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Im N. Arch. XI, S. 409 - 410 theilt Dümmler aus der Hs. Nr. 544 der Gr. Hofbibliothek zu Darmstadt eine Reihe von Seelstiftungen mit; am Schlusse bemerkt er, er habe noch nicht ermitteln können, aus welchem Kloster diese Aufzeichnung stammt. Da ich dies nachzuweisen und ausserdem einige der vorkommenden Persönlichkeiten näher zu bestimmen vermag, wird man einen nochmaligen Abdruck des kurzen Eintrags entschuldigen. ...
I) Durch die vielen Extrem-Faktoren, die im Seewinkel zusammentreffen, erscheint dieses Steppengebiet, das östlich des Neusiedlersees gelegen ist, als besonders geeignetes Untersuchungsobjekt, sowohl für faunistische als auch für ökologische Forschungen. II) Die geologischen Verhältnisse und III) die Entstehungstheorien der Lacken werden in großen Zügen skizziert. IV) Das Klima ist als kontinental zu bezeichnen, es unterscheidet sich aber vom typischen Steppenklima der Ungarischen Tiefebene. V) Die Salzlacken sind durch eine hohe Alkalinitkit, bedeutende Salzgehalte, die zum Großteil auf Soda zurückzuführen sind, ihre große Härte, vor allem aber die Schwankungen im Ionenverhältnis und in der Gesamtkonzentration gekennzeichnet. Die Brunnen sind ebenso wie die Schottergruben als Süßwasser anzusprechen. VI) Es wurden insgesamt 32 Locken, 3 Brunnen, 3 Schottergruben und 7 Kanäle auf ihre Turbellarienfauna untersucht. VII) Die in den Gewässern gefundenen Turbellarien (30 an der Zahl) werden systematisch geordnet. Auch ihre Verteilung auf die einzelnen Lacken in den verschiedenen Monaten wird erläutert. Castrada gigantea ist eine neue Castrada-Art, die in zwei chemisch sehr verschiedenen Lacken gefunden wurde. Die allgemeine Organisation weicht von der der anderen Castraden nicht ab, auffallend ist hier lediglich der sehr große Kopulatiol1sapparat und die eigenartige "pflastersteinartige" Bestachelung der Bursa. Es sind vor allem die Karbonat-, in geringem Maße die Chlorid- und Sulfatkonzentrationen, die für das Artengefüge ausschlaggebend und als auslesender Faktor wirksam sind. Die meisten Turbellarien vertragen nur mittlere und niedere Konzentrationen, die Art der Ionen scheint dann eine untergeordnetere Rolle zu spielen. VIII) Zur Autökologie der Arten in den einzelnen Gewässertypen wird Stellung genommen und mit ihrem von anderen Autoren beschriebenen Vorkommen verglichen. Auf Grund der großen jahreszeitlichen Temperaturschwankungen ist es verständlich, daß wir im Gebiet einen starken Faunenwechsel vermerken können. In den Lacken haben die Temperaturänderungen aber gleichzeitig eine solche der Konzentration zur Folge, diese beiden Faktoren ließen sich nur im Experiment trennen. Man findet in den Lacken hauptsächlich Frühjahrsformen, einige davon erscheinen neben neu hinzutretenden auch im Herbst. Stenostomum leucops ist die einzige Art, die das ganze Jahr hindurch zu finden ist. Übersichtlich sind die Verhältnisse in den Brunnen, da hier die Schwankungen im Chemismus nicht so groß sind. Da das Brunnenwasser viel kühler ist und auch im Sommer nicht versiegt, können sich hier mehrere Arten über das ganze Jahr behaupten. IX) Abschließend wird auf den Entwicklungszyldus von Monocystella Arndti, einer parasitischen Gregarine, die in den Planarien des Brunnens am Sandeck vorkommt, eingegangen.
