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One of the most important tasks in chemistry and especially in structural biology has always been the elucidation of three-dimensional molecular structures - either of small molecules or large biopolymers. Among the (bio)physical methods to acquire structural data at atomic resolution electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy is the most valuable technique for obtaining structural information about many different kinds of paramagnetic species. In biological systems, either paramagnetic metal ions/clusters, transient paramagnetic intermediates in electron transfer processes or artificially attached stable spin labels can be found. The usual approach to interpret EPR spectra is to perform simulations based on the so-called spin Hamiltonian (SH). This means that the well-defined numerical parameters (tensors) in the SH representing different types of interaction are obtained by fitting the experimental data. The SH parameters include electronic g-values, hyperfine coupling (HFC) and quadrupole coupling (&C) constants, zero-field splittings and constants to describe exchange and dipolar interactions between electron spin systems. However, since the SH only contains spin degrees of freedom, a direct translation of the SH EPR parameters into structural information is not straightforward. Therefore, methods to predict such SH interaction parameters starting from molecular structures are required. In this thesis it was investigated whether quantum chemical calculations of EPR parameters based on density functional theory (DFT) methods may be employed to overcome these problems thus enabling a correlation of experimental EPR data with molecular structure. It was the central goal of this work to point out the potential of a fruitful interplay between quantum chemistry and experiment and to study how both can benefit from each other. For this purpose DFT methods were applied to a variety of organic radical or transition metal systems to calculate different EPR parameters. Using the 'broken symmetry' formalism it was possible to compute the exchange coupling constant for a nitroxide biradical and furthermore decompose the exchange mechanism in different through-bond and through-space interactions. Spin density distributions, 14N and 1H HFC constants as well as dipole moments and polarizabilities were computed for a number of aromatic nitroxides to examine their properties and select promising candidates which may serve as DNA-intercalating spin labels. Systematic investigations of the influence of hydrogen bond geometry on the 14N QC parameters for imidazole-water and methylimidazole-benzosemiquinone complexes lead to the conclusion that especially the imidazole amino nitrogen &C parameters are very sensitive probes of the bond geometry, in particular of the hydrogen bond length. The results of this study may be applied to biological systems, e.g. to gain structural information about quinone binding sites. Moreover, quantum chemical methods were applied to elucidate the structure of a nitrogen-centered radical intermediate in the inhibition process of ribonucleotide reductase (RNR). It was possible to find a molecular structure in accordance with all experimentally available data, thus revealing the longsought structure of the No radical and providing evidence for the trapping of a 3'-ketonucleotide in the reduction process catalyzed by RNR. To test the capability of modern DFT methods to predict g- and molybdenum HFC tensors for MoV complexes, validation studies were carried out. Comparison of computed EPR parameters of a number of MoV compounds with corresponding experimental values showed that g- and HFC tensors could be predicted in good accuracy, although some systematic errors of the computational methods have to be considered for such heavy 4d1 transition meta1 systems. Furthermore, DFT calculations on a Mn2+ binding site model of the hammerhead ribozyme allowed to conclude that the structure of the binding site as studied by EPR spectroscopy in frozen solution is very likely to be identical to the site found occupied by Mn2+ in crystals. Finally, computational methods were employed to aid in the structural characterization of the Mn2+ binding site in Ras (rat sarcoma protein) by providing accurate starting parameters for spectral simulations and furthermore helping to interpret the experimental data. In conclusion, it was demonstrated in this thesis that the combination of sophisticated experimental and quantum chemical methods represents a powerful approach in the field of EPR spectroscopy and that it may be essential to employ EPR parameter computations to extract the full information content from EPR spectra. Therefore, great potential lies in future applications of DFT methods to the large number of systems where detailed and reliable experimental data is available but where an unequivocal correlation of these data with structural information is still lacking.
Integral membrane proteins (IMPs) account for 20-40% of all open reading frames in fully sequenced genomes and they are target of approximately 60% of all modern drugs. So far, cellular expression systems are often very insufficient for the high-level production of IMPs. Toxic effects, instability or formation of inclusion bodies are frequently observed effects that prevent the synthesis of sufficient amounts of functional protein. I have successfully established an individual cell-free (CF) expression system to overcome these IMP synthesis difficulties. The CF system was established in two different expression modes. If no hydrophobic compartment is provided, the IMPs precipitate in the reaction mixture. Interestingly, these insoluble proteins are found to differ from inclusion bodies as they readily solubilize in mild detergents and the bacterial small multi drug transporter EmrE, expressed in the insoluble mode was shown to reconstitute into liposomes in an active form. Alternatively, IMPs can be synthesized in a soluble way by supplementing the CF system with detergents. A comprehensive overview of 24 commonly used detergents was provided by analyzing their impact on the CF system as well as their ability to keep three structurally very different proteins in solution. The class of long chain polyoxyethylene-alkyl-ethers turned out to be most suitable for soluble expression of a-helical EmrE, the bacterial b-barrel type nucleoside transporter Tsx and the porcine vasopressin receptor type 2, resulting in several mg of protein per mL of reaction mixture. So far IMPs have almost completely been excluded from solution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analyses. I could demonstrate that CF expression enables efficient isotopic labeling of IMPs for NMR analysis and further facilitates selective labeling strategies with combinations of 13C and 15N enriched amino acids that have not been feasible before. Four different G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) were successfully CF expressed in preparative scale and for the human endothelin B receptor (ETB), ligand binding ability was observed. A series of truncated ETB derivatives containing nested terminal deletions have been CF produced and functionally characterized. The core area essential for Endothelin-1 binding as well as a central region responsible for ETB oligomer formation was confined to a 39 amino acid fragment including the proposed transmembrane segment 1. The binding constant (KD) of ETB was determined to 6 nM for circular ET-1 by SPR and 29 nM for linear ET-1 by TIRFS. This data indicate a large potential of the established individual CF expression system for functional IMP synthesis.
Eine große Zahl natürlicher sekundärer Metabolite sind kleine und strukturell oft sehr verschiedene Polypeptide und Polyketide. Diese bioaktiven Substanzen haben im allgemeinen ein breit aufgestelltes therapeutisches Potential und werden von verschiedenen bakteriellen Stämmen und Pilzen biosynthetisiert. Sie sind sowohl biologisch, als auch therapeutisch wichtig als Cytostatika, Immunsuppressiva und Antibiotika mit einem sehr großen antibakteriellen und antiviralen Potential. Diese oft äußerst komplexen Polypeptide und Polyketide werden von modular aufgebauten Megaenzymen in mehrstufigen Mechanismen synthetisiert. Für die Synthese dieser Peptide sind sehr große Proteincluster verantwortlich, die meistens aus einer begrenzten Anzahl sehr großer, Multidomänen umfassenden, Superenzyme aufgebaut werden. Diese Proteincluster mit einem Molekulargewicht bis in den Bereich von MegaDalton werden als nicht-ribosomale Peptidsynthetasen (NRPS) und Polyketidsynthetasen (PKS) bezeichnet. Die NRPS Systeme zeichnen sich dadurch aus, daß für die biosynthetisierten Polypeptide keine Information in Form von Nukleinsäuren wie DNA oder RNA kodiert (Walsh, C.T., 2004; Sieber & Marahiel, 2005). Für die Synthese der Polypeptide ist eine Aktivierung der einzelnen Bausteine, der Aminosäuren, durch Amino-acyl-adenylierung notwendig. Im Anschluß an die Aktivierung, wird die aktivierte Aminosäure über einen Thioester gebunden weitertransportiert. Die Thioesterbildung erfolgt an Cysteaminthiolgruppen intrinsischer 4’-Phosphopantethein-kofaktoren. Eine Modul einer NRPS stellt eine geschlossene Einheit zum Einbau einer Aminosäure mit einer hohen Spezifität für das Substrat und die biosynthetische Reaktion dar. Diese Module sind aus Domänen aufgebaut, die definierte Funktionen haben und mittels flexibler Linker miteinander verbunden sind. Die Domänen werden nach ihrer Funktion unterschieden. Die Acyl-adenylierung oder Aktivierung eines Substrates, beispielsweise einer Aminosäure, erfolgt durch die A-Domänen. Die Peptidyl- oder Acyltransportfunktion der aktivierten Substrate wird durch Thioester-domänen (T-Domäne), auch PCP (peptidyl carrier domain) genannt, bewältigt. Die Biosynthese der Kopplungsreaktion, beispielsweise die Ausbildung der Peptidbindung in NRPS Systemen, erfolgt an den Kondensations-Domänen (C-Domäne). Für die Substratspezifität eines Synthesemoduls sind die A-Domänen verantwortlich, welche die Aktivierung eines Substrat durch ATP-Hydrolyse ermöglichen. In NRPS Systemen sind auch Zyklisierungsreaktionen, durchgeführt von Cyclase-Domänen (Cy-Domänen), L/D-Epimerase-funktionen (E-Domänen) und N-Methylierungen (M-Domänen) beschrieben. So wird in Tyrocidin A an zwei Positionen spezifisch Phenylalanin in die D-Form epimerisiert und anschließend in der Peptidbiosynthese verwendet. Die Interaktion und Erkennung zwischen den multi-modularen Superenzymen, zum korrekten Aufbau der kompletten Synthetase, wurden in letzter Zeit Kommunikations-Domänen (COM-Domänen) beschrieben. Wie die aufgebaute Synthetase die korrekte Sequenz der biosynthetischen Reaktionsschritte sicherstellt ist nicht bekannt. Die enorme Diversität biosynthetischer Reaktionen in NRPS Systemen und die hohe Substratvielfalt in den verschiedensten Synthetasen unterschiedlicher Stämme eröffnet ein weites Feld für mögliche Neukombinationen von Modulen und Modifikationen von Produkten, um neue bioaktive Polypeptide mit antibiotischen Eigenschaften durch die Gestaltung neuer biosynthetischer Reaktionswege zu erhalten. Die Biosyntheseprodukte der NRPS und PKS Systeme lassen sich Gruppen kategorisieren wie Peptidantibiotika, beispielsweise beta-Lactame und makrozyklischer Polypeptide. Weitere Gruppen sind die makrozyklischen Lactone, beispielsweise Polyene und Makrolide, aromatische Verbindungen, wie Chloramphenicol, und Chinone (Tetracyclin). Die näher diskutierten Beispiele sind die antibakteriellen Polypeptide Surfactin und Tyrocidin A. Surfactin ist ein antibakteriell wirkendes makrozyklisches Lipoheptapeptid, welches von Bacillus subtilis synthetisiert wird und ein enormes antivirales Potential besitzt. Tyrocidin A ist ein antibakteriell wirkendes makrozyklisches Decapeptid und wird von Bacillus brevis und Brevisbacillus parabrevis synthetisiert. Zusätzlich