Journal of religious culture = Journal für Religionskultur
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13
I am proposing to deal with my subject "Minorities in a Democracy with special reference to India" under the following heads: A Recent Case; Nature and Relationship, Formation and Responses; Concluding Remarks. I. A Recent Case I became a member of the National Commission for Minorities on 3rd of December, 1996. This means I have now already served more than eleven months in this office. One of the ex-ercises, which I undertook during these eleven months, was to pay as many as visits to differ-ent states of India. Already I have covered about 16 states and Union Territories. One of the most recent visits was to my home state Panjab from October 21-25, 1997. The case with which I am going to share with you was the one with which I was faced unexpectedly during this visit. ...
63
In den mystischen Kommentarschulen, die einen wichtigen Teil der Korankommentarliteratur hervorgebracht haben, stützt man sich bei der Erstellung von Kommentaren außer auf bestimmte exegetische Regeln und Methoden auch auf die Intuition. Neben dem Wissen, das man durch die normale intellektuelle Arbeit erwirbt, gibt es nach dem Islam ein Wissen, das von Gott unmittelbar vermittelt wird und das man Ledünni Bilgi, d.h. unmittelbares intuitives Wissen nennt. Diese Art von Wissen, das man in allen Religionen der Welt findet, erwirbt man durch strenge Askese und intensive Gottesverehrung: Dies ist das mystische Wissen. Jede Religion und Philosophie hat ihre eigenen Auffassungs-, Interpretations- und Ausdrucksweisen. Das gilt auch für die Religion des Islam. Jedoch ist islamische Mystik nicht nur Wissen in Gedanke und Wort, sondern zugleich auch ein Wissen vom Handeln. [Die mystischen Korankommentare müssen, da sie das Ergebnis eines ekstatischen Zustandes sind, unabhängig von der empfangenden Person, nicht unbedingt akzeptiert werden, besonders dann nicht, wenn sie nicht mit dem Koran, der islamischen Tradition, Verstand und Logik übereinstimmen.] ...
24 b
Castes still determine the social reality of India in many fields and affect politics more and more by functioning as vote banks which are decisive in elections. Thus it is small wonder that there is an ongoing discussion about this social phe-nomenon. The controversies in the course of this discussion not only relate to academic theories concerning the origin, the evolution and the mode of opera-tion of the caste system but also determine the discussion about reform models for the Indian society. Such models either strive for the complete abolition of the caste system or at least call for a comprehensive reform of it. Especially the Dalit movement blames the caste system for the oppression and discrimination of the Dalits in society and tries to withdraw them from this system.[1] Yet the Dalit movement does not develop any alternative social draft. The Hindutva movement makes a strong effort to establish a modern (Hindu) nation which is only possible by overcoming the caste system that totally divides the society. Thus Hindutva is against the caste system though the antagonists of this move-ment usually maintain the contrary.[2] Swami Vivekananda holds that the only way to overcome the caste system is the Brahmanization of the whole society. For this he gives a religious explanation as he announces the end of the Kali-Yuga.[3] The Hare Krishna movement wants to turn away from a hereditary caste system towards a system where every individual is classified according to his skills and performance. Such a system should be based on Vedic traditions and especially on the fourfold varna system which is described in the ancient Rigveda.[4] Gandhi’s social draft and above all its attitude towards the caste system are often part of the current discussion but the interpretations differ according to the inter-preter’s ideological direction. Thus some charge Gandhi with having defended the caste system unconditionally, while others consider him a sharp critic of the system. This large spectrum is hardly surprising, since Gandhi’s comments are very reserved and can only become understandable by a comparative analysis of different statements on the caste system made by him during his political career. This article intends to provide such an analysis without neglecting the historical context which is vital to make Gandhi’s ideas clear. ...
78
In this article we dealt with the relations between the state and religion / Islam and its interpreters i.e., the ulama, their needs each other. As a case, with an original source, we focused on the time of the Mahmud II (1808-1839) The Ottoman reforms of the nineteenth century is reconciliation between Islam and Western civili-sation. In this process the ulama played key role by commenting Islam accordance with the need of the age or of the Ottoman Empire. The reformers, chiefly the Sultan and his close friends needed the support of the ulama to legitimate their reform programmes In this crucial stage the head of the ulama the Shaykhulislam, used his own religious knowledge and influence, derived from his office by writing a treatise to persuade the masses to accept the reforms. Applying the traditional virtue literature on the Ottoman dynasty he presented in this pamphlet one of the Western-minded Ottoman sultans as an ideal caliph-sultan. This attitude helped to transform the middle-aged Ottoman political structure and society into modern ages in Western line.
47
Hz. Meryem’in İslam tasavvufundaki yerini anlayabilmek için az da olsa tasavvuftan bahsetmemiz gerekecektir:
Yaygın bir anlayışa göre tasavvufun sözlük anlamı yün giymektir.[1] Çünkü yün elbise gösterişsiz bir kıyafet olup, avret yerlerini örtmek için giyilirdi.