Conclusions Le Colpomenia simlosa que les auteurs américains appellent typica ne mérite pas ce nom, car il ne correspond pas à la plante méditerranéenne. La plante récemment immigrée sur les côtes atlantiques d' Europe, ou var. peregrina Nob., diffère du type méditerranéen par son thalle moins sinueux, pIns mince et plus souple, par ses sores moins limités, largement étendus, ses sporanges moins hauts; les cryptes pilifères y naissent par un processus différent de celui que MITCHELL a décrit. Elle paraît voisine de celle que les auteurs américains appellent var. typica; elle n'est vraisemblahlement pas originaire cles mers plus chaudes que les nôtres et il est possible qu'elle soit originaire de la côte pacifique de l'Amérique septentrionale; ceci nous laisse mieux comprendre sa naturalisation chez nous. Les zoospores des sporanges pluriloculaires (les seuls connus) du Colpomenia de la Méditerranée, et de sa variété peregrina, germent sans copulation. Elles fournissent un protonéma monosiphonié, simple ou ramifié qui, par le cloisonnement localisé de certaines cellules, engendre un glomérule d'abord mûriforme; en uniformisant sa surface, celui-ci devient vite un Colpomenia d'abord massif. Un même protonéma produit un seul, ou plusieurs, ou de nombreux Colpomenia. Les jeunes individus ainsi obtenus en culture n'ont. pu être conservés assez longtemps pour fructifier. Mais de vieux protonémas de la var. peregrina produisirent des sporanges pluriloculaires (interpétés ici comme des amorces gleglomérules aussitôt évoluées en sporanges) dont les zoospores fournirent des protonémas très ramifiés de seconde génération. Bien que restés en culture durant plusieurs mois, ces derniers n'ont produit ni glomérules ni sporanges; cette longue stérilité pourrait expliquer, au moins en partie, les irrégularités de la présence du Colpomenia dans la nature. Si l'on s'en rapporte aux dessins de KUCKUCK, publiés par OLTMANNS, les zoospores du Phyllitis et du Scytosiphon fournissent un protonéma qui rappelle celui du Colpomenia ; ceci confirme l'interprétation de BORNET, de FALKENBERG et de KJELLMAN qui rapprochaient ces trois genres dans un même groupe.
The following new species are described from the Maghreb: Tapinocyba algirica n. sp. and Walckenaeria heimbergi n. sp. The unknown male of Minicia elegans and the unknown females of Alioranus pauper, Cherserigone graciipes and Entelecara truncatifrons are described. Tmeticus hipponense is transfered to the genus Gongylidiellum and HybocoptliS ericicola is removed from synonymy with H. corrugis and revalidated. The Maghrebian species of the genera Alioranus, Brachycerasphora, Cherserigone, Didectoprocnemis, Entelecara, Eperigone, Erigone, Gnathonarium, Gonatium, Gongylidiellum, Hybocoptus, Lessertia, Maso, Mierargus, Microetenonyx, Minicia, Monocephalus, Nematogmus, Ostearius, Prinerigone, Styloetetor, Tapinocyba, Triehoncoides and Trichoncus are all revised. As a final paper in a series on the Linyphiidae of the Maghreb, all the remaining genera are reviewed. A total of 169 species of Linyphiidae has currently been recorded in the Maghreb.
This article is concerned with the specification and estimation of relationships whose dependent variable is qualitative in nature (such as "yes" or "no"). It discusses logit equations with and without interaction, and the estimation procedure is generalized least squares. Part I deals with dependent variables that take only two values, part II with variables taking more than two values, and part III describes informational measures for the explanatory power of the determining factors. The discussion of more advanced technical matters is contained in various appendixes.
The aim of this study is to look into the reasons for the institutional character assumed by the exchanges of prisoners from the early 9th until the end of the lOth century in the context of the Arab-Byzantine struggle in the Middle East. Over a period of 161 years, 20 official exchanges involving several hundrends of prisoners took place at the bed of the river Lamis near Tarse by the Cilician frontier. ...
Explaining cross-country differences in growth rates requires not only an understanding of the link between growth and public policies, but also an understanding of why countries choose different public policies. This paper shows that ethnic diversity helps explain cross-country differences in public policies and other economic indicators. In the case of Sub-Ssharan Africa, economic growth is associated with low schooling, political instability, underdeveloped financial systems, distorted foreign exchange markets, high government deficits, and insufficient infrastructure. Africa's high ethnic fragmentation explains a significant part of most of these characteristics.