werden viele bakterielle Toxine ebenfalls durch solche Systeme multi-modularer Synthetasen erzeugt. Ein Beispiel ist das Polyketid Vibriobactin, das Toxin des humanpathogenen Bakterium Vibrio cholerae. Ein zunehmendes Problem der wachsenden Weltbevölkerung moderner Gesellschaften und in den Entwicklungsländern ist die wachsende Zahl multiresistenter Bakterienstämme. Die starke Progression in der Entwicklung von Resistenzen gegen Antibiotika ist auch Gegenstand des aktuellen WHO-Reports (2006). Alarmierend ist die beschleunigte Resistenzentwicklung gegen die sogenannten Reserveantibiotika Vancomycin und Ceftazidim. Ein umfangreicheres Verständnis der Interaktion zwischen Domänen in einem Modul und zwischen Modulen eines NRPS Systems ist Grundlage für die Neukombination unterschiedlicher Module zur erfolgreichen Gestaltung neuer Biosynthesen. Da die meisten dieser Biosynthesen oder die Synthese alternativer Substanzen nicht in der Organischen Chemie zu realisieren sind oder die Produkte zu teuer wären, um diese in großen Mengen zu erzeugen, muß das Ziel sein die NRPS und PKS Systeme in ihrem modularen Aufbau und ihre Interaktion zu verstehen, um alternative Antibiotika biosynthetisch herzustellen. Peptidyl Carrier Proteine (PCPs) sind kleine zentrale Transport-Domänen, integriert in den Modulen nicht-ribosomaler Peptidsynthetasen (NRPSs). PCPs tragen kovalent über eine Phosphoesterbindung einen aus dem Protein herausragenden 4’-phosphopantetheinyl (4’-PP) Kofaktor. Der 4’-PP Kofaktor ist an der Seitenkette eines hochkonservierten Serins gebunden, welche ein zentraler Bestandteil der Phosphopantethein-Erkennungs-Sequenz ist. Die Erkennungssequenz ist homolog in vielen Proteinen mit ähnlicher Funktion, inklusive Acyl Carrier Proteinen (ACPs) der Fettsäuresynthetasen (FAS) und der Polyketidsynthetasen (PKS). Die Thiolgruppe des 4’-PP Kofaktors dient zum aktiven Transport der Substrate und der Intermediate der NRPS Systeme. Die generelle Organisation und die Kontrolle der exakt aufeinander folgenden Reaktionsschritte in der Peptidsynthetase, ist die entscheidende Frage für die Funktion des Proteinclusters (assembly line mechanism). In Modulen der NRPS Systeme folgen die PCP-Domänen C-terminal auf die Adenylierungsdomänen (A-Domäne). Die Aufgabe der A-Domänen ist die Selektion and die Aktivierung einer spezifischen Aminosäure für die „assembly line“. Die eigentliche Bildung der Peptidbindung erfolgt an der Kondensations-Domäne (C-Domäne). Der Transfer der Peptidintermediate und der aktivierten Aminosäuren zwischen A-Domänen und C-Domänen ist Aufgabe der PCPs. Um diese Funktion erfüllen zu können, ist eine große Bewegung in PCPs, bzw. des 4’-PP Kofaktors notwendig, welche als „swinging arm model“ (Weber et al., 2001) beschrieben wurde. Die PCPs koordinieren damit die Peptidbiosynthese während sie mit diversen Domänen der Synthetasen spezifisch wechselwirken müssen. Die molekularen Mechanismen des Transportes wurden bisher allerdings nicht untersucht. Eine Dynamik der Transport-Domänen wurde bereits postuliert (Kim & Prestegard, 1989; Andrec et al., 1995), konnte bisher aber nicht gezeigt werden (Weber et al., 2001). Interessanterweise zeigt sowohl apo-PCP (ohne den kovalent gebundenen 4’-PP Kofaktor) also auch holo-PCP langsamen chemischen Austausch, der als jeweils zwei stabile Konformationen beschrieben werden konnte. Diese jeweils zwei stabilen Zustände, welche sich im Austausch befinden, wurden als A und A*, für apo-PCP, und entsprechend H und H* für holo-PCP bezeichnet. Während der A- und der H-Zustand sich sowohl voneinander als auch von den entsprechenden A* und H*-Zuständen unterscheiden und spezifisch für die apo- und die holo-Form von PCP sind, ist die kalkulierte Struktur vom A*-Zustand größten Teils identisch mit der des H*-Zustandes. Die erhaltenen NMR-Strukturen des A-Zustandes, des H-Zustandes und des gemeinsamen A/H-Zustandes beschreiben in ihrer Gesamtheit ein neues Modell für ein allosterie-kontrolliertes System dualer konformationeller Zwei-Zustands-Dynamik. Zu dem beobachteten konformationellen Austausch der PCP-Domäne, konnte die Bewegung des 4’-PP Kofaktors koordiniert werden. Die Bewegung des 4’-PP Kofaktors in Verbindung mit dem konformationellen Austausch der PCP-Domäne charakterisiert die Interaktion mit katalytischen Domänen eines NRPS Moduls. Des weiteren konnte mit Hilfe des Modells die Wechselwirkung mit externen Interaktionspartnern, wie der Thioesterase II und der 4’-PP Transferase, untersucht werden. Die externe Thioesterase II der Surfactin-Synthetase (SrfTEII) von Bacillus subtilis ist ein separat expremiertes 28 KDa Protein. Sie gehört zur Familie der alpha/beta-Hydrolasen und ist verantwortlich für die Regenerierung falsch beladener 4’- PP Kofaktoren der Peptidyl Carrier Domänen. Die SrfTEII wurde mittels Lösungs-NMR untersucht, die Resonanzen wurden zugeordnet, erste strukturelle Modelle konnte berechnet werden und das Interaktionsverhalten mit verschiedenen modifizierten Kofaktoren und PCPs wurde analysiert. Die Spezifität der Substraterkennung durch die SrfTEII kann beschrieben werden. Interessanterweise zeigt auch die SrfTEII Doppelpeaks für einzelne Aminosäuren, diese können als Indikator für eine spezifische Substraterkennung durch das Enzym verwendet werden und helfen den funktionellen Unterschied zwischen der SrfTEI-Domäne und SrfTEII zu verstehen.
On the molecular basis of novel anti-inflammatory compounds and functional leukocyte responses
(2006)
Inflammation is a complex pathophysiological event that can be triggered by activation of a number of distinct activation pathways eventually leading to the release of pro-inflammatory molecules and enzymes. Among all cells involved in inflammatory processes, neutrophils, monocytes and platelets are of major relevance. Activation of leukocytes occurs via binding of agonists to distinct GPCRs leading to activation of G proteins and proximate signaling cascades. In short, GPCR activation by pro-inflammatory agonists such as fMLP, PAF or LTB4 leads to activation of G proteins that are associated with the receptor at the cytosolic side of the plasma membrane. G proteins consist of a Gα- and a Gβγ-subunit which are associated in the inactive state. In this state, G proteins bind GDP. Upon activation, GDP is replaced by GTP that results in the dissociation of the Gα- from the Gβγ-subunit. Both subunits are capable of activating distinct PLC-β isoenzymes that catalyze the turnover of PtdIns(4,5)P2 into the second messengers Ins(1,4,5)P3 and DAG. Every GPCR holds a distinct pattern of associated G proteins which preferentially activate distinct PLC-β isoenzymes. Ca2+ channels within the SR/ER-membrane function as specific receptors for Ins(1,4,5)P3. Ligation of Ins(1,4,5)P3 to this receptor causes a release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores into the cytosol that is subsequently followed by the influx of Ca2+ e through channels in the plasma membrane. Ca2+ represents an important signaling molecule, involved in the regulation of cellular processes and enzymes that mediate inflammatory events such as ROS formation and the release of degradative enzymes. 5-LO and COXs are involved in the biosynthesis of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids and catalyze the turnover of AA into LTs and PGs, respectively. Both enzymes play pivotal roles in the initiation and maintenance of allergic diseases and inflammatory processes. LTB4 is regarded as a potent chemotactic and chemokinetic substance, whereas the cysteinyl-LTs cause smooth muscle contraction and increased vascular permeability. Therefore, 5-LO inhibitors are assumed to possess therapeutic potential for the treatment of diseases related to inflammation. Besides the intervention with 5-LO activity, inhibition of COX-activity is an effective way to suppress inflammatory reactions. The two COX isoenzymes, namely COX-1 and COX-2 show different patterns in terms of tissue expression and sensitivity towards inhibitors. COX-1 is supposed to be constantly expressed whereas COX-2 expression is upregulated at sites of inflammation. The extract of H. perforatum is commonly used for the treatment of mild to moderate depressive disorders, accompanied by a moderate profile of side effects. The extract´s efficacy as an antidepressant can be traced back to the content of the phloroglucinol hyperforin which represents the most abundant lipophilic constituent. However, in folk medicine hypericum extracts are additionally used for the treatment of inflammatory disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis or inflammatory skin diseases. In fact, it was shown that hypericum extracts and hyperforin possess anti-inflammatory potential. Hyperforin was described as a dual inhibitor of 5-LO and COX-1. The phloroglucinols MC and S-MC from M. communis significantly differ from the molecular structure of hyperforin. Hyperforin represents a monomeric prenylated derivative whereas MS and S-MC are non-prenylated oligomeric compounds. To date, the anti-inflammatory potential of SM and S-MC has not been investigated in detail. So far, solely antioxidant activity was attributed to MC and S-MC that indeed might qualify them as anti-inflammatory drugs. The phloroglucinols MC, S-MC and hyperforin are potent inhibitors of ROS formation and HLE release. However, any inhibitory potential of these compounds was only observed when cells were activated by GPCR agonists such as fMLP or PAF. In contrast, when cells were stimulated under circumvention of G protein-associated signaling cascades, the abovementioned inhibitors were not effective at all. In leukocytes, [Ca2+]i plays a pivotal role in signal transduction and regulation of the indicated pro-inflammatory cellular functions. We were able to show that MC, S-MC and hyperforin inhibited GPCR-mediated Ca2+ mobilization with approximately the same potency as the above-mentioned leukocyte responses. However, all of the indicated phloroglucinols were ineffective when cells were stimulated with ionomycin. Since ionomycin as well as GPCR agonists exert their effects by mobilizing Ca2+ i, it seems conceivable that MC, S-MC and hyperforin somehow interfere with G protein-associated signaling pathways. In order to investigate PLC as a potential target of hyperforin, the effects of hyperforin were compared to those of the broad spectrum PLC inhibitor U-73122. We found that both inhibitors acted in a comparable manner in terms of agonist-induced Ca2+ mobilization and in regard of the manipulation of basal Ca2+ levels in unstimulated cells. In this respect, significant differences between hyperforin and U-73122 were obvious for inhibition of total PLC activity in vitro. Thus, U-73122 blocked PLC activity whereas hyperforin was ineffective in this respect. This might indicate that only certain PLC isoenzymes are affected by hyperforin. Alternatively, other components within G protein-associated signaling pathways such as G proteins itself or the Ins(1,4,5)P3 receptor must be taken into account as putative targets of hyperforin. We were able to introduce MC and S-MC as novel dual inhibitors of 5-LO and COX-1. Interestingly, such a pattern was also described for hyperforin. MC and S-MC turned out to be direct inhibitors of 5-LO, based on the fact that they inhibit 5-LO not only in intact cells but also as purified enzyme in vitro. For MC and S-MC, great discrepancies were observed between the IC50 values concerning 5-LO inhibition and the concentrations that exert the antioxidative effects. It seems probable that 5-LO inhibition is not related to reduction of the active site iron as a result of the antioxidant activity of MC and S-MC but rather to direct interference with the 5-LO enzyme. The capability of MC and S-MC to suppress COX-1 activity seems not to be a unique effect of these phloroglucinols because for COX-1, the IBPC, present in both MC and S-MC, turned out to be the most active compound. ....
