Journal of religious culture = Journal für Religionskultur
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45
In diesem Artikel werden vier Themen aus dem BG-Kommentar Swami Bhaktivedantas behandelt: Seine Meinung über Sankara und -Anhänger (Abschnitt I), sein Textverständnis (Abschnitt II), Grundzüge seiner Varnasrama-Theorie (Abschnitt III) und sein Verhältnis zur sog. Orthodoxie (Abschnitt IV). Obwohl in erster Linie der BG-Kommentar Swami Bhakti-vedantas berücksichtigt wird, ist es zuweilen doch hilfreich, auf die Kommentare zum Bhag-Pur und Cc Bezug zu nehmen, wenn sich daraus mehr Klarheit zu einem bestimmten Thema ergibt. Inwieweit die Ansichten Swami Bhaktivedantas schon durch seine Pararampara und die diversen Vaisnava-Texte vorgegeben sind, bleibt weitgehend unbeachtet.
50
The historian has to safeguard the strangeness of the past. Therefore, religio-historical research has to scrutinise the reconstruction of the real history of religions by religious ideologies of the present. Very often religious ideologies fall back to the past in order to get an alleged legitimacy for their actual am-bitions; however, for that purpose they have to model or falsify the past according to their present ideo-logical needs. One of the outstanding examples of such an ideologisation of history of religion is the modern view of Buddhism. Developed by the Western colonialist Indology this ideology portrayed and still is portray-ing Buddhism as an rationalist-atheistic, anti-brahmanical, anti-caste and egalitarian religion - in con-trast to Hinduism which is caricatured as idolatrous, casteistic and brahmanised. The aim of such an ideological interpretation is to demonstrate the alleged Western modernity of Buddhism and the alleged obscurantism of Hinduism. The target of that ideological aggression was the Hinduism. In order to exploit the wealth of India the Western colonialists needed the weakening of the Hindu self-consciousness; therefore they favoured an Indology which produced an not existing Indian Buddhism as an alleged modern alternative to the alleged primitive religion of the 'Hindoos'. Playing the Buddhism against the 'Hindoos' the colonialist attempt to defame the vast majority of the Indian people was very successful. Even Indian religious intellectuals and leaders (i.e. the secularists or the Neo-Buddhists1) are sharing and supporting that colonialist view still today. We want to dispute these asserted positions by empirico-historical reasons. First we will discuss the early Buddhism, than Ashoka's reform program of the dharma and at last the historio-graphical dilemmata of scholars sharing the colonialist ideology of Buddhism. ....
46
Charity has a long tradition in the Christian religion. From the early beginning there was some organized charity. In the Acts of the Apostles we read about socalled diakonoi being responsible for the needy Christians. During the whole church history there was the rule that 1/3 of the tithe, the decima pars, the religious tax, had to be spend for the poor people of a parish. Of course, there was much misuse of that portion; the tithe became private and the new owners of the tax mostly living far away were not interested in supporting the poor people. Yet, the Christian people organized additional charity. It is very important to see that religious mentality was very helpful for that ...
48
Im Rigveda, der altindischen Sammlung von Gesängen des Heiligen, heißt es über Vishnu: "Mögen die Götter uns vor dem Ort, von dem aus Vishnu über die sieben Bereiche der Erde schritt, bewahren. Vishnu schritt über (das Universum); dreimal setzte er seinen Fuß auf; die Welt war in seinem Staub eingehüllt; Vishnu, der unbesiegbare Bewahrer, den niemand täuscht, tat drei Schritte; von da an setzte er seine hohen Gesetze in Kraft." Vishnu durchmaß die Welt mit drei Schritten und richtete seine Ordnung, seinen Dharma, auf. Welches aber war der Sinn des Dreischritts? Von Vishnu heißt es dazu im Rigveda: "Welcher (sc. Vishnu) wahrhaftig allein die Dreiheit Erde, Himmel und Lebewesen trägt."Und das, was er bewahrt, ist ein Dreifaches: Erde, Himmel und die lebenden Wesen. Aber der entscheidende Grund für Lobwürdigkeit Vishnus besteht denn auch darin, daß er nicht nur seine Werke bewahrt, sondern durch seinen Dreischritt überhaupt erst Lebensräume für alle Wesen geschaffen hat. Daß Lebensraumbeschaffung der Sinn der drei Schritte war, wird an anderer Stelle nochmals betont: "Über diese Erde schrittt mit mächtigem Tritt Vishnu, bereit sie als Heim dem Menschen zu geben. / Seinem Schutz vertraut das einfache Volk sich an, er, der Edelgeborene, hat ihnen weiträumige Wohnstatt bereitet." Von diesen drei Lebensräumen weiß der rigvedische Sänger sogar zu berichten, daß in ihnen Milch und Honig fließt. Lob sei daher Vishnu "dessen drei Weltenräume voll von Süße sind." Vishnu hat die irdische Welt den Menschen als Paradies erworben, denn süß ist sie, nicht ein Tal der Tränen, des Elends und der Bitterkeit. Süße verweist auf einen Zustand der Zufriedenheit und Erfülltheit. Vishnu erwirbt sich das Vertrauen des einfachen Volks, weil er ihm durch seinen Dreischritt eine erfüllte und gesicherte Existenz verschafft hat.6 In den wenigen rigvedischen Manifestationen Vishnus leuchtet bereits ein grundlegender Wesenszug Vishnus auf: Er liebt und umsorgt die irdische Welt. ...
