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Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden ausgewählte 5’- und 3’-untranslatierte Regionen (UTRs) von mRNAs aus H. volcanii bestimmt. Dieses Datenset wurde verwendet um (1) haloarchaeale UTRs zu charakterisieren, (2) Konsensuselemente für die Transkrikptionsinitiation und -termination zu verifizieren und (3) den Einfluss haloarchaealer UTRs auf die Initiation und Regulation der Translation zu untersuchen. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass alle untersuchten Transkripte nichtprozessierte 3’-UTRs mit einer durchschnittlichen Länge von 45 Nukleotiden besitzen. Darüber hinaus konnte ein putatives Transkriptionsterminationssignal bestehend aus einem pentaU-Motiv mit vorausgehender Haarnadelstruktur identifiziert werden. Die Analysen der Regionen stromaufwärts der experimentell bestimmten Transkriptionsstarts führten zur Identifizierung dreier konservierter Promotor Elemente: Der TATA-Box, dem BRE-Element und einem neuen Element an Position -10/-11. Überraschenderweise bestand die TATA-Box nur aus vier konservierten Nukleotiden. Die Untersuchung der UTRs ergab, dass die größte Anteil der haloarchaealen Transkripte keine 5’-UTR besitzt. Falls eine 5’-UTR vorhanden ist, besitzen unerwarteterweise nur 15% der 5’-UTRs aus H. volcanii eine Shine-Dalgarno-Sequenz (SD-Sequenz). Es konnte jedoch gezeigt werden, dass verschiedene native und artifizielle 5’-UTRs ohne SD-Sequenz sehr effizient in vivo translatiert werden. Außerdem hat die Sekundärstruktur der 5’-UTR und die Position struktureller Elemente offenbar einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf die Translatierbarkeit von Transkripten. Die Insertion von Strukturelementen nahe des Startkodons führte zu einer vollkommenen Repression der Translation, während die proximale Insertion des Motivs an das 5’-Ende der 5’-UTR keinen Einfluss auf die Translationsseffizienz hatte. Zusammenfassend kann sowohl der eukaryotische Scanning-Mechanismus als auch die bakterielle Initiation der Translation über die SD-Sequenz für haloarchaeale Transkripte mit 5’-UTR ohne SD-Sequenz ausgeschlossen werden. Die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit durchgeführten Untersuchungen bilden die Grundlage für weitere Untersuchungen zur Identifizierung eines entsprechenden dritten Mechanismus zur Initiation der Translation in H. volcanii. Eine aktuelle Studie zur globalen Analyse der Translationsregulation zeigte, dass der Anteil translational regulierter Gene in H. volcanii genauso hoch ist wie bei Eukaryoten (Lange et al., 2007). Um die Rolle haloarchaealer UTRs bei der Regulation der Translation zu charakterisieren, wurden die UTRs zweier ausgewählter translationsregulierter Gene untersucht. Es stellte sich heraus, dass nur die Anwesenheit beider UTRs, 5’- und 3’-UTR, zu einer Wachstumsphasen-abhängigen Regulation der Translation führt. Dabei hat die 3’-UTR allein keinen Einfluss auf die Translationseffizienz, während die 5’-UTR die Translationseffizienz in beiden Wachstumsphasen reduziert. Es zeigte sich außerdem, dass die 3’-UTR für die „Richtung“ der Regulation auf Translationsebene verantwortlich ist und putative Strukturelemente möglicherweise in den Regulationsmechanismus involviert sind. Zusammengefasst ergibt sich folgendes Modell der Translationsregulation in H. volcanii: Strukturierte 5’-UTRs führen zu einer Herabsetzung der konstitutiven Translationseffizienz. Dies kann differentiell durch regulatorische Faktoren kompensiert werden, welche spezifische Elemente der 3’-UTR binden. Sowohl natürliche als auch artifizielle Aptamere und allosterische Ribozyme stellen effektive Werkzeuge zur exogen kontrollierten Genexpression dar. Daher wurde die Anwendbarkeit eines Tetracyclin-induzierbaren Aptamers und eines konstitutiven Hammerhead-Ribozyms in H. volcanii untersucht. Es stellte sich allerdings heraus, dass das Aptamer bereits ohne Tetracyclin starke inhibitorische Sekundärstrukturen ausbildet. Als Alternative wurden Reportergenfusionen mit einem selbstspaltenden Hammerhead-Ribozym konstruiert. Die selbstspaltende Aktivität des Hammerhead-Ribozyms in H. volcanii konnte erfolgreich in vivo demonstriert werden, was die Grundlage zur Entwicklung konditionaler Expressionssysteme basierend auf dem Hammerhead-Ribozym in H. volcanii bildet.
