances the "horrors of war" effect intended by the author. At the same time the war-related situation and setting provide motivation for the wounded man's interior monologue: immobilized by his wound, he becomes a prisoner of his own mind and its therefore forced by circumtances to think through his entire predicament and its causes.
In his lifetime Daniil Charms only succeeded in publishing two of his poems for adults. Publicly he was a children's author: a job in the Soviet Union which traditionally attracted many writers whose literature for adults was either rejected by the official literary system or had to be hidden altogether if its creators wanted to avoid trouble.
In fact up to the present day it is still Charms the children's author who is best known and loved, although finally under new historical and political conditions the writer for adults has also been allowed to make his debut. However, whatever he wrote, Charms' work was always dominated by an absurdist world view, a view that usually denied all dogma or ideology. His only aim seems to have been to present a world upside down and play around with literary and other conventions, i.e. more than anything else he wanted to be different, acting as a sort of literary "punk".
Although Charms and his associates were preceded by European absurdist authors, such as A. Jarry (1873-1907), it is very difficult to establish any relationship of influence between examples of Western European absurdism and Daniil Charms. Nonetheless, Charms' work, as well as that of Jarry, Ionesco and Beckett, all share the "grotesquely comic as well as irrational" (Abrams 1981: 1) quality of the absurdist movement in its larger modernist context.
One of the most striking and unsettling elements in Venedikt Erofeev's novel "Moskva-Petuški" is the ending where Venja, the protagonist-narrator, is murdered by four mysterious executioners in the stairway of a downtown Moscow building. [...] The last sentence turns the entire preceding narrative into a paradox: the narrator indicates that he could not have told his story, since he ceased to exist as a consciousness ("soznanie") as soon as the action stopped. The fact of Venja's death itself does not necessarily cancel out his ability to tell about the events leading up to his demise: literature knows a number of beyond-the-grave narrators, e.g., the murdered Olivia in Anne Hebert's "Les fous de Bassan" or the dead samurai Tekehiko in Akutagawa Riunosuke's "In a grove". What makes Venja's narrative paradoxic is his own reference to the end of his cogitative activity. at the moment of death the hero ceases to think and should, logically, lose the ability to narrate. Normally, a dead narrator acquires his/her ability to narrate by supernatural means, e.g., via life after death, as in "Les Fous de Bassan" or through a medium, as in "In a Grove". Such postmortem loquacity may also remain unexplained. In "Moskva-Petuški", however, the dead narrator seems to stress that his death appears as the ultimate end: a point where everything, including time and consciousness, stops.
Ten years after writing "Spotted dog running along the seashore" ("Пегий пес, бегущий краем моря") Chingiz Aitmatov said that this novella was his favorite. Perhaps this is because it represents the essence of Aitmatov's artistic world view. The term "essence" is appropriate here because the setting and the characters of the novella are totally removed from the modem world and from history itself. Unburdened by the need to relate his artistic goals and philosophical interests to any specific socio-political context - a requirement made all the more problematic for an author writing within the Soviet literary system - Aitmatov was free to develop his favorite themes in a kind of "tabula rasa" medium. Thus, it was with absolute directness that the author could face questions dominating much of his fiction: the moral soundness of age-old values, the need for continuity in social development, the necessity of humanity's hannonious coexistence with nature, and the positive ethical value of myth.
Im Folgenden werden zunächst punktuell symbolische und literarische Codierungen des Schwarzmeerraumes aus russischer bzw. sowjetischer Perspektive skizziert, um dann erneut auf Brodskys Entwurf einer mentalen Topographie in "Flucht aus Byzanz" zurückzukommen. Die (sowjet-)russischen Erfahrungen und Einschreibungen konnotieren den gesamten Essay. Brodskys antiöstliches Pathos erweist sich vor dem autobiographischen Hintergrund als eine antiimperiale Geste, als Abrechnung mit der Unfreiheit des Sowjetimperiums.