43 a
Gläubigkeit und Todesfurcht : mystische Traditionen und die Anschauungen von Studierenden heute
(2001)
Der Tod ist ein Ereignis, das uns nicht fremd ist. Es ist eine unvermeidliche und universelle Tatsache, der wir aus irgendwelchen Gründen immer wieder gegenüberstehen und die in uns gemischte Gefühle erweckt. Um die negativen Wirkungen von Gefühlen wie Furcht und Angst einer solchen Realität gegenüber zu vermindern und nach Möglichkeit zu beseitigen, bedient sich der Mensch kultureller, philosophischer bzw. geistlicher Mittel. Im Gegensatz dazu wird behauptet, dass philosophische und geistliche Systeme als Mýttel dienen, mit deren Hilfe der Mensch mit der Furcht vor dem Tod umgehen kann. Aufgrund von Forschungen auf den Gebieten der Anthropologie und Ethnologie wurde festgestellt, dass die Begriffe Tod und Glauben miteinander zusammenhängen und dieser Zusammenhang genauso alt ist wie die Geschichte der Menschheit. Tod und Glaube sind zwei Begriffe, auf die sich das Interesse der Menschen, an erster Stelle das der Philosophen, Wissenschaftler, Dichter, Schriftsteller und Geistlicher, in jeder Epoche konzentriert hat. (Yildiz, 1999) ... Diesem Artikel liegt die Dissertation des Verf. “Studie über den Zusammenhang zwischen dem religiösen Leben und der Furcht vor dem Tod” (Izmir Dokuz Eylül Universität, sozialwissenschaftliches Institut, 1998) zu Grunde. Die Interpretationen stützen sich auf die Daten der Gruppen von Probanden, die in der Dissertation verwendet worden sind. Es handelt sich um 555 studentische Probanden (Frauen = 195, Männer = 360) aus sieben verschiedenen Fakultäten der Dokuz Eylül Universität (Bildung, ÝÝBF, Medizin, Jura, Ingenieurswesen, Theologie und Kunst), die nach dem Zufallsverfahren ausgewählt wurden. Das Durchschnittsalter der Studenten, die zwischen 16 und 42 Jahre alt waren, betrug 21,02 (ss 3.01). Zur Auswertung der Daten wurden die Fragebögen “Religiöses Leben” und “Die Furcht vor dem Tod” verwendet. Die erfaßten Daten wurden entsprechend der Hypothesen nach statistischen Berechnungen analysiert und bewertet.
47
Hz. Meryem’in İslam tasavvufundaki yerini anlayabilmek için az da olsa tasavvuftan bahsetmemiz gerekecektir:
Yaygın bir anlayışa göre tasavvufun sözlük anlamı yün giymektir.[1] Çünkü yün elbise gösterişsiz bir kıyafet olup, avret yerlerini örtmek için giyilirdi.
Terim anlamı olarak Tasavvuf, kalben temiz olmak, Ashab-ı suffe gibi olmak; devamlı ibadet etmektir. Kötü huyları terketmek, güzel huylar edinmektir. Kimseden incinmemek, kimseyi incitmemek, herkesin yükünü çekmek, kimseye yük olmamaktır. Kâmil yani, olgun insan olmak, Allah ile beraber olmaktır. Kişinin nefsine karşı giriştiği barışı olmayan bir savaştır.[2] Bunlara benzer tasavvufun pek çok tanımı yapılmıştır. Bu tanımları bir cümlede toplamak mümkün değildir. Çünkü tasavvuf bir yaşama biçimidir, Allah’ın sevgisini ve onun hoşnutluğunu kazanma yarışıdır. Bunun yolları ve metotları sayılmayacak kadar çoktur.