Aging and age-related diseases are becoming more and more important for our society and our health care system. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a disorder that destroys some parts of the brain and is characterized by global cognitive decline including a progressive irreversible loss of memory, orientation, and reasoning. “Healthy aging”, therefore, is one of the major aims for modern medicine. Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, plays an important role for example in fetal development, as well as for learning processes. T-lymphocytes usually undergo apoptosis in order to terminate an acute inflammation. The aim of this thesis was to explore the changes in the apoptotic mechanism of peripheral lymphocytes from Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients in contrast to physiological aging. The experiments were conducted with lymphocytes of healthy volunteers of different ages, AD patients and young and aged mice. Moreover, transgenic mice carrying familiar AD-related mutations were examined. The aging study of peripheral cells of ‘healthy’-aged volunteers revealed an age-related increase of basal apoptosis. In addition, spontaneous apoptosis as well as apoptosis induced by oxidative stress (ROS) or by Fas engagement were enhanced in aging. A closer look at the subcellular basis of the lymphocytes (e.g. B-, NK-, CD4+-, and CD8+-T cells) determined that all lymphocyte subsets were affected by aging. Therefore, it could be concluded that the regulation of apoptosis is generally impaired in lymphocytes of aged persons. The increased susceptibility to oxidative stress supports the ‘Free radical theory of aging’ that claims the radicals to be the cause for the aging-process. In mice an increase of basal, spontaneous and ROS-induced apoptosis was detected in T cells from the spleen, as well. An oral treatment over two weeks with the Ginkgo biloba extract EGb761 showed a clear reduction of ROS-induced apoptosis in the treated group. Interestingly, basal and spontaneous apoptosis, e.g. physiological apoptosis, were not effected by the plant extract. This is an important benefit for therapy since physiological apoptosis has a great relevance in the elimination of cancer-cells for example. In conclusion, the antidementive drug EGb761 reduces specifically ROS-induced apoptosis that a plays an important role in aging as shown in this thesis. Based on the data found in healthy aging, lymphocytes from AD patients were assessed for apoptosis. The cells show enhanced levels of basal, spontaneous, and Fas-induced apoptosis. In subsequent experiments it was demonstrated that mainly the T cells were responsible for the findings. However, the NK-cells provided an important impact as well. In concordance with AD-affected neurons, peripheral lymphocytes of AD patients show clear signs of apoptotic cell death. In addition, basal apoptosis of T cells and the CD4/CD8-ratio showed a correlation with the severity of the dementia. Therefore, it could be speculated that apoptosis is due to activation-induced cell death (AICD) that occurs in acute and chronic activation of adaptive immunity. In AD there is a chronic neuroinflammation in the CNS triggering degeneration of neural tissue. In order to explore this, the experimental model of lymphocyte’s activation was established in healthy aging first. The study included the detection of various events of lymphocyte’s activation on the basis of the T cell subsets (CD4+ and CD8+). The inducibility to mitogenic stimulation clearly decreased in both subsets in aging. In contrast, T lymphocytes from AD patients showed an enhanced activation subsequent to mitogenic stimulation compared with age-matched nondemented persons. Only proliferation of CD8+ T cells was clearly reduced in AD. This data could be clues that an increased generation of memory T cells due to chronic neuroinflammation might be evident in AD. Memory T lymphocytes show increased inducibility upon mitogenic activation. Interestingly, CD8+ memory T cells display decreased prolifertive capacity. Due to activation, cells die by apoptosis later on. It could be concluded that AD patients display an increased amount of memory T cells compared to controls. The data implicate that there could be a cross talk between inflammatory within the brain and inflammatory cells of the periphery. This is an interesting point since the brain used to be assumed as immune-privileged zone. According to the experiment, the information of the diseased brain is transferred to white blood cells. The connection of those two compartments might raise the opportunity to observe and probably to influence easily not-accessible regions like the brain. Transgenic mice carrying mutations in familiar AD-relevant genes (Amyloid-Precursor-Protein, Presenilin-1, respectively) displayed enhanced levels of apoptotic T cells from the spleen, as well. It seems that those mutated proteins influence the regulation of apoptosis. Probably, they are involved in the increased cell death of T- and NK-cells, as well. Animals overexpressing Presenilin-1 showed reduced levels of apoptotic cell death. It was demonstrated with molecuar biology tools that Presenilin-1, processed during apoptosis, has an anti-apoptotic effect.
The mitochondrial respiratory chain consists of NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (Complex-I), succinate:ubiquinone reductase (Complex-II), ubiquinol:cytochrome c reductase (Complex-III), cytochrome c oxidase (Complex-IV) and cytochrome c as an electron mediator between Complex-III and Complex-IV. Paracoccus denitrificans membranes were used as a model system for the association of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. More than 50 years ago, a model was given for a supercomplex assembly formed by stable associations between these complexes. This model gradually shifted by the model of random diffusion given by Hackenbrock et al. 1986 Different independent approaches were used to further analyze this situation in a native membrane environment, thus avoiding any perturbation caused by detergent solubilization: (a) measuring the distance and orientation of the different complexes by multi-frequency EPR Spectroscopy we started to analyze simple system, the interaction between CuA fragment derived from P. denitrificans and various c type cytochrome by Pulsed X band and G band (180 GHz) EPR. Partner proteins for the CuA (excess negative surface charge) were (i) horse heart cytochrome c which contain a large number of positive charges in heme crevice,(ii) the cytochrome c552 soluble fragment (physiological electron donor and have positive charges), and as a control (iii) the cytochrome c1 soluble fragment (negative surface potential, derived from bc1 complex) The measurements were performed at several magnetic field positions varying temperature between 5 to 30 K. Both the X band and the high-field measurements show the existence of a strong relaxation enhancement of the CuA by the specific binding of the P. denitrificans cytochrome c552 and horse heart cytochrome c. This relaxation enhancement is dependent on temperature and provides information about the distance and relative orientation of the two interacting spins within this protein-protein complex. (b) For quantitative information about lateral diffusion of cytochrome c oxidase in the native membrane Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy (FCS) was used. In this experiment, diffusion coefficients for oxidase differ in the case of supercomplex for wild type membrane and for two deletion mutants lacking either Complex-I or Complex-III. (c) The optical absorption spectroscopy at microsecond level resolution was tried for the translational mobility of oxidase in membrane vesicles. Due to the presence of different hemes in the native membrane, carbon monoxide (CO) used as a probe for the experiment. The optimization of the experimental conditions were carried out to get the optimal signal.
Although in general cells are genetically identical in multicellular organisms, the differential expression of genomic information enables cell type definition and specific organ function. In eukaryotic cells, the DNA is associated with histone and non-histones proteins into a restrictive structure called chromatin. Assembly into chromatin does not only protect and package the linear double stranded DNA into the nucleus but is fundamental for the execution of diverse genetic programs. Posttranslational modifications of histones regulate the accessibility of the DNA to transcription factors and serve as scaffold for binding of regulatory proteins. Nuclear receptors are transcription factors that bind specific target sequences on the DNA and recruit transcriptional coregulators at the promoter. These are able to modify the chromatin structure in an activating or repressing manner. The contribution of corepressors to the biological actions of nuclear receptors has turned out to be essential. Impaired corepressor function can be the cause of endocrine malfunctions, neoplastic diseases or severe developmental abnormalities. To better understand the role of the nuclear receptor corepressor N-CoR the unknown function of the extreme C-terminus was investigated. In this thesis the interaction of N-CoR with the non-POU-domain containing octamer-binding protein Non0/p54nrb, that was found tobe a potential interaction partner in a yeast-two-hybrid screen, was confirmed. This protein contains two RNA recognition motifs (RRM) and is described as a multifunctional protein since it is involved in transcription Initiation as well as in pre-mRNA processing. The RRM1 motif was determined to be essential and sufficient for the interaction with N-CoR. Obtaining dominant negative effect with the Non0/p54nrb RRM1 deletion mutant in functional reporter assays, data support that NonO modulates the capacity of N-CoR to repress and alters the recruitment of N-CoR by nuclear receptors to targeted Promoters. Additional analyses suggest that the N- and C- terminus of N-CoR are involved in intramolecular interactions and that they regulate each other. Taken results together a functional model is proposed that supports the biological relevance of the interaction of N-CoR with NonO and the function of N-CoR C-terminus acting as asensor that evaluates the ratio of corepressors and coactivators in the nuclear receptor environment. N-CoR repressive capacity would be altered by modulating factors like NonO that interacts with N-CoR C-terminus. The mechanism support that splicing and transcription regulation are physically and functionallylinked to ensure the appropriate amount of messager RNA to be transcript and process in response to stimulation intensity and cell context.
The generation of O2- by NADPH oxidaes was mainly attributed to immune cells that kill invading bacteria or cancer cells. But importantly, in the past several years, several homologs of the catalytic subunit gp91phox (Nox2) of the phagocytic NADPH oxidase have been identified in non-immune cells and tissues. Superoxide production derived from NADPH oxidaes has been shown to play a role not only in host defense but also in defined signaling cascades mediating growth and apoptosis. The aim of this work was to study the expression and the regulation of the”new” Nox isoforms in rat renal mesangial cells (MC). In particular the following results were achieved. 1) mRNA’s for both Nox1 and Nox4 were detected by RT-PCR. 2) Nox1 mRNA levels were increased upon exposure to basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) and fetal calf serum (FCS) in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Exposure of MC to bFGF and FCS increased also basal production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by MC. By contrast, Nox4 mRNA levels were not significantly affected by bFGF treatment, but were markedly down-regulated by PDGF and FCS. 3) To study the regulation of Nox1 on the protein level, an anti-Nox1 antibody was generated and characterized using affinity chromatography. Up-regulation of Nox1 expression by growth factors was confirmed also on the protein level. 4) Based on the already known cDNA sequence for Nox1, the transcriptional start site was determined by the “gene RACE” technique. 2547 bp of the genomic sequence of the 5´-flanking region of the Nox1 gene were cloned and sequenced using the „Genome-Walking“ method. To study the regulation of Nox1 transcription functional Nox1 promoter/luciferase fusions were be established. MC were transiently transfected with different promoter/luciferase constructs and stimulated with growth factors. By measuring luciferase activity it was determined that growth factors induced the Nox1 transcription and that the Nox1 core promoter is sufficient for the activation. 5) By measurement of superoxide radicals and analysis of Nox1 mRNA expression by quantitative RT-PCR (TaqMan) as well as protein level by Western blotting it could be shown that treatment of MC with NO donors inhibited the expression of Nox1 in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Moreover, using activators and inhibitors of the soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) it could be shown, that the activation of sGC mediates the effect of NO on Nox1 expression. However, NO had no inhibitory effect on Nox1 promoter activity. Experiments with the inhibitor of transcription, actinomycin D, suggest that NO-mediated regulation of Nox1 is triggered probably via post-transcriptional mechanisms. Nox4 is regulated on the mRNA levels in a similar manner as Nox1. 6) To analyze the sub-cellular localization of the Nox isoforms, coding sequences for Nox1 and Nox4 were fused together with green fluorescent protein into the pEGFP-N1 demonstrated that both isoforms are localized predominantly in the plasma membrane, but also in the perinuclear region and cytoplasm. However, the localization of Nox1 in the plasma membrane was more pronounced. 7) In addition to Nox1 and Nox4, mRNA of the newly identified NOXA1 that is a homolog of the p67phox subunit of NADPH oxidase was detected in MC by RT-PCR.