In this chapter we develop an agenda for future research on the personalization of politics. To do so, we clarify the propositions of the personalization hypothesis, critically discuss the normative standard on which most studies base their evaluation of personalization, and systematically summarize empirical research findings. We show that the condemnation of personalization is based on a trivial logic and on a maximalist definition of democracy. The review of empirical studies leads us to question the assumption that personalization has steadily increased in all areas of politics. Finally, our normative considerations help us develop new research questions on how personalized politics affects democracy. Moreover, this review also makes clear that another weakness of today's empirical research on the personalization of politics lies in methodological problems and a lack of analysis of the impacts of systemic and contextual variables. Consequently, we suggest methodological pathways and possible explanatory factors for the study of personalization.
Grâce à l'amabilité de M. le Dr. H. SCHOUTEDEN, il m'a été permis d'examiner plusieurs exemplaires et un nid d'une curieuse Araignée sociale de la région du Kasai, faisant partie des collections du Musée du Congo, à Tervueren (Belgique). M.le Lt. J. GHESQUIÈRE, qui avait recueilli cet intéressant matériel, a bien voulu me communiquer les observations éthologiques qu'il avait pu faire à son sujet. Je tiens à remercier bien vivement ces deux naturalistes pour les renseignements et les facilités qu'ils m'ont donnés dans la confection de ce travail. Le regretté arachnologue francais, EUGÈNE SIMON, avait eu en communication une partie du matériel qui m'a été remis dans la suite. Il en avait fait une première détermination générique (in litt. 15-XII-1922) et avait cru y reconnaître une espèce nouvelle. La mort l'a empêché de poursuivre son étude. Je dédie, respectueusement, à sa mémoire, l'espèce que j t ai le plaisir de décrire ici.
Die Überlegungen und Untersuchungen, die hier vorgestellt werden sollen, hatte ich bereits in meinem Beitrag zur Geschichte der Stadt Speyer von 1982 ganz knapp skizziert, weil sie für eine Beurteilung der Tätigkeit des Speyrer Bischofs Dragobod grundlegend waren. Allerdings konnte im Rahmen einer Stadtgeschichte die Behandlung des Gegenstandes mit den entsprechenden Nachweisen, die dazu nötig sind, keinen Platz finden, so daß dies hier nachgeholt werden soll. Dazu sind folgende Punkte zu behandeln: 1) die Entstehung der Abtei Weißenburg im Speyergau als Gründung des Bischofs Dragobod von Speyer, 2) die Beteiligung von Nachbarbischöfen an der Gründung, 3) die monastischen und seelsorglichen Ziele des Klosters, 4) die Frage, wer die weitgestreute Ausstattung Weißenburgs mit seinen späteren Pfarrkirchen zur Verfügung stellte mit einem Überblick über diese Pfarrkirchen (im Anhang), 5) schließlich eine kurze allgemeine Wertung der Niederkirchenorganisation im 7. Jahrhundert.
In this study the rich variety of fossil microorganisms and other ultrastruchlres in the Messel oil shale is documented. The taphonomy of the micro- and the macro organisms is discussed and a basic model for microbial life in the Eocene Lake Messel is proposed. Documentation of the Messel microbiota was made using a scanning electron microscope fitted with an energy-dispersive X-ray analyzer, and a transmission electron microscope. The most common objects discovered were fossil bacteria in the form of cocci, coccobacilli, bacilli, curved rods and filaments, preserved as moulds, crusts, casts, encrusted casts and clay-coated casts. The main lithifying mineral is apatite, followed by siderite. The bacteria occur on fossil remains of macroorganisms. Sideritic bacteria are usually found on keratinous substrates, whereas apatitic bacteria occur preferentially on fish remains. Lithification of the bacteria was selective. It is suggested that the preserved bacteria were heterotrophic, Gram-positive anaerobes, which may have belonged to the group of clostridians.