Summary and Outlook The aim of this work was the investigation of the Mn2+ binding sites in hammerhead and the Diels-Alder ribozymes. This project consists of three main topics. In the first part quantification and structural characterization of Mn2+ binding sites in the m- and the tsHHRz using Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) spectroscopy are described. The second part summarizes the newest results obtained for the cleavage activity of both mand tsHHRzs in the presence of different Mg2+ and Mn2+ and Na+ ion concentrations using the new method with fluorescent-labeled RNAs. Here the influence of neomycin B on the structure of Mn2+ binding pockets and on the catalytic activity of both HHRzs is discussed. In addition, a possible role of Mn2+ ions is suggested from correlation of the EPR data with the kinetic results. The last chapter is devoted to quantification and differentiation of Mn2+ binding sites of the Diels-Alder ribozyme using continuous wave (cw) EPR experiments in solution. In this work EPR spectroscopy was used to study the binding of Mn2+ ions to the cis tsHHRz and to compare it with the binding to the trans mHHRz and to the Diels-Alder ribozyme. Cw EPR measurements showed that the tsHHRz possesses a single highaffinity Mn2+ binding site with a KD of < 10 nM at a NaCl concentration of 0.1 M. This dissociation constant is three orders of magnitude smaller than the KD determined for the single high-affinity Mn2+ site in the mHHRz (KD = 4.4 μM). The measurements of catalytic activity have been performed using fluorescent-labeled RNAs. Compared to the mHHRz, the cis tsHHRz cleaves up to 20-fold faster in the presence of Mg2+/Mn2+ ions with no saturation of the cleavage rates at high metal(II) ion concentrations. This is in good agreement with the last investigations on the trans tsHHRz (Nelson et al. 2005). Thus, the much stronger Mn2+ binding and higher cleavage activity were attributed to the interaction between the two external loops of the tsHHRz which reduces the RNA dynamics and traps the Mn2+ in the tightly folded conformation. Intriguingly, according to the EPR studies the binding constants for Mn2+ ions are several orders higher than the concentration of Mn2+ ions required for the catalytic activity (mHHRz: KD = 4.4 ± 0.5 μM and the Mn2+ concentration required to achieve half of the maximum cleavage rate [Mn2+]1/2 = 4.1 ± 0.6 mM respectively). Therefore, strongly bound Mn2+ ions seem to be needed for the folding of the HHRz, whereas weakly bound metal(II) ions are required to achieve full catalytic activity, and may be directly involved in catalysis. A comparison between the Electron Spin Echo Envelope Modulation (ESEEM) and Hyperfine Sublevel Correlation (HYSCORE) spectra of m- and tsHHRz demonstrates that both binding sites in HHRzs are structurally very similar. This suggests that the Mn2+ is located in both ribozymes between the bases A9 and G10.1 of the sheared G•A tandem basepair, as shown previously and in detail for the mHHRz (Vogt and DeRose 1998, Schiemann et al. 2003). However, the hyperfine spectra of the tsHHRz with 15N labeled G10.1 revealed no difference in comparison with the ones with 14N. This leads to an interpretation that the Mn2+ binding sites in both ribozymes are not identical. In addition, aminoglycoside antibiotic neomycin B inhibits the cleavage activity of both despite of the fact that it displaces the high-affinity Mn2+ ion only from the mHHRz. Hence, binding of neomycin B to the m- and the tsHHRzs probably occurs at different sites and neomycin B displaces only loosely