The multidrug resistance like protein 1 (Mdl1p) belongs to the class of ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporters which comprise a large family of membrane proteins utilising ATP hydrolysis to drive up-hill transport of a wide variety of solutes across membranes. Mdl1p is a mitochondrial ABC transporter involved in the export of protein fragments derived from the proteolysis of non-assembled inner membrane proteins out of the mitochondrial matrix. Mdl1p forms a homodimeric complex consisting of two polytrophic transmembrane domains (TMDs) and two nucleotide binding domains (NBDs). The transport function and structural organisation of Mdl1p have not been elucidated yet. To characterise the ATP hydrolysis cycle of Mdl1p, the His-tagged NBD (amino acids D423-R695) was over-expressed in Escherichia coli and purified to homogeneity. The isolated NBD was active in ATP binding and hydrolysis. The ATPase activity was non-linear regarding to the protein concentration, indicating that the functional state is a dimer. Dimeric catalytic transition states could be trapped and three different intermediate states were isolated, containing two ATPs, one ATP and one ADP, or two DPs, which are trapped by orthovanadate or beryllium fluoride. These experiments showed that (i) ATP binding to the NBDs induces dimerisation, (ii) in all isolated dimeric states, two nucleotides are present, (iii) phosphate can dissociate from the dimer, (iv) both nucleotides are hydrolysed, and (v) hydrolysis occurs in a sequential mode. Studies in the workgroup systematically screened for over-expression of the full-length Mdl1p and expression conditions were optimised. These studies showed that highest expression was obtained in S. cerevisiae, where the protein was over-expressed 100-fold. In this work over-expressed His-tagged protein was purified via immobilised metal-ion affinity chromatography that was active in ATP binding and hydrolysis with a turn-over of 2.5 ATP per second. N-terminal amino acid sequencing of purified Mdl1p by Edman degradation confirmed experimentally a N-terminal targeting sequence of a mitochondrial ABC transporter of S. cerevisiae for the first time. This sequence was determined to be 59 amino acids in length. Mdl1p was reconstituted into liposomes, which was confirmed by freeze fracture electron microscopy. The reconstituted protein showed ATP hydrolysis similar to the solubilised Mdl1p. However peptide translocation with radiolabelled X(8) or X(23) libraries as done for the transporter associated with antigen processing TAP could not be shown with this setup. Furthermore, structural insights of the mitochondrial transport complex and its oligomeric state were obtained via single particle electron microscopy. It was shown that Mdl1p forms a homodimer in detergent. These in vitro studies provide the basis for further detailed investigation of the mitochondrial ABC transporter Mdl1p.
The present work wishes to contribute with information on two members of the primary active transporter group, which differ both in structure and function: Wilson Disease Protein which uses the energy released by ATP hydrolysis to transport copper across cell membranes, and Proteorhodopsin, which uses the energy of light to build up a proton gradient across the bacterial cell membrane, both heterologously expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes. The surface detection experiments using HA-tagged WNDP confirm the proposed topology of WNDP. The HA-tag per se does not interfere with the function of WNDP, as shown for WNDP HA56 by ATP-dependent phosphorylation after expression in Sf9 cells. Sequence modifications within the WNDP HA56 template-construct reveal some interesting features: i) the N-terminal domain, which contains the 6 metal binding sites, is not necessary for plasma membrane targeting; ii) elevated surface expression of WNDP was observed when the carboxy terminus containing the tri-Leu motif is missing, which suggests that this motif might be involved in the retrieval of the protein from the plasma membrane; iii) the mutations TGE>AAA (proposed to lock the protein in the E1 conformation and lead to constitutive plasma membrane localisation) and D1027A (phosphorylation deficient) did not interfere with the surface localisation of the protein; iv) the mutations CPC>SPS (copper transport deficient) and H1069Q (phosphorylation deficient, most common mutation in Wilson Disease) reduced plasma membrane expression to less then 50%. Western blot analysis shows that the overall expression level of all constructs is similar to that of the reference construct WNDP HA56. These findings suggest that motifs involved in copper binding and catalytic activity do not interfere with plasma membrane targeting of WNDP in Xenopus oocytes. However, the H1069Q mutation could interfere with the distribution of WNDP protein within the cells. In the case of Proteorhodopsin, data presented in this work support earlier observations according to which proteorhodopsin can operate as an outwardly and inwardly directed light-driven ion pump. The residues proposed to play the roles of proton donor (E108) and acceptor (D97) are important for proton translocation. In the absence of an anionic residue at position 97 no outward pumping takes place, but inward charge translocation may occurs under appropriate conditions. An M-like state similar to that known from BR detectably accumulates under neutral pH conditions or under conditions where reprotonation of the Schiff base from the cytoplasmic side is slowed down, as in case of the mutants at position 108. Under acidic conditions PR pumps inwardly under the concerted action of pH and transmembrane potential. The experiments performed in parallel with PR and BR wild-types brought not only interesting information about similarities and differences between the two retinylidene ion pumps, but also led to the observation that the life-time of the M state in BR wild-type can be extended in addition to hyperpolarising transmembrane potentials also by extracellular acidic pH, when the proton gradient through the cell membrane is directed opposite to the ion transport (i.e. when the electrochemical gradient opposing the direction of proton transport increases). Direct photocurrent measurements of HA-tagged PR and BR have shown that the inserted tag may interfere with the functionality of the protein. Next to E108 and D97 in PR other residues in the vicinity of the retinal binding pocket contribute to the translocation of protons, as exemplified by the mutant L105Q: additionally to changing the absorption maximum of the protein, this mutant is a less effective proton pump than the wild type. The example of PR suggests that transduction of light energy by – and reaction mechanisms of retinylidene ion pumps have not been entirely deciphered by the extensive studies of bacteriorhodopsin.
Zwei der wichtigsten Leistungen eines sich entwickelnden Embryos sind der Aufbau des Blutkreislauf- und des Nervensystems. Beide Systeme sind hierarchisch organisierte Strukturen, deren Verzweigungen nahezu alle Teile des Körpers erreichen. Es gibt eine zunehmende Zahl von Hinweisen darauf, dass ihre Entwicklung eng miteinander verknüpft ist, nach ähnlichen Prinzipien verläuft und verwandte molekulare Mechanismen verwendet. Die Entstehung eines funktionellen vaskulären Netzwerks erfordert Signale, die Prozesse wie die Lenkung und die Verzweigung von Gefäßen in den Zielgeweben kontrollieren. Ähnliche Anforderungen werden an wachsende Axone bei der Knüpfung der Verbindungen des Nervensystems während der Embryonalentwicklung gestellt. Einige der Faktoren, die die Lenkung der Axone kontrollieren, spielen auch eine ähnliche Rolle in der vaskulären Entwicklung. Lenkungsmoleküle, die eine Richtungsinformation vermitteln, sind für die Wegfindung der Axone besonders wichtig. Die größte Familie solcher Lenkungsmoleküle wird durch die Semaphorine gebildet. Semaphorine können in acht Klassen unterteilt werden, deren gemeinsames Merkmal eine konservierte Semaphorin-Domäne ist und die unterschieden werden anhand ihrer Klassen-spezifischen carboxyterminalen Domänen. Die Semaphorin-Familie umfasst sowohl sekretierte als auch membrangebundene Proteine. Die am besten charakterisierten hiervon sind die sekretierten Klasse 3 Semaphorine. Eine Kombination von in vitro und in vivo Ansätzen zeigte, dass die Klasse 3 Semaphorine an der Steuerung der Axon- und Dendritenlenkung, der Bildung von Axonbündeln und der neuronalen Migration während der Entwicklung des Nervensystems beteiligt sind. Sie agieren hauptsächlich als repulsiv wirkende Signale, die Axone aus Regionen ausschließen, von den Geweben weg, in denen sie exprimiert sind. Diese Wirkung wird über die Semaphorin-Domäne vermittelt. Verschiedene Hinweise deuten auf eine Beteiligung von Semaphorinen an der Entwicklung des vaskulären Systems. Sowohl homozygote Sema3a- als auch Sema3c-Mausnullmutanten sterben nach der Geburt aufgrund kardiovaskulärer Defekte. Darüber hinaus binden die Rezeptoren für die Klasse 3 Semaphorine, Neuropilin-1 (Nrp-1) und –2 (Nrp-2), einige Isoformen des vaskulären endothelialen Wachstumsfaktors (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor, VEGF). Neuropilin-1 und Neuropilin-2-defiziente Mäuse und Neuropilin-1/-2-Doppelmutanten weisen Defekte des Gefäßsystems auf, wie z.B. eine Rückbildung der neuralen Vaskularisierung und Abweichungen in der Entwicklung des Herzens und der großen Gefäße. Die membrangebundenen Semaphorine sind bisher nur wenig untersucht, da zuverlässige in vitro Assays fehlen. Somit ist ein genetischer Ansatz der beste Weg, die physiologische Funktion dieser Proteine zu untersuchen. Aus diesen Gründen war die Zielsetzung dieser Arbeit, durch homologe Rekombination in embryonalen Stammzellen eine Mauslinie herzustellen, die ein Nullallel des membrangebundenen Sema5a-Gens trägt. Für diesen Ansatz wurde ein Mitglied der Klasse 5 Semaphorine gewählt, da es nur zwei Mitglieder dieser Klasse im Mausgenom gibt, die weitgehend komplementäre Expressionsmuster aufweisen. Damit unterscheiden sie sich von den anderen Klassen der Semaphorine, deren Mitglieder stark überlappende Expressionsmuster zeigen. Dies verringert die Wahrscheinlichkeit einer gegenseitigen funktionellen Kompensation nach Mutation eines Gens. Die Klasse 5 Semaphorine sind auch deshalb besonders interessant, da sie die einzigen sind, die sowohl in Vertebraten als auch in Invertebraten vertreten sind. Sie sind gekennzeichnet durch sieben carboxyterminale Typ 1-Thrombospondinmodule (TSP) in ihrer extrazellulären Domäne. TSPs wurden ursprünglich in den Proteinen Thrombospondin 1 und 2 gefunden, in denen sie das Auswachsen von Neuriten verschiedener Nervenzelltypen fördern. Dies lässt vermuten, dass Klasse 5 Semaphorine sowohl inhibierende als auch stimulierende Effekte haben könnten, in dem sie unterschiedliche Rezeptoren mit der Semaphorin-Domäne oder der TSPs aktivieren. Das Expressionsmuster von Sema5A und die bekannte Funktion von Semaphorinen in der Ausbildung neuronaler Verbindungen lassen es sinnvoll erscheinen, bei der Untersuchung der mutanten Tiere den Schwerpunkt auf die Entwicklung des Nerven- und des Gefäßsystems zu legen. Aufgrund technischer Schwierigkeiten konnte innerhalb der Bearbeitungszeit dieser Doktorarbeit nur der Phänotyp des vaskulären Systems untersucht werden. Die Inaktivierung des Sema5a-Gens wurde durch die Verwendung eines ‚Targeting’-Vektors erreicht, welcher die Exone 4 und 5 des Sema5a-Gens durch eine Neomycin-Selektionskassette ersetzte. Aus 144 untersuchten ES-Zellklonen wurden drei ES-Zellinien mit einem rekombinierten Sema5a-Locus identifiziert. Zwei der positiven Klone wurden zur Herstellung einer chimären Maus durch