The family Cimicidae consists of 6 subfamilies, 23 genera, and 91 species. Nineteen new species names, one new species, and one new genus have been proposed since the monograph by Usinger was published in 1966. A checklist includes the world cimicid fauna with sinonymy. A selected bibliography is concerned with cimicids as potential disease vectors; the bibliography is a comprehensive treatment of the cimicid literature of the Americas and islands of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
One of the byproducts of World War II of which society is hardly aware is the new stage of development which the social sciences have reached. This development indeed may prove to be as revolutionary at the atom bomb. Applying cultural anthropology to modern rather than "primitive" cultures, experimentation with groups inside and outside the laboratory, the measurement of sociopsychological aspects of large social bodies, the combination of economic, cultural, and psychological fact-finding, all of these developments started before the war. But, by providing unprecedented facilities and by demanding realistic and workable solutions to scientific problems, the war has accelerated greatly the change of social sciences to a new development level. The scientific aspects of this development center around three objectives: (1) Integrating social sciences. (2) Moving from the description of social bodies to dynamic problems of changing group life. (3) Developing new instruments and techniques of· social research. Theoretical progress has hardly kept pace with the development of techniques. It is, however, as true for the social as for the physical and biological sciences that without adequate conceptual development, science cannot proceed beyond a certain stage. It is an important step forward that the hostility to theorizing which dominated a number of social sciences ten years ago has all but vanished. It has been replaced by a relatively wide-spread recognition of the necessity for developing better concepts and higher levels of theory. The theoretical development will have to proceed rather rapidly if social science is to reach that level of practical usefulness which society needs for winning the race against the destructive capacities set free by man's use of the llatural sciences. I should like to survey certain concepts and theories which have emerged mainly from experimental research. They concern: (a) Quasi-stationary social equilibria and social changes. (b) Locomotion through social channels. (c) Social feedback processes and social management. The last two of these will be dealt with in a later article. A cursory introductory discussion of certain aspects of the present state of affairs in social science is included here for those readers who are interested in the general background of these concepts and in the problems from which they have sprung.
This paper aims to compile an exhaustive list of the behavioral patterns exhibited by the chimpanzees of the Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania. The compilation is based on the glossary compiled by Goodall (1989), but a substantial numbers of new terms have been added. Thus, we list 316 simple anatomical terms, 81 complex anatomical terms, 37 simple functional terms, and 81 complex functional terms, in addition to 116 synonyms. The behavioral patterns are divided into eight categories on the basis of degree of universality: (1) commonly seen in both Homo and two species of Pan, (1?) commonly seen in Homo and only one species of Pan, (2) patterns common to the genus Pan but not to Homo, (3) patterns common to the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes but not the bonobo Pan paniscus, (4) patterns common to eastern (P.t. schweinfurthii) and central (P.t. troglodytes) but not western (P.t. vents) chimpanzees, (5) patterns unique to the eastern chimpanzees, P.t. schweinfurthii, (6) patterns unique to the population of Mahale, (7) patterns unique to many individuals (at least most members of an age/sex class) of M group chimpanzees, (8) patterns limited to a single (idiosyncrasy) or a few individuals of M group. It is most likely that the behavior patterns of the last common ancestor of Homo and Pan are found in Categories 1 and I? and less likely in Categories 2 and 3. It is possible that behavior patterns belonging to Categories 5, 6 or 7 are cultures.
È stata effettuata una revisione sistematica sulle specie del genere Genista in Italia. L'indagine ha permesso di accertare la posizione tassonomica delle diverse entità che rappresentano il genere nel territorio italiano. In questa prima nota sono riferiti i risultati emersi dallo studio delle entità di sezioni a prevalente distribuzione in opposte zone del bacino del Mediterraneo e precisamente Erinacoides Spach del Mediterraneo occidentale ed Ephedrospartum Spach, Aureospartum sect. nova del Mediterraneo centrale. La sezione Erinacoides é rappresentata da G. salzmanii DC. in Sardegna e in Corsica, G. pichisermolliana sp. nov. in Sardegna, G. aspalathoides Lam. in Sicilia, Pantelleria, Africa settentrionale, G. desoleana Valso in Liguria, Toscana, Elba, Corsica e Sardegna, G. arbusensis Vals., G. sulcitana Valso e G. toluensis Valso in Sardegna. La sezione Aureospartum (sect. nova) comprende solo l'endemica sardo-sicula G. aetnensis (Raf.) DC. e l'Ephedrospartum racchiude G. ephedroides DC. presente in Sardegna, G. thyrrena Valso nell'arcipelago ponziano, G. gasparrini in Sicilia e G. cilentina Vals. in Campania e in Sicilia.