Ausgehend von Šalamovs Poetik und mit Blick auf die Positionen von Solženicyn und Semprún sollen im Folgenden einige Aspekte des vielschichtigen Problemfeldes 'Überleben und Schreiben' diskutiert werden. Dabei geht es mir, das sei betont, nicht um einen Vergleich zwischen dem sowjetischen GULag und den nationalsozialistischen Konzentrations- beziehungsweise Vernichtungslagern. Ein solcher Vergleich war auch von keinem der drei Autoren intendiert, selbst wenn sich deren Refl exionen mitunter auch auf die europäischen Terrorpraktiken des 20. Jahrhunderts insgesamt erstreckten. Die Art und Weise, wie das Überleben in literarischen Texten thematisiert wird, hängt eng mit der Frage nach den poetologischen Konsequenzen zusammen, nach Möglichkeiten und Grenzen des Sprechens über das Erlebte, nach der Modellierung des Lagers in fiktionalen Räumen. Mit Ausnahme von Solženicyns 'Archipel GULAG', in dem gestützt auf zahlreiche mündliche und schriftliche Berichte von Überlebenden der "Versuch einer künstlerischen Untersuchung" des GULag-Systems als Ganzes unternommen wird, handelt es sich bei den nachfolgenden Beispielen um literarische Darstellungen des Lagers aus der Perspektive eines Einzelnen. Die literarische Rekonstruktion des im Lager Erlebten verlangte jedem Schreibenden ethische und ästhetische Entscheidungen ab.
Den Kaukasus als einen Grenzraum anzusehen ist in der Forschung über die russische Kaukasusliteratur längst Konsens. Trotzdem wurde er auf die raumsemantische Spezifik der Grenze hin kaum untersucht. Während die sowjetische Literaturwissenschaft den Kaukasus als Thema bzw. Topos der russischen Literaturgeschichte betrachtete, hat die primär westliche Forschung der letzten Jahre die russische Kaukasusliteratur im Orientalismusdiskurs verortet. Harsha Ram erweitert den Kontext, indem er diese Literatur im Rahmen einer Poetik des Imperiums untersucht. Ohne den Anspruch zu erheben, die Poetik der Grenze erschöpfend zu behandeln, möchte ich im folgenden das kaukasische Kapitel der Poetik der Grenze in der russischen Literatur thematisieren. Dabei werde ich exemplarisch die Semantik des Grenzraums im 'Kaukasussujet' bei Aleksandr Puškin (1799-1837), Aleksandr Bestužev-Marlinskij (1797-1837) und Michail Lermontov (1814-1841) untersuchen.
Der serbisch-kanadische Schriftsteller David Albahari, um dessen Roman Pijavice (Die Ohrfeige) es in der Folge gehen wird, widmete dem Thema unter anderem den Essay "Antisemitismus: Serbien und Kanada". In diesem mit zeitlichem Abstand geschriebenen Essay hebt Albahari für die 1990er Jahre gleichfalls Friedhofschändungen, antisemitische Schmierereien und antisemitische Verschwörungstheorien hervor, die Juden und Freimaurer für die Bombardierung Serbiens 1999 verantwortlich machten. Diese Beunruhigung, von der ihm seine jüdischen Bekannten schrieben, hätte, so Albahari, viel damit zu tun, dass jene, wie auch er, in Jugoslawien aufgewachsen seien - einem Land, in dem antisemitische Vorfälle selten gewesen waren, weil der die Freiheiten der Bürger einschränkende jugoslawische Staat dennoch irgendwie eine Grenze zwischen dem staatlich vertretenen Antizionismus und dem religiösen und nationalem Hass gezogen habe. In den 1990er Jahren habe sich dies in gewisser Weise umgekehrt: Während diplomatische Beziehungen zu Israel aufgenommen wurden, habe der Antisemitismus im Klima des nationalen Hasses als eine von dessen Erscheinungen Fuß fassen können und erweise sich nun gar als nachhaltiger als andere. Albahari, der in seinem Essay diese Wende in den 1990er Jahren fokussiert, scheut sich nicht, die Situation in Serbien mit der in anderen Nachfolgestaaten Jugoslawiens zu vergleichen.