die Morula-Aggregationsmethode verwendet. Mit einem der Klone konnte eine männliche Chimäre erzeugt werden, die nach Kreuzung mit NMRI-Wildtyptieren die Mutation an die Nachkommen weitergab. Der Verlust der Proteinexpression in homozygoten Sema5a-Mutanten wurde durch Westernblot-Analyse von Zellmembranpräparationen homozygoter Embryonen unter Verwendung eines Antikörpers gegen das zytoplasmatische Ende von Sema5A bestätigt. Dieses Ergebnis bestätigte, dass die Deletion des vierten und fünften Exons des Sema5a-Gens ein Nullallel hervorbringt. Nach Verpaarungen heterozygoter Mutanten konnten keine Neugeborenen identifiziert werden, die homozygot für das mutierte Allel waren. Homozygte Mutanten starben zwischen E11,5 und E12,5 der Embryonalentwicklung, der Verlust von Sema5A ist also embryonal letal. Die Morphologie der homozygoten Tiere zeigte keinen offensichtlichen Unterschied zu den heterozygoten Embryonen oder zu Wildtyp-Geschwistern auf. Frühe embryonale Musterbildungsprozesse in Sema5a-Nullmutanten sind also nicht gestört. Ein Tod bei dieser Entwicklungsstufe deutet auf einen Defekt in der Entwicklung des Blutgefäßsystems hin, da die Embryonalstadien zwischen E9 und E13 besonders wichtig für die Ausbildung dieser Gefäße sind und viele Mutationen, die Herz und Blutgefäßen beeinträchtigen, den Tod der Embryonen in diesem Stadium bewirken. Das embryonale Blutgefäßsystem in E10,5 und E11,5 Embryonen wurde durch immunhistochemische Färbungen ganzer Embryonen unter Verwendung eines spezifischen gegen das Platelet Endothelial Cell Adhesion Molecule (PECAM) gerichteten Antikörpers dargestellt, welches in vaskulären Endothelzellen exprimiert ist. Die allgemeine Architektur des Gefäßsystems war in homo- und heterozygoten Mutanten ähnlich und wies weder an E10,5 noch an E11,5 besondere Abweichungen auf. Es wurden bei der Lage und der Anzahl intersomitischer Gefäße, der Entwicklung der dorsalen Aorta oder der Vaskularisierung der Extremitätenanlagen keine Abweichungen festgestellt. Morphologische Defekte konnten jedoch bei E10,5 in den Verästelungen der Blutgefäße detektiert werden, die von den Hauptvenen der Cranialregion abzweigen. Die Verzweigungen waren geringer ausgeprägt als in heterozygoten oder Wildtyp-Vergleichstieren. Insbesondere zeigte sich eine Verringerung der Anzahl sekundärer und tertiärer Verzweigungen. In dem sich entwickelnden Embryo führt die wiederholte Verzweigung von Ästen der Hauptvenen zu einem hierarchisch gegliederten Netzwerk großer Gefäße in der Region des medialen Kopfes. Während die Ausbildung dieses Netzwerkes in den Sema5a-/--Tieren beeinträchtigt ist, erscheint die Organisation der kleinen Gefäße in den mehr dorsal und peripher gelegenen Regionen des Kopfes normal. In heterozygoten und homozygoten Mutanten bilden die kleineren Gefäße ein dicht verzweigtes Netzwerk. Die Verminderung der Komplexität der größeren Gefäße konnte in allen untersuchten Nullmutanten beobachtet werden. Es variierte jedoch die Penetranz des Phänotyps. In allen Fällen war die Anzahl primärer Verzweigungen unverändert, während die Anzahl der sekundären und der tertiären Verzweigungen zu unterschiedlichen Graden reduziert war. Im Gegensatz dazu zeigte sich im Verzweigungsmuster von heterozygoten Mutanten und beim Wildtyp nur eine geringe Variabilität zwischen individuellen Embryonen. Dies belegt, dass die Verminderung des Verzweigungsgrades größerer Gefäße nicht innerhalb der normalen Variabilität liegt, sondern durch die Inaktivierung des Sema5a-Gens verursacht wird. Dieser Phänotyp ist in späteren Stadien sogar deutlicher ausgeprägt. In E11,5 Embryonen waren die Stämme der großen Blutgefäße in den Nullmutanten weniger komplex und in einigen Fällen trat sogar eine Reduzierung der Anzahl primärer Verzweigungen auf. Diese spätere Verminderung der Anzahl bereits ausgebildeter primärer Verzweigungen legt nahe, dass der Phänotyp durch eine Rückbildung von Verzweigungen aufgrund möglicher Defizite in deren Reifung und/oder Stabilisierung erfolgt. Die interessanteste Besonderheit der vaskulären Defekte in den Nullmutanten liegt in ihrer regionalen Spezifität. Bis hier ist das Netzwerk großer Gefäße, welches der anterioren Hauptvene entspringt, das einzige Gefäßsystem, in dem Abweichungen entdeckt wurden. Dieses Netzwerk wird durch die strukturelle Umbildung des primären kapillaren Plexuses gebildet. Zwischen E9,5 und E12 sprießen Zweige rostral aus der Hauptvene, um ein hierarchisch organisiertes Netzwerk von Gefäßen zu bilden. Die Umbildung des primären kapillaren Plexus in den mehr rostral und ventral gelegenen Kopfregionen führt zu der Bildung eines hochverzweigten vaskulären Netzwerkes, welches jedoch bei E10,5 noch nicht hierarchisch organisiert erscheint. Die Signale, die für diesen unterschiedlichen Ablauf der Musterbildung während der Entwicklung des Gefäßsystems des Kopfes verantwortlich sind, sind noch unbekannt. Die besonderen Defekte in der stereotypischen Organisation der cranialen Gefäße in Sema5a-Mutanten legt nahe, dass Sema5A eines dieser Signale sein könnte. Es könnte Teil eines Rezeptor/Ligandenkomplexes sein, welcher positionelle Signale für das Verzweigen und das Wachstum großer Gefäße in rostraler Richtung liefert. Sema5A könnte die Bildung von Verzweigungen durch die Regulierung der Wanderung endothelialer Zellen, ihrer Proliferation oder ihrer Interaktion mit unterstützenden Zellen oder der extrazellulären Matrix kontrollieren. Sema5A könnte Teil eines neuen Signalweges sein oder als Teil eines der bekannten Signalwegs wirken, welcher die Entwicklung des Gefäßsystems reguliert. Einer der Signalwege, die essentiell für die Gefäßbildung sind, wird durch VEGF und Angiopoietin (Ang-1) reguliert. Sowohl in VEGF-, als auch in Ang-1-Mutanten ist die Gefäßumbildung im Kopf beeinträchtigt. Insbesondere erscheint das Netzwerk kleiner Gefäße in den Ang-1 Nullmutanten als nur nur teilweise restrukturiert und die großen Gefäße als weniger komplex. Das Verzweigungsmuster der großen Gefäße in den Ang-1- Nullmutanten ähnelt auffallend dem der Sema5a-Nullmutanten. Eine zweite Ähnlichkeit in den Phänotypen von Ang-1- und Sema5a-Mutanten zeigt sich in der Reduzierung der primären Verzweigungen, welche in den Sema5a-Nullmutanten bei E11,5 beobachtet wird. Hier könnte die Verminderung aus einer Rückbildung von Gefäßen resultieren, wie sie auch typischerweise in Mutanten für Ang-1 oder dessen Rezeptor auftritt. Diese Beobachtung legt nahe, dass Sema5A ein neuer Teilnehmer innerhalb des Ang-1-Signalweges ist, welcher die Auswirkung von Ang-1 auf die endothelialen Zellen der großen Gefäße entweder vermittelt oder moduliert und dadurch das spezifische Muster der Blutgefäße des Kopfes beeinflußt. Mit dieser Doktorarbeit wird zum ersten Mal eine funktionelle Untersuchung des Klasse 5 Semaphorins Sema5A vorgestellt. Die phänotypische Untersuchung von Mäusen, die Nullallele für Sema5a-Gens tragen ergab, dass dieses membrangebundene Protein essentiell für die embryonale Entwicklung ist. Es ist an der Musterbildung des Gefäßsystems beteiligt. Seine Aufgabe besteht möglicherweise darin, die Bereitstellung positioneller Signale für die Ausbildung von Gefäßverzweigungen zu gewährleisten. Einige grundlegende Fragen werden durch diesen Phänotyp aufgeworfen. Sowohl die Ursache für die embryonale Sterblichkeit als auch die zellulären Prozesse, welche in den Sema5a-Nullmutanten beeinträchtigt sind, müssen noch beschrieben werden. Unbekannt ist ebenfalls, ob zusätzlich zu der hier beschriebenen Rolle von Sema5A in der Gefäßbildung dieses an der Entwicklung des Nervensystems beteiligt ist. Die ersten Daten über die physiologische Rolle von Sema5A, welche mit dieser Arbeit vorgelegt werden, öffnen den Weg für weitergehende Untersuchungen über die Funktion des Proteins während der Embrionalentwicklung. Das hier erstmals vorgestellte Modellsystem ermöglicht es, Sema5A regulierte zelluläre Mechanismen zu untersuchen. Zusätzlich stellt es ein Werkzeug zur Verfügung, um die funktionelle Beziehung zwischen der Entwicklung des kardiovaskulären Systems und des Nervensystems zu untersuchen. Damit können die Aufgaben der Semaphorin-Proteinfamilie, die an diesen beiden wichtigen Prozessen beteiligt sind, näher charakterisiert werden.
The development of resistance to multiple drugs is a major problem in treatment of number of infectious diseases and cancer. The phenomenon of multidrug resistance (MDR) is based on the synergetic interplay of a number of mechanisms such as target inactivation, target alteration, prevention of drug influx as well as active extrusion of drugs from the cell. The latter is mediated by over-expression of multidrug efflux pumps. The first discovered and the best characterized until now the human MDR transporter is P-glycoprotein. It is a member of the ATP binding cassette (ABC) superfamily and acts as an active transporter for a variety of anticancer agents using the energy released by ATP hydrolysis. The closest structure and functional homologue of P-glycoprotein found in bacteria is LmrA from Lactococcus lactis. The major goals of this work are to establish the selective isotope labelling of LmrA in Lactococcus lactis, to optimize LmrA sample preparation for solid-state NMR, and finally to perform first solidstate NMR investigations on LmrA shedding light on its catalytic cycle and substrate binding. For a long time the solid-state NMR applications to biological science has been limited to investigation of small molecules mostly. Recently, the solid-state NMR methods have shown potential for structuraland non-perturbing, site directed functional studies of large membrane proteins as well as ligands bound to them. However, to our knowledge neither selective isotope amino acid labelling of any ABC transporter, nor NMR investigations on full-length ABC transporter have been reported to date. Solidstate NMR experiments on a membrane protein require reconstitution of purified proteins into a membrane environment at a high density and either isotopic enrichment of the protein or bound drugs or inhibitors. Therefore, the large quantities of LmrA reconstituted at a high density in lipid membranes, sufficient for advanced NMR studies have been produced and its functional state in reconstituted form has been assessed. In the next step, a procedure for cost effective selective amino acids isotope labelling of LmrA in Lactococcus lactis has been established. Using this protocol deuterium alanine labelled LmrA reconstituted into E. coli liposomes has been prepared. Deuterium NMR has been used extensively to assess the proteins dynamics in past. However, it has never been applied to ABC transporter. Here, we report 2H NMR on selective alanine isotope labelled LmrA which has been used to shed light on the dynamics changes in the protein occurred under AMP-PNP, non-hydrolysable ATP analogue, binding and in ATP/ADP-Vanadate trapped state. It has been found that the major conformation changes affecting the protein motional characteristics occur in the ATP binding domains but not in the transmembrane domains. Additionally, the binding of several substrates to LmrA has been studied by fluorescence spectroscopy as well as by 19F and 31P solid-state NMR. The binding constants for several LmrA substrates have been obtained by fitting the concentration dependant tryptophan intrinsic fluorescence quenching curves. Based on the fluorescence studies and solid-state NMR data, the conformation changes in LmrA under substrate binding have been discussed. In addition, the preferable location of nine LmrA and P-glycoprotein substrates within the model membrane has been studied via 1H-MAS-NOESY-NMR. The results have been interpreted with respect to LmrA and P-glycoprotein binding site accessibility from the membrane interface region.