Terim anlamı olarak Tasavvuf, kalben temiz olmak, Ashab-ı suffe gibi olmak; devamlı ibadet etmektir. Kötü huyları terketmek, güzel huylar edinmektir. Kimseden incinmemek, kimseyi incitmemek, herkesin yükünü çekmek, kimseye yük olmamaktır. Kâmil yani, olgun insan olmak, Allah ile beraber olmaktır. Kişinin nefsine karşı giriştiği barışı olmayan bir savaştır.[2] Bunlara benzer tasavvufun pek çok tanımı yapılmıştır. Bu tanımları bir cümlede toplamak mümkün değildir. Çünkü tasavvuf bir yaşama biçimidir, Allah’ın sevgisini ve onun hoşnutluğunu kazanma yarışıdır. Bunun yolları ve metotları sayılmayacak kadar çoktur.
Müslümanlar Allah’a ulaşma ve O’nun rızasını elde etme amacıyla örnekler aramışlardır. Örnek olarak en başta Hz. Muhammed (a.s.)i almaları tabi karşılanmalıydı. Öyle de olmuştur. Hz. Muhammed (a.s.), ümmeti için her yönüyle örnek olduğu gibi sûfî hayat tarzı için de çok önemli bir örnektir.
Nitekim O şöyle buyurmuştur: “İhsan, Allah’ı görüyormuş gibi ibadet etmektir, zira sen O’nu görmüyorsan da O seni görüyor.”[3] Bu hadisten anlaşılan hedef ibadet esnasında Yaratıcı ile kul arasında tam bir iletişimin kurulması gerektiğidir. Başka bir hadiste yine Peygamber buyurmuştur ki; “Allah Teâla buyuruyor: Bir Allah dostuna düşmanlık edene karşı, ben savaş açarım. Kul bana en çok kendisine farz kıldığım şeyleri yapmakla yaklaşır. Nafile ibadetlerle de bana yaklaşmaya devam eder. Sonuçta o derece yaklaşır ki, ben onu severim. Ben onu seversem onun işiten kulağı, gören gözü, tutan eli, yürüyen ayağı olurum. Benimle işitir, benimle görür, benimle tutar, benimle yürür.”[4] İslam’ın genel prensipleri çerçevesinde bu hadisten panteist bir anlayış çıkaramayacağımıza göre bir müslümanın bu hadisten anlayacağı şeyı, çok heyecan verici bir dînî coşkunluk olması gayet doğaldır.
Müslüman bir mistiğe ufuk ve yön veren hadisler ve sünnet örnekleri sayılmayacak kadar çoktur. Engin bir kültür ve zengin bir yaşam tarzına sahip olan İslam Tasavvufunun mensupları sadece Peygamber ve sahabe örneği ile yetinmemişlerdir. Kur’an-ı Kerimde övülen her insanı arınma modeli olarak kabul etmişlerdir. Çünkü Kur’an bir Müslüman için Allah’ın ezeli ve ebedi olan kelam sıfatından süzülüp gelen bir Kelâm-ı Kadîm’dir, yani kutsal bir kitaptır.
68
As for the relation between Islam and pluralism, it seems a little bit complicated. There are some verses in The Koran for pluralism and at the same time we have some verses against. Among the sayings of Prophet Muhammad like the some Koranic verses, we came across with something good and bad for non-Muslims in special contexts. By another saying, we find both positive and negative statements for Jews and Christians in different circumstances. Muslim scholars the complexity still exists. We find both positive and negative stances. So it is difficult to see a standard or official view on this issue. However, we should point out that Islam recognizes all the sacred (Semitic) books and their messages. It accepts all prophets of that traditions. It defines itself as the last and perfect religion of Semitic tradition and states that no other religion will be accepted from anybody else other then itself. It criticizes both the Jews and Christians especially about their failure to uphold the Oneness of God, tawhid, and to preserve the authenticity of their scripture from interventions. This exclusivist aspect of Islam as many conservative scholars formed with putting together some evidences from the Koran is generally accepted by Muslims.
27-02
Die Wissenschaftliche Irenik hat im klaren Gegensatz dazu eine ganz andere Aufgabe. Die Bezeichnung Irenik leitet sich von dem griechischen Wort "Eirene" her, das wir normalerweise mit Frieden übersetzen . Das ist in unserem Zusammenhang hier, jedoch im Zusammenhang der Wissenschaftlichen Irenik, als Übersetzung des hebräischen Wortes Shalom zu verstehen , meint also den positiven Zustand des Heils. Die Aufgabe der Irenik besteht also darin, das Heilsame der Religionen zu bewahren. Das heißt im Rahmen wissenschaftlicher Religionskritik, die für die Menschen notwendige aber relative Bedeutung der verschiedenen einzelnen Religionen heraus zuarbeiten .
10
As both time and space at hand for this presentation is limited, therefore instead of a longer introductory note, here a move is made to deal with the given subject straight. In the second section the background both historical and theological is discussed, which win state the position of the inter-religious dialogue in India. The third section will deal with the involvement and experiences of the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches in the field of inter-religious dialogue. The fourth section deals with other living religions specially Islam. Finally in section five concluding remarks are given in the form of reflections and in section six, the notes and references are listed.