Das Genus Levantina Kob.
(1918)
1. The migration of the spotted mackerel, Pneumatophorus tapeinacephalus distributing in the coastal sea of Japan was investigated in relation to the geographical distribution of the fishing grounds, seasonal change of fishing condition. sea conditions and fork length. Secondarily, some anatomical and histological observations were carried out on spotted mackerels caught in the coastal sea area around Kagoshima and its vicinity to clarify the sex differentiation and the seasonal cycle of the gonads. 2. Spotted mackerels are distributed throughout a wide sea area stretching from north of Formosa to the south of Japan Sea. including the Pacific coastal sea from Kyushu to Chiba Prefecture. The northern limit of the distribution area is assumed to be the sea areas off San-in and Chosi. 3. The schools of adult fish make a feeding migration to the circumference of Saishu Island and to the sea area off Ashizuri cape in summer. and these schools make a spawning migration toward the sea area around the Osumi Islands and the southern area of the East China Sea in winter. 4. In winter some schools of adult fish remain living in the sea area south of the Izu Islands. These schools belong to a group isolated incompletely from that of the East China Sea. as some of them are those which came from the East China Sea. 5. The larvae grow while they are being brought by the sea current or tide current. When they have reached 50~60mm. in total length. they aggregate in schools and approach the coast. In spring they swim in the coastal nursery grounds. 6. From summer to autumn, the schools of the young fish make a feeding migration to the sea off San-in and to the eastern coastal sea of Chiba Prefecture. In winter. they make a seasonal migration to the coastal sea of South Kyushu, the East China Sea and the southern sea area of the Izu Islands. 7. The range of vertical distribution of the larvae is supposed to be the layer from the surface to 40m. in depth. The vertical distribution of the adult fish is chiefly in the layer, 40-70m. in depth, during the period from late autumn to early spring. It becomes shallower in late spring and summer, the depth being about 20-40m. 8. The ranges of water temperature and salinity in the sea where the adult fish schools are distributed are 17.0-26.0°C and 34.0~34.8%0. respectively. 9. The spawning takes place during the period from the end of January to June in the southern part of the East China Sea and the sea areas around the Osumi Islands, off Ashizuri Cape and around the Izu Islands. These spawning grounds are sea areas where a comparatively rapid current is running towards a land shelf. 10. The ranges of the optimum water temperatures and salinities for the spawning are assumed to be 17-23°C and 34.0-34.8 0/00, respectively. 11. The primordial germ cells seem to migrate to the gonad by amoeboid movement from other places than the gonad. 12. The early indifferent gonad is very slender and suspended with a mesogonium, in the coelom. It is composed of peritoneal epithelium, stroma cells and primordial germ cells. 13. The formation of the gonocoel begins as a longitudinal depression on the surface of the gonad, facing the mesentery. This depression takes place in the gonad of the fish, about 60mm. in fork length, prior to the sex differentiation. 14. The sex differentiation occurs directly without a phase of a juvenile hermaphrodite. 15. The gonad in which the gonocoel is greatly enlarged becomes an ovary, while that in which the gonocoel is left narrow becomes a testis. 16. In the early ovary the layer containing oogonia is surrounded with stroma cells. The surface of the ovary is covered with cuboidal epithelium. 17. In the ovary of the fish, 100-130mm. in fork length, the wall of the ovocoel forms small protuberances, which become the lobes of the ovary. The oocytes are situated in these lobes. The yolk formation begins in the oocytes, 15.....,20.a in diameter, 18. The maturing process of eggs is clasified into the following 7 stages; the chromatin nucleolus, the peripheral nucleolus, the yolk vesicle, the early yolk globule, the late yolk globule, the migrating nucleus and the matured stage. Ovarian eggs at the migrating nucleus stage and the matured stage are observed in the fish, more than 300mm. in fork length. 19. The surface of the early testis is covered with peritoneal epithelium. The interior is filled up with the multiplied stroma cells and the spermatogonia scattered among them. In the testis of a somewhat later stage, a lot of branches are stretched out of the testocoel. Some of the spermatogonia are arranged directly beneath the peritoneal epithelium and the others are buried deep in the testis. The testis lacks a layer of stroma cells under the peritoneal epithelium. 20. In the testis of young male fish the spermatogonia increase in number and surround the small branches of testocoel; they form seminiferous tubules. The testocoel and its large branches become the rete apparatus constructed of collecting ducts. The maturation division appears in the testes of the fish more than 280mm. in fork length. 21. The sex ratio of the young fish is approximately 1 : 1. The ratio between the gonad length and the fork length shows an exponential increase. The gonads of adult fish are enlarged about 9-13 % of the original length during the spawning season. 22. During the months from July to November the oocytes in the ovaries of adult female :fish are at the chromatin nucleolus stage and the peripheral nucleolus stage. During the same season there are only spermatogonia in the testes of adult male fish. The gonads of adult fish begin to increase in size in December and become the largest in March and April. The increase in size of the ovary is chiefly due to the enlargement of ova on account of yolk deposition. The increase in size of the testis is due to accumulation of spermatozoa. 23. A few oogonia can be seen m the ovanes of adult female fish during and immediately after spawning. Numerous spermatogonia appear along the inner walls of the seminiferous tubules late in the spawning season.