The Na+/proline transporter of E. Coli (PutP) is responsible for the uptake of proline which is subsequently used not only as a carbon and nitrogen source and a constituent of proteins but also as a particularly effective osmoprotectant. However, for a long time there was little known about the single steps in the reaction cycle of this transporter and only few details about its structure-function relationship are available. Aim of the present work was to achieve a deeper understanding about the kinetic properties of the Na+/proline transporter and to get insights into the structure-function relationship of the substrate binding. To answer these questions different techniques were used. By using the novel SSM technique combining the preparation of PutP proteoliposomes it was possible to demonstrate for the first time the electrogenic substrate binding to PutP transporter. Due to rapid solution exchange measurements on the SSM it was additionally possible to obtain time resolved information about the kinetic details of the cytoplasmic substrate binding sites which were not available by previous steady state and equilibrium binding measurements. Pre-steady-state charge translocation was observed after rapid addition of one or both of the cosubstrates Na+ and/or proline to the PutP-WT proteoliposomes adsorbed on the SSM. Thereby it was possible to link the observed electrical signals with the binding activity of PutP. The observed Na+ and/or proline induced charge displacement were assigned to an electrogenic Na+ and/or proline binding process at the cytoplasmic face of the enzyme with a rate constant of k > 50 s-1 proceeding the rate limiting step of the reaction cycle. Furthermore, based on the kinetic analysis of the electrical signals obtained from the measurements of PutP on SSM, the following characteristics of the substrates binding in PutP were deduced: (1) both Na+ and proline can bind individually to the transporter. Under physiological conditions, an ordered binding mechanism prevails; while at sufficiently high concentrations, each substrate can bind in the absence of the other; (2) substrate binding is electrogenic not only for Na+, but also for the uncharged cosubstrate proline. The charge displacement associated with Na+ binding and proline binding is of comparable size and independent of the presence of the respective cosubstrate. In addition, it was concluded that Na+ accesses its binding site through a high-field access channel resulting in a charge translocation, whereas the binding of the electroneutral proline induces a conformation alteration involving the displacement of charged amino acid residue(s) of the protein; (3) Na+ and proline binding sites interact cooperatively with each other by increasing the affinity and/or the speed of binding of the respective cosubstrate; (4) proline binding proceeds in a two step process: low affinity (~ 0.9 mM) electroneutral substrate binding followed by a nearly irreversible electrogenic conformational transition; (5) membrane impermeable PCMBS inhibits both Na+ and proline binding to the inside-out orientated PutP transporter, indicating that rather than selectively blocking a specific binding site, PCMBS probably locks the enzyme in an inactive state. The possible targets for this SH-reagent are cysteines 281 and 344 located close to the cytoplasmic surface of the protein. Beyond it, transient electrical currents of PutP were also observed on the BLM after rapid addition of proline in the presence of Na+. This was possible by combining the conventional BLM technique with high-speed flash-photolysis of caged-proline. Indeed the signals on the BLM indicate the detection of a different underlying reaction process in comparison to the data achieved by the SSM technique. This has paved the way for supplemental information about the reaction cycle since it was possible to assign the flash-photolysis BLM signals to the proline binding step followed by the internalization of Na+ and proline into the liposome. Thereby it was found, that the presence of Na+ is indispensable and the time constant for the process is ~ 63 ms. Moreover, structure-function information about the Na+ and proline binding sites of PutP was obtained by investigating the functionally important amino acid residues Asp55, Gly63 and Asp187 with site-directed mutagenesis and the combined SSM technique. One finding is that the mutated proteins PutP-D55C and PutP-G63C showed no activity on the SSM. Therefore, it can be assumed that either both Asp55 and Gly63 are crucial for the structure of PutP protein, or they are located at or close to the Na+ and proline binding sites. Furthermore, the results obtained from PutP-D187N and PutP-D187C mutants on SSM suggest that Asp187 of PutP is likely to be involved in the Na+ binding at the cytoplasmic side of the backward running carrier. Taken together the results of the present work have substantially broadened the known picture of the Na+/proline transporter PutP thereby several steps of the reaction cycle were elucidated, and moreover, valuable insights into the structure-function relationship of the transporter have become available.
The technique of site-specific fluorescence labelling with Tetramethylrhodaminemaleimide (TMRM) in combination with two electrode voltage-clamp technique (TEVC), an approach that has been named voltage clamp fluorometry (VCF), has been used in this work to study the Na,K-ATPase. The TMRM dye has the ability to attach covalently to cysteine residues and it responds to changes in the hydrophobicity of its local environment. We exploited this property using a construct of the Na-pump in which the native, extracellularly accessible cysteines were removed and cysteine residues were introduced by site-directed mutagenesis in specific positions of the Na-pump. In this way it was possible to detect site-specific conformational rearrangements of the Na-pump in a time-resolved fashion within a native membrane environment. In particular this technique allows to resolve reactions with low electrogenicity that cannot be satisfactorily analyzed with purely electrophysiological techniques and to identify the conformations of the enzyme under specific ionic composition of the measuring buffers. We used VCF to study the influence that several cations like Na+, K+, NMG+, TEA+ and BTEA+ exert on the distribution of the Na,K-ATPase between several enzymatic intermediates and on some of the reactions related to cation transport. To this end we utilized the mutants N790C in the loop M5-M6 and the mutant E307C, T309C, L311C and E312C in the loop M3-M4. From the correspondence of the fluorescence changes with the activation and inhibition of pumping current, by K+ and ouabain respectively, and from the fact that in Na+/Na+ exchange conditions the voltage distribution of charge movement and fluorescence changes evoked by voltage jumps are in reasonable agreement we conclude that through the fluorescence signals measured from these mutants, we can indeed monitor conformational changes linked to transport activity of the enzyme. For the mutants N790 and L311, it was found that the Na+ dependence of the amplitude and kinetics of the fluorescence signal associated with the E1P-E2P transition is in agreement with the prediction of an access channel model describing the regulation of the access of extracellular Na+ to its binding site. In particular for the mutants E307 and T309 it was found that in Na+/Na+ exchange conditions, the conformational change tracked by the fluorescence was much slower than the charge relaxation at hyperpolarized potentials while the kinetics was very similar at depolarized potentials. This implies that at hyperpolarized potentials the conformational change connected to the E1P-E2P transition does not give a large contribution to the electrogenicity of the process which is also consistent with the access channel model. On the mutant N790C it was found that the external pH does not seem to have any effect on the E1P-E2P equilibrium even if it seems to modulate the fluorescence quantum yield of the dye. Fluorescence quenching experiments with iodide and D2O indicate that at hyperpolarized potentials the local environment of the mutant N790C, experiences a small change in the accessibility to water without major changes in the local electrostatic field ...
Sodium proton antiporters are ubiquitous membrane proteins found in the cytoplasmic and organelle membranes of cells of many different origins, including plants, animals and microorganisms. They are involved in cell energetics, and play primary roles in the homeostasis of intracellular pH, cellular Na+ content and cell volume. Adaptation to high salinity and/or extreme pH in plants and bacteria or in human heart muscles requires the action of such Na+/H+ antiporters. NhaA is the essential Na+/H+ antiporter for pH and Na+ homeostasis (at alkaline pH) in Escherichia coli and many other enterobacteria. NhaA is an electrogenic Na+/H+ antiporter that exchanges 2H+ for 1Na+ (or Li+). NhaA shares with many other prokaryotic and eukaryotic antiporters a very strong dependence on pH. In order to achieve three-dimensional structure of NhaA, the previously described NhaA protein preparation was modified: (i) the wild type bacterial strain (TA16) used for homologous over-expression of NhaA was replaced with a delta nhaA strain (RK20). As a result, the purity and homogeneity of the sample was significantly improved; (ii) the previously two-step purification procedure was shortened to a single step affinity chromatography purification; (iii) a wide-range screening of crystallisation conditions, more than 20,000, was performed; (iv) a Seleno-L-methionine (SeMet) NhaA derivative was produced in order to solve the phases during structure determination. In parallel, attempts of production and crystallisation of co-complexes composed of NhaA and antibody fragments have been made. Four different monoclonal antibodies were available against NhaA. Selected antibody fragments were produced and the stability of the complex analysed. Here, the crystal structure of the pH down-regulated secondary transporter NhaA of Escherichia coli is presented at 3.45 Å resolution. A negatively charged ion funnel opens to the cytoplasm and ends in the middle of the membrane at the putative ion-binding site. There, a unique assembly of two pairs of short helices connected by crossed, extended chains creates a balanced electrostatic environment. A possible mechanism is proposed: the binding of charged substrates causes electric imbalance inducing movements, which allow for a rapid alternating access mechanism. This ion exchange machinery is regulated by a conformational change elicited by a pH signal perceived at the cytoplasmic funnel entry. The structure represents a novel fold that provides two major insights: it reveals the structural basis for the mechanism of Na+/H+ exchange and its unique regulation by pH in NhaA and in many other similar antiporters. Furthermore, it is also important for the understanding of the architecture of membrane proteins in general. However, although many aspects of the ion-translocation mechanism and pH regulation are clarified by the NhaA structure, higher resolution structures with Li+ or Na+ bound are required for understanding the ligand binding and the translocation mechanism at the atomic level. The alkaline pH-induced conformation is essential to further understand the pH-control and proton access to the binding site.