bound Me2+ ions from the tsHHRs, whereas in the mHHRz both the high-affinity ion and the weakly bound ions are replaced. Therefore, it cannot be excluded that weakly bound Mg2+/Mn2+ ions, together with looploop interactions, induce a structural rearrangement which brings the high-affinity ion closer to the cleavage site. In the case of the Diels-Alder ribozyme it possesses five Mn2+ binding sites with KD = 0.6 ± 0.2 μM in solution under conditions where it is catalytically active. The competition experiment with Cd2+ allows to distinguish three different types of Mn2+ binding sites in the Diels-Alder ribozyme including inner-sphere monomeric Mn2+, monomeric Mn2+ bound through water-mediated contacts and electronically coupled dimeric Mn2+. Three Mn2+ ions are more strongly bound to the ribozyme via inner-sphere contacts, whereas two other Mn2+ ions form water-mediated outer-sphere contacts with the nucleotides of the ribozyme. The inner-sphere Mn2+ with the highest affinity and the fourth Mn2+ ions added to the ribozyme form a dimer with a Mn2+-Mn2+ distance of ~6 Å (as arises from simulations). Moreover, an addition of the product analog inhibitor (AMDA) to the [Diels-Alder ribozymes/ Mn2+] complex shows no conformational changes in the Mn2+ binding pockets. This is in good agreement with the recent studies which suggest that the Diels-Alder ribozyme is preorganized (Keiper et al. 2004). Some considerations on the evolution of the project (Outlook) There may be several venues of continuation of this project, which exploit on unique combination of EPR experiments and biochemical studies on RNA. This combination may allow us to significantly contribute to understanding of metal role in HHRz catalysis. Since the tsHHRz possesses the high affinity Mn2+ binding site (Kd < 10 nM) it creates a possibility to find conditions where the structural site is occupied by Mn2+, while catalytic sites are occupied by Mg2+ ions. If these conditions will be established by EPR titration, a set of standard biochemical experiments may be designed to look at the kinetic of cleavage and differentiate the “structural” and catalytic effects. The other experiment would be to look at the Mn2+ binding site in the tsHHRz in comparison with P1 and P1/P2 complexes and compare the results with the ones for the mHHRz. No matter the answer, P1 can be used as a simpler model to study the effect of tertiary structure on Mn2+ binding. A set of the tsHHRz mutants can be created to observe the mutations affect on Mn2+ binding sites, Mn2+ affinity and correlate the data with the kinetic analysis. FRET-based kinetic assay with fluorophore pairs on P1 and P2 can be designed for the kinetic experiments. Having this system one will be able to perform kinetic measurements 100-fold faster comparing to standard gel procedures (everything will be done in 96-wells). By manipulating the lengths and the sequence of P2 we most likely will be able to use FRET assay for the chemical step analysis (provided Kd > k2), and measure it using stop-flow system with time resolution of microseconds. And finally, one will be able to quantitatively measure the effect of neomycin B on the tsHHRz. Another interesting possibility would be to look at the state of metal(II) in the tsHHRz – enzyme alone (dissociated product) and in the enzyme-product complex and compare with the full-length tsHHRz. It will provide the information about the local rearrangements upon catalysis and the role of metal(II) ions. Furthermore, additional pulse-EPR experiments using 15N labeling have to be performed in order to reveal the location of the high-affinity Mn2+ binding site in the tsHHRz. Additionally, paramagnetic Mn2+ ions can be localized within the global fold of HHRzs using PELDOR and site-directed spin labeling. Further characterization of the high-affinity binding site in the tsHHRz can be performed using high-field ENDOR measurements in order to obtain the 14N and 31P tensors.