Die Pilzgattung Hygrocybe wird taxonomisch besprochen, wobei die bisherige Sektion Oreocybe Boertmann (subgenus Cuphophyllus) den Status einer eigenen Untergattung erhält. Ein Bestimmungsschlüssel zur Gattung wird vorgelegt, wobei Gruppen sehr ähnlicher Arten, die früher teilweise nicht getrennt wurden, im Hauptschlüssel zu Aggregaten zusammen gefaßt wurden. Diese Aggregate werden getrennt aufgeschlüsselt. 50 europäische Arten der Gattung Hygrocybe werden schließlich hinsichtlich ihrer Morphologie, Taxonomie, Ökologie und Verbreitung vorgestellt.
Scharben und Scharbenfischerei : nach einem Vortrag in der "Ornithologischen Gesellschaft in Bayern"
(1938)
Ephesus and its coinage
(1881)
Kritische Fragmente
(1918)
This essay examines the differing contexts and modes of encounter with Islamic culture in the travel writing of two contrasting women, the Prussian Countess Ida Hahn-Hahn and the Austrian Maria Schuber: both travelled to and wrote from the Middle East in the 1830s and 1840s and published their letters as collections. The encounters both women had with Islam were conditioned, at least in part, by their respective stance on religion, issues of gender and social class, and by the obligations of patronage and the expectations of distinct readerships. Whilst both women can be seen to write about Islam as a religion and culture defined by its difference to Christianity, both can also be seen in differing ways and to differing extents to represent Islam and Muslims as simultaneously belonging to a universal and inclusive notion of humanity and human religion. Thus, without embracing high philosophical discourse of Kant or Hegel, both women can be seen to demonstrate cosmopolitan impulses towards Islam, although these jostle for ascendancy with a more Eurocentric, Christian and indeed völkisch vision of the relationship between cultures.
Fasst man das Konzept der Katharsis als die wohltuende Auflösung eines durch eine Erzählung ausgelösten, emotionalen Spannungszustandes auf, dann lässt sich wohl behaupten, dass diese nach wie vor das aristotelisch-klassische Ziel des modernen Mainstream Kinos ist. Das Besondere an dem Film The Reader ist nun, dass diese Katharsis nicht nur ein latent verfolgtes Ziel des Filmes, d.h. ein unbewusstes Nebenprodukt eines Happy Ends ist, sondern gleichzeitig auch expliziter Teil der Erzählung (und somit eine begriffliche Ausweitung erfährt): Ist eine Katharsis angesichts der Schrecken von Auschwitz überhaupt möglich? Die folgende Deutung glaubt, dass der Film diese Frage versucht zu bejahen, indem er auf die Möglichkeiten eines ‚poetischen Kinos’ verweist. Diese bestehen nicht zuletzt in der Symbolisierung des ‚Unaussprechlichen’, die zwar keine rationale, dafür aber eine emotionale Integration der NS-Vergangenheit zu leisten können beansprucht.