The N-terminal domain (matrix protein or MA) of a retroviral Gag polyprotein precursor plays a critical role in several stages of the retrovirus life cycle. MA is involved in the effective membrane targeting, assembly and release of the immature viral particles from the infected cell. In order to understand the structural basis of these functions, the full length MA from Moloney Murine Leukemia Virus (MoMuLV) was purified and the solution structure of the MA MoMuLV was determined by means of heteronuclear high-resolution NMR spectroscopy and compared with that of the X-ray diffraction analysis as well as with the structures of several MA proteins from geterologous viruses. Structural features were also obtained from CD spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering, sedimentation velocity, differential scanning calorimetry and other methods. It was found that the MA MoMuLV globular core (residues 8-98) is comprised of 7 well-defined helices (five alpha-helices and two 310 helices), with the general fold typical for MA proteins from other retroviral species. The N-terminus (residues Met1-Leu7) and the C-terminal proline-rich part (residues Pro103-Tyr131) are not structured in solution. Although MA MoMuLV has a low sequence identity compared with other matrix proteins for which the three-dimensional structure is known, it was shown that its overall topology and pattern of secondary structural units is similar to other retroviral matrix proteins. The monomeric state is observed for the correctly folded MA MoMuLV in a variety of external conditions and protein concentrations, indicating that virion assembly starts with the plasma membrane targeting of the nascent Gag precursor. The denaturation of MA MoMuLV is irreversible and is connected with protein aggregation. For Moloney Murine Leukemia Virus (MoMuLV) a proteolytic processing of the R-peptide (last 16 amino acids from the C-terminus of the Envelope protein (Env)) has been described as a second mode of fusion and activation preceding the receptor contact between the viral particle and the cellular membrane. An interaction between the R-peptide and MA MoMuLV has been proposed, since the R-peptide and MA are localized at the inner part of the membrane. Therefore the interaction between 15N labelled purified MA MoMuLV and synthesized R-peptide has been investigated using high-resolution NMR. It was found that in water solution MA MoMuLV and R-peptide do not form a tight complex, but in a mature virion in the presence of membranes or other protein factors it might be possible. In the case of HIV-1 the cytoplasmic part (EnvC) of the Env protein is much longer than in other retroviruses and again as for MoMuLV little is known about the interaction between EnvC and HIV MA. Hence, the full length HIV MA, and the last 150 amino acids from HIV Env have been subcloned with suitable expression vectors, purified and analysed by native gel electrophoresis, a pull down assay and by high resolution NMR for the purpose to detect the complex formation of EnvC and HIV MA. Finally, after all those experiments, it was found that a stable complex is not formed, but a weak interaction between the two proteins can not be excluded.
One of the central research topics in the field of biophysical chemistry is the structure and function of membrane proteins involved in energy transduction. Both, the aerobic and the anaerobic respiration include electron transfer and proton translocation across the mitochondrial and bacterial membranes. These electron transfer processes lead to changes in oxidation states of cofactors some of which are paramagnetic. Therefore, EPR spectroscopy is the method of choice to obtain electronic and structural information directly related to the function of the respiratory chain proteins. In this work, multifrequency continuous wave (CW) and pulsed EPR spectroscopy has been used to characterize the molybdenum active site of polysulfide reductase (Psr) from the anaerobic bacterium Wolinella succinogenes and the protein-protein complex between cytochrome c oxidase (CcO) and cytochrome c from the aerobic bacterium Paracoccus denitrificans. Molybdenum in Psr-Psr is an enzyme essential for the sulfur respiration of Wolinella succinogenes. Biochemical studies suggested that the active site of this enzyme contains a mononuclear Mo center, which catalyzes the reduction of the substrate polysulfide to sulfide. Until now there is no crystal structure available for Psr. Consequently, current characterizations of this enzyme have to rely on biochemical and spectroscopic investigations. Within the present work, CW and modern pulsed EPR techniques were applied to investigate its catalytically active site. In the first part of this thesis, different redox agents have been used to generate paramagnetic states of Psr. Multifrequency CW-EPR spectroscopy was applied to identify the Mo(V) states. Using simulations of the experimental spectra, three spectroscopically distinct states have been identified based on the Mo hyperfine- and g-tensor values. Comparison of their EPR parameters with those of related enzymes indicated five or six sulfur ligands at the Mo center depending on the state. The state generated by addition of polysulfide is suggested to be the catalytically active form, in which the Mo is coordinated by a sulfur of the polysulfide chain as the sixth ligand. 33S (I = 3/2) labeled polysulfide was prepared to probe the proximity of the polysulfide to the molybdenum center via its hyperfine coupling. 1D-ESEEM and 2D122 HYSCORE spectroscopy was used to detect these hyperfine and quadrupole interactions, which are too small to be observed in conventional CW EPR spectra. To date there has been only one pulsed-EPR study involving a 33S nucleus [Finazzo et.al. 2003]. The reasons are that this nucleus has a high nuclear spin of I = 3/2 and a large nuclear quadrupole moment in addition to the low Larmor frequency. All these make the detection of sulfur and the extraction of structural information demanding. However, analysis of the 2D-data led to a Mo(V) 33S distance in a range of about 2 to 2.5 Å. Mo-S distances found in molybdenum enzymes of the same family are in a range of 1.8 to 2.8 Å suggesting that the 33S is indeed the sixth ligand of the Mo(V) center and demonstrating that polysulfide is the actual substrate for this enzyme. Thus HYSCORE experiments have been proved to be a powerful technique to gain further insight into the active site structures of molybdenum enzymes and the trafficking of substrate atoms during catalysis. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations together with quantitative numerical simulations of the 2D-data will help to obtain more structural details about the molybdenum binding site in Psr. CcO:cytochrome c complex Protein-protein complex formation is an important step in energy conversion biological processes such as respiration and photosynthesis. These protein-protein complexes are involved in long range electron transfer reactions and are known to be of transient nature. Within the bacterial and mitochondrial respiratory electron transport chains such a complex is formed between CcO and cytochrome c. Upon complex formation cytochrome c donates the electrons required for the CcO catalyzed reduction of dioxygen to water. Here, the protein-protein complex formation between CcO and cytochrome c from Paracoccus denitrificans was investigated by pulsed EPR spectroscopy. The idea was to use the relaxation enhancement due to the distance and orientation dependent magnetic dipole-dipole interaction between the paramagnetic centers in the different CcO constructs and cytochromes. Two-pulse electron spin echo experiments were carried out on mixtures of the CuA containing soluble subunit II or the full size CcO with the physiological partner cytochrome c552 or horse heart cytochrome c. Significantly enhanced relaxation of CuA due to specific protein-protein complex formation has been observed in all four cases. In contrast the non-binding cytochrome c1 showed only a very weak relaxation enhancement due to unspecific protein-protein interactions. The echo decays of the slowly relaxing observer spin (CuA of CcO) measured in the absence and presence of the fast relaxing spin (Fe(III) of cytochrome c) permitted the extraction of the pure dipolar relaxation contributions for the different complexes. Measurements at different temperatures proved the dipolar nature of the relaxation enhancement. Furthermore, it was demonstrated experimentally that this approach also works for the full-size CcO, which contains four paramagnetic metal centers, in complex with cytochrome c. Quantitative simulations of the data suggest a broad distribution in distances (2 - 4 nm) and orientations between the CuA and Fe(III) in the complex between CcO and cytochrome c. High-field EPR spectroscopy will be useful to further analyze and prove these complex structures. Within the present work, it has been shown that pulsed relaxation enhancement experiments can be used to investigate the distance and relative orientation between paramagnetic metal centers. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated on a qualitative level, that this method can be used complimentary to other biophysical approaches to study transient electron transfer protein-protein complexes. Finally, within this work it has been proven that this method can be applied also to biological systems where more than two paramagnetic centers are present. This is particularly interesting for supercomplexes between membrane proteins.
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) play regulatory roles in many different physiological processes and they represent one of the most important class of drug targets. However, due to the lack of three-dimensional structures, structure based drug design has not been possible. The major bottleneck in getting three-dimensional crystal structure of GPCRs is to obtain milligram quantities of pure, homogenous and stable protein. Therefore, during my Ph.D. thesis, I focused on expression, characterization and isolation of three GPCRs namely human bradykinin receptor subtype 2 (B2R), human angiotensin II receptor subtype 1 (AT1aR), and human neuromedin U receptor subtype 2 (NmU2R). These receptors were heterologously produced in three different expression systems (i.e. Pichia pastoris, insect cells and mammalian cells), biochemically characterized and subsequently solubilized and purified for structural studies The human bradykinin receptor subtype 2 (B2R) is constitutively expressed in a variety of cells, including endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle cells and cardiomyocytes. Activation of B2R is important in pathogenesis of inflammation, pain, tissue injury and cardioprotective mechanisms. During this study, recombinant B2R was produced in methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris (3.5 pmol/mg), insect cells (10 pmol/mg) and mammalian cells (60 pmol/mg). The recombinant receptor was characterized in terms of [3H] bradykinin binding, G protein coupling, localization, and glycosylation. Subsequently, it was solubilized and purified using affinity chromatography. Homogeneity and stability of purified B2R was monitored by gel filtration analysis. Milligram amounts of pure and stable receptor were obtained from BHK cells and Sf9 cells, which were used for three-dimensional crystallization attempts. The second receptor, which I worked on, is human angiotensin II receptor subtype 1 (AT1aR). AT1aR is distributed in smooth muscle cells, liver, kidney, heart, lung and testis. Activation of AT1aR is implicated in the regulation of blood pressure, hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. Recombinant AT1aR was produced at high levels in Pichia pastoris (167 pmol/mg), while at moderate levels in insect cells (29 pmol/mg) and mammalian cells (32 pmol/mg). The recombinant receptor was characterized in terms of [3H] angiotensin II binding, localization, and glycosylation. Subsequently, the receptor was solubilized and purified using affinity chromatography. Homogeneity and stability of purified AT1aR was monitored by gel filtration analysis. Milligram amounts of pure and stable receptor were obtained from Pichia pastoris, which were used for threedimensional crystallization attempts. In addition to B2R and AT1aR, I also attempted to produce and isolate the human neuromedin U receptor subtype 2 (NmU2R), which was deorphanized recently. It is found in highest abundance in the central nervous system, particularly the medulla oblongata, spinal cord and thalamus. The distribution of this receptor suggests its regulatory role in sensory transmission and modulation. During this study, recombinant NmU2R was produced in Pichia pastoris (6 pmol/mg) and BHK cells (9 pmol/mg). Recombinant receptor was characterized with regard to [125I] NmU binding, localization and glycosylation. Subsequently, the receptor was solubilized and purified using affinity chromatography. Due to its low expression level, further expression optimization is required in order to obtain milligram amounts for structural studies. The long-term goal of this study was to obtain three-dimensional crystal structure of recombinant GPCRs. However, 3-dimensional crystallization of human recombinant membrane proteins still remains a difficult task. On the other hand, recent advances in the solid-state NMR spectroscopy offer ample opportunities to study receptor-ligand systems, provided milligram quantities of purified receptor are available. Therefore, in parallel to 3-dimensional crystallization trials, purified B2R was also used for solid-state NMR analysis in order to investigate the receptor bound conformation of bradykinin. Preliminary results are promising and indicate significant structural changes in bradykinin upon binding to B2R. Further experiments are ongoing and will hopefully result in the structure of receptor bound bradykinin. One of the challenges in GPCR crystallization is the small hydrophilic surface area that is available to make crystal contacts. One possibility to overcome this problem can be the reconstitution of a GPCR complex with an interacting protein for cocrystallization. For this purpose, I coexpressed B2R and AT1aR, which form a stable heterodimer complex, in BHK cells. I could successfully isolate the heterodimer complex by using two-step affinity purification. Unfortunately, this complex was not stable over time and disassociates within three days of purification. However, during coexpression of B2R and AT1aR in BHK cells, I observed that B2R was localized in the plasma membrane in coexpressing cells while it was retained intracellularly when expressed alone. This coexpression of AT1aR with B2R resulted in a four-fold increase in [3H] bradykinin binding sites on the cell surface. In addition, these two receptors were cointernalized in response to their individual specific ligands. Interestingly, colocalization of B2R and AT1aR was also found in human foreskin fibroblasts (which endogenously express both receptors), in line with the possibility that heterodimerization may be required for surface localization of B2R in native tissues as well. This is the first report where surface localization of a peptide GPCR is triggered by a distantly related peptide GPCR. These data support the hypothesis that heterodimerization may be a prerequisite for cell surface localization of some GPCRs. A second approach that I followed to stabilize the purified B2R was to reconstitute the B2R-β-arrestin complex. β-arrestin is a cytosolic protein that participates in agonist mediated desensitization of GPCRs and therefore dampens the cellular responses initiated by the activation of GPCRs. I tried to reconstitute B2R-β-arrestin complex in vitro by mixing purified B2R and purified β-arrestin. But, no interaction of these two proteins was observed in the pull-down assays. However, a C-terminal mutant of B2R (where a part of the C-terminus of the B2R is exchanged with that of the vasopressin receptor) was found to interact with β-arrestin in vitro as revealed by pull-down assays. In conclusion, this work establishes the production, characterization and isolation of three recombinant human GPCRs. Recombinant receptors were produced in milligram amounts and therefore, pave the way for structural analysis. The heterodimer complex of B2R-AT1aR and B2R-β-arrestin complex can be of great help during crystallization. In addition, it was also found for the first time that the surface localization of a peptide GPCR can be triggered by heterodimerization with a distantly related peptide GPCR.