Müslümanlar Allah’a ulaşma ve O’nun rızasını elde etme amacıyla örnekler aramışlardır. Örnek olarak en başta Hz. Muhammed (a.s.)i almaları tabi karşılanmalıydı. Öyle de olmuştur. Hz. Muhammed (a.s.), ümmeti için her yönüyle örnek olduğu gibi sûfî hayat tarzı için de çok önemli bir örnektir.
Nitekim O şöyle buyurmuştur: “İhsan, Allah’ı görüyormuş gibi ibadet etmektir, zira sen O’nu görmüyorsan da O seni görüyor.”[3] Bu hadisten anlaşılan hedef ibadet esnasında Yaratıcı ile kul arasında tam bir iletişimin kurulması gerektiğidir. Başka bir hadiste yine Peygamber buyurmuştur ki; “Allah Teâla buyuruyor: Bir Allah dostuna düşmanlık edene karşı, ben savaş açarım. Kul bana en çok kendisine farz kıldığım şeyleri yapmakla yaklaşır. Nafile ibadetlerle de bana yaklaşmaya devam eder. Sonuçta o derece yaklaşır ki, ben onu severim. Ben onu seversem onun işiten kulağı, gören gözü, tutan eli, yürüyen ayağı olurum. Benimle işitir, benimle görür, benimle tutar, benimle yürür.”[4] İslam’ın genel prensipleri çerçevesinde bu hadisten panteist bir anlayış çıkaramayacağımıza göre bir müslümanın bu hadisten anlayacağı şeyı, çok heyecan verici bir dînî coşkunluk olması gayet doğaldır.
Müslüman bir mistiğe ufuk ve yön veren hadisler ve sünnet örnekleri sayılmayacak kadar çoktur. Engin bir kültür ve zengin bir yaşam tarzına sahip olan İslam Tasavvufunun mensupları sadece Peygamber ve sahabe örneği ile yetinmemişlerdir. Kur’an-ı Kerimde övülen her insanı arınma modeli olarak kabul etmişlerdir. Çünkü Kur’an bir Müslüman için Allah’ın ezeli ve ebedi olan kelam sıfatından süzülüp gelen bir Kelâm-ı Kadîm’dir, yani kutsal bir kitaptır.
36 b
The basic argument the canonical and apocryphic theologies of the South Indian Tamil Shrivaishnavas grow worm over since centuries is the question: Has God set into motion the process of salvation in order to save mankind - the anthropocentric tradition is teaching -, or in order to save himself, the way a theocentric soteriology would teach. To answer this question we have to examine particularly the theocentric religion of salvation because it was held apocryphic by the anthropocentic orthodoxy and has therefore to be reconstructed from sources that are all concealed anthropocentrically. ...
49
The origin of the religious experience, says Vivekananda, is man's instinctive urge to transcend the sensual world. He believes that man is a compound of two fundamental ele-ments: sense arid mind. While through the senses he receives impressions of the objective world, he cannot remain satisfied with his senses, simply because he wants to go beyond them. Therefore, through his mind, at certain moments he transcends the limitations of the senses. But he also transcends the power of reasoning. He then comes face to face with the facts which he could never have sensed, could never have reasoned out. According to Vivekananda, this fact is the main basis of all the religions of the world. ...
44
The people of Braj1 are attracted by the Holy in many ways. But nowhere is its attraction per-ceived as strongly as in the public performances of the lilas of Krisna – the lilanukaranas. Although by their aesthetic constitution these dramatic performances are a mixture of song, theater and dance, they do not belong to the genre of folkloric entertainment, for in their very essence they are revelations of the Holy. Thus in Braj the Holy is not at all considered a nirguna entity concealing itself from the world. On the contrary, it reveals itself plainly and unmistakably. This revelation is fully authentic because in its essence the Holy is saguna, i.e. possessed of form. This, however, further means that the lilanukarana do not present something mundane as sacred, nor do they present a 'substitute religion' – for they offer the experience of the Holy moving among and with the lilanukarana, as their equal, freely and naturally, without fear of touch by the creature. And this unconcern for possible worldly contamination allows the Brajbasis to meet the Holy without fear, and in intimate friendship.