Pour ce qui est de la période précoloniale, l'existence, en Afrique au sud du Sahara, de cette forme de déviance qu'est le banditisme social peut poser problème; pour la période coloniale par contre, la présence de ce phénomène ne peut souffrir aucune contestation, tant les témoignages l'attestant sont à la fois nombreux, divers et concordants. Ainsi, tout au long de cette dernière séquence historique, dans beaucoup de régions du continent, il nous est offert de multiples exemples d'initiatives individuelles et marquantes de protestation sociale. Face à la déficience des structures traditionnelles de riposte, des hommes d'action ont opposé un refus individuel à la mise en place violente de l'ordre colonial. Retranchés dans les zones échappant au contrôle de la nouvelle autorité, ils ont essayé de tenir tête à son action intégratrice, et l'échec de celle-ci - quelle qu'en puisse du reste être la raison - expliquerait certaines carrières de bandit social.
Les relations entre l'Egypte pharaonique et l'Afrique Noire constituent une question très controversée, ce qui ne doit pas étonner : au moment où naissait l'égyptologie en 1822 avec le grand Champollion, l'idéologie coloniale, pour les raisons que l'on sait, s'opposait fermement à l'idée d'une Egypte appartenant à l'univers culturel négro-africain. On regardait plus volontiers vers le Tigre et l'Euphrate que vers les Grands Lacs africains pour retrouver les origines du miracle pharaonique. Les civilisations négro-africaines elles-mêmes étaient systématiquement attribuées à des Hamites venus d'Asie s'égarer dans le continent noir. Les rares voix discordantes étaient amplement couvertes par l'immense clameur d'une écrasante majorité.
The Tijanya brotherhood founded by Cheikh Ahmed TIJANI in the second half of the XVIIIth century achieved a spectacular breakthrough in West Africa by the middle of the XIXth century. It was adopted and championed by the main figures of the resistance to the French colonial penetration : Cheikh Umar al-Futi TALL and Ahmadou Mahdiyu BA who were introduced to it respectively by Mohamed el-Ghali in Medina and Mohamed el-Hafez, and Id-on-Ali in Mederdra, Mauritania. Mamadou Lamine Dramé from the Gajaaga and Samba Diadana Ac also were figures of the anticolonial resistance who embraced Tijanya. Ahmadou Cheikhou, Cheikh Umar TALL's successor and eldest son, too was a tijane anticolonial hero whom Archinard's men killed in 1891, after his empire had gone through a long period of turmoil.
Du XVIe au milieu du XIXe siècle les sociétés sénégalaises étaient frappées par une profonde crise consécutive à la traite négrière devenue la préoccupation majeure des autorités. Aux escarmouches succédaient les expéditions de grande envergure entraînant à leur suite des pillages, des vols, des viols. De partout montaient vers le ciel les gémissements des victimes. Cette atmosphère irrespirable de violence mit la société dans une sorte de vide spirituel et moral. Là où la religion traditionnelle était prépondérante comme en pays sérère aucune réponse adéquate n'était trouvée à l'inquiétude du lendemain en raison même de l'étroitesse de ses horizons. Toutefois il en était autrement dans les zones d'implantation des musulmans. Refusant de subir les caprices de l'aristocratie dirigeante, les musulmans prenaient souvent les armes pour abattre les régimes despotiques qui, à leurs yeux, avaient perdu toute légitimité. Ils décidèrent de remodeler la société en recourant aux provisions de la loi islamique.
L'Afrique noire telle que l'occident la percoit (XVème - XVIIIème siècles) entre mythes et réalités
(2000)
L'Occident médiéval a élaboré, dans sa curiosité pour le monde environnant, des images diverses sur l'Afrique Noire et ses habitants. Celles-ci reposent sur un savoir essentiellement livresque. Car, jusqu'au milieu du XVè s., à cause des multiples obstacles naturels (Sahara, Océan Atlantique), politiques et culturels (Islam...), les contacts réels entre les deux continents sont demeurés inexistants. Ces images ont aussi, pendant longtemps, été particulièrement marquées, non seulement par la confusion et la contamination entre l'Inde et l'Éthiopie, par les échos flous d'un Soudan regorgeant d'or mais aussi par le rêve caché d'abondance, de richesse et de puissance d'un Occident atteint de plein fouet par une crise généralisée.