Prostaglandin E2 is the major prostaglandin involved in colorectal carcinogenesis. The biosynthesis of prostaglandin E2 is accomplished by several terminal prostaglandin E synthases through catalytical conversion of the cyclooxygenase product prostaglandin H2. Among the known terminal prostaglandin E synthases, microsomal prostaglandin E synthase type 1 and type 2 were found to be overexpressed in colorectal cancer, however the role and regulation of these enzymes in this tumor entity are yet not fully understood. Here we report that the cyclopentenone prostaglandins 15-deoxy-D12,14-prostaglandin J2 and prostaglandin A2, which have been shown to modulate cell growth and neoplasia, selectively down-regulate microsomal prostaglandin E synthase type 2 mRNA and protein expression in the human colorectal carcinoma cell lines Caco-2 and HCT 116. This effect appeared to be PPARgamma independent and was not found to require G-protein-coupled receptor activation. Instead, inhibition of microsomal prostaglandin E synthase type 2 by cyclopentenone prostaglandins may be mediated by covalent binding of the cyclopentenone ring to cysteine residues on signalling molecules or via a redox-dependent mechanism. Inhibition of microsomal prostaglandin E synthase type 2 was subsequently followed by decreased prostaglandin E synthase activity, which in turn contributed at least in part to the anti-proliferative action of cyclopentenone prostaglandins in HCT 116 cells. Collectively, these data unravel a novel mechanism for the growth-inhibitory effects of cyclopentenone prostaglandins and expose microsomal prostaglandin E synthase type 2 as a new potential target for pharmacological intervention in the treatment of colorectal cancer.
Nucleotide-binding domains (NBDs), roughly 27 kDa in size, are conservative components of the large family of ABC (ATP-binding cassette) transporters, which includes importers, exporters, and receptors. NBDs or ABC-ATPases supply energy for the translocation of a vast variety of substrates across biological membranes. Despite their hydrophilic sequence, many NBDs tend to aggregate and precipitate in solution upon isolation from the complete transporter. The conditions stabilizing an extremely labile NBD component of the E.coli HlyA transporter, HlyB-NBD, were developed. As a result, the pure highly concentrated enzyme was protected from precipitation for months that allowed screening of the unlimited crystallization conditions in the presence of different substrates and performance of the reproducible functional assays. HlyB-NBD was characterized in regard to its uncoupled ATPase activity, oligomeric state, and stability in solution. Comparative analysis of protein stability and ATPase activity in various buffers suggested an inverse relationship between the two. Kinetic analysis of ATPase activity revealed ATP-induced protein dimerization. Gel-filtration experiments with the wild type protein and H662A-mutant of HlyB-NBD provided further evidence of protein dimerization in the presence of ATP. The crystal structures in post- and pre-hydrolysis nucleotide-bound states of HlyB-NBD were determined at 1.6Å and 2.5Å resolution, respectively. While the hydrolytically deficient H662A mutant of HlyB-NBD was crystallized as a stable dimer in the presence of ATP or ATP-Mg2+, with two nucleotide molecules sandwiched between the two monomers, the same protein was shown to be a monomer in the ADP-loaded state. The wild type protein failed to develop crystals with bound ATP, yet formed ADP-bound crystals identical to those of the H662A-mutant. The X-ray structures of HlyB-NBD in various states of the hydrolytic cycle and the functional studies of the enzyme have provided an opportunity to characterize enzyme-substrate complexes and protein-protein interactions between the NBD subunits in great detail. Comparison of the nucleotide-free, the ADP-, and the ATP-loaded states revealed oligomeric and conformational changes of the protein upon substrate binding and resulted in a molecular picture of the catalytic cycle. The correlated results of the structural and functional investigations of HlyB-NBD are discussed with relation to the mechanism of action of ABC transporters.
Group III presynaptic metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) play a central role in regulating presynaptic activity through G-protein effects on ion channels and signal transducing enzymes. Like all Class C G-protein coupled receptors, mGluR8 has an extended intracellular C-terminal domain (CTD) presumed to allow for modulation of downstream signaling. To elucidate the function and modulation of mGluR8, yeast two-hybrid screens of an adult rat brain cDNA library were performed with the CTDs of mGluR8a and 8b (mGluR8-C) as baits. Different components of the sumoylation cascade (ube2a, sumo-1, Pias1, Pias gamma and Pias xbeta) and some other proteins were identified as mGluR8 interacting proteins. Binding assays using recombinant GST-fusion proteins confirmed that Pias1 interacts not only with mGluR8-C, but all group III mGluR CTDs. Pias1 binding to mGluR8-C required a region N-terminally to a consensus sumoylation motif and was not affected by arginine substitution of the conserved lysine K882 within this motif. Co-transfection of fluorescently tagged mGluR8a-C, sumo-1 and enzymes of the sumoylation cascade into HEK 293 cells showed that mGluR8a-C can be sumoylated in cells. Arginine substitution of lysine K882 within the consensus sumoylation motif, but not of other conserved lysines within the CTD, abolished in vivo sumoylation. The results are consistent with post-translational sumoylation providing a novel mechanism of group III mGluR regulation.
My graduate thesis is on the "Structural studies of membrane transport proteins". Transporters are membrane proteins that have multiple membrane-spanning a-helices. They are dynamic and diverse proteins, undergoing a large conformational change and transporting wide range of susbtrates. Based on their energy source they can be classified into primary and secondary transport systems. Primary transport systems are driven by the use of chemical (ATP) or light energy, while secondary transporters utilize ion gradients to transport substrates. I began my PhD dissertation on secondary transporters by two-dimensional crystallization and electron crystallographic analysis and recently my focus also has shifted towards 3D crystallization. The following projects constitute my PhD thesis: 1) 2D crystallization of MjNhaP1 and pH induced structural change: MjNhaP1, a Na+/H+ antiporter that is regulated by pH has been implicated in homeostasis of H+ and Na+ in Methanococcus jannaschii, a hyperthermophilic archaeon that grows optimally at 85°C. MjNhaP1 was cloned and expressed in E. coli. Two-dimensional crystals were obtained from purified protein at pH4. Electron cryo-microscopy yielded an 8Å projection map. The map of MjNhaP1 shows elongated densities in the centre of the dimer and a cluster of density peaks on either side of the dimer core, indicative of a bundle of 4-6 membrane-spanning helices. The effect of pH on the structure of MjNhaP1was studied in situ in 2D crystals revealing a major change in density within the helix bundle relative to the dimer interface. This change occurred at pH6 and above. The two conformations at low and high pH most likely represent the closed and open states of the antiporter, respectively. This is the first instance where a conformational change associated with the regulation of a secondary transporter appears to map structurally. Reconstruction of 3D map and high-resolution structure by x-ray crystallography would be necessary to understand the mechanism of ion transport and regulation by pH. 2) 2D crystallization of Proline transporter: Proline transporter (PutP) from E.coli belongs the sodium-solute symporter family that includes disease related sodium dependent glucose and iodide transporter in humans. Sodium and proline are co-transported with a stoichiometry of 1:1. Purified PutP was reconstituted to yield 2D crystals that were hexagonal in nature. The 2D crystals had tendency to stack indicating their willingness to form 3D crystals. A projection map of PutP from negatively stained crystals showed trimeric arrangement of protein. Other members of the SSF family have been shown to be monomers. My analysis of oligomeric state of PutP in detergent by blue native gel indicates a monomer in detergent solution. It is likely that PutP can function as a monomer but at higher concentration and in lipid bilayer it tends to form trimer. 3) Oligomeric state and crystallization of carnitine transporter from E.coli: E.coli carnitine transporter (CaiT) belongs to the BCCT (Betaine, Carnitine and Choline) superfamily that transports molecules with quaternary amine groups. CaiT is predicted to span the membrane 12 times and acts as a L-carnitine/g-butyrobetaine exchanger. Unlike other members in this transporter family, it does not require an ion gradient and does not respond to osmotic stress. Over-expression of the protein yielded ~2mg of protein/L of culture. The structure and oligomeric state of the protein were analyzed in detergent and lipid bilayers. Blue native gel electrophoresis indicated that CaiT was a trimer in detergent solution. Gel filtration and cross-linking studies further support this. Reconstitution of CaiT into lipid bilayers resulted in 2D crystals. Analysis of negatively stained 2D crystals confirmed that CaiT is a trimer in the membrane. Initial 3D crystallization trials have been successful and currently, the crystals diffract to 6Å and are being improved. 4) Monomeric porin OmpG: OmpG is a bacterial outer membrane b-barrel protein. It is monomeric and its size (33kDa) places it as a prime candidate for a structural solution, using the recently developed method of solid state NMR (work in collaboration with Prof.Hartmut Oskinat, FMP, Berlin). A long-term aim would be to study porins as templates for designing nanopores, for DNA sequencing and identification. I have expressed OmpG in inclusion bodies and refolded at an efficiency of >90% into a functional form using detergent. OmpG was then crystallized by 2D crystallization yielding an 8Å projection map whose structure was similar to native protein. In addition, these crystals were used for structure determination by solid state NMR. An initial spectrum of heavy isotopically labeled OmpG has allowed identification of specific amino acid residues including threonine and proline. Additionally, I obtained 3D crystals in detergent that diffract to 5.5Å and are being improved.
Protein-protein interactions within the plane of cellular membranes play a key role for many biological processes and in particular for transmembrane signaling. A prominent example is the ligand-induced crosslinking of cytokine receptors, where 3- dimensional cytokine binding followed by 2-dimensional interaction between the receptor subunits have been recognized to be important for regulating signaling specificity. The fundamental importance of such coupled interactions for cell-surface receptor activation has stimulated numerous theoretical studies, which have hardly been confirmed experimentally. An experimental approach to measure interactions and real time kinetics of type I interferon (IFN) induced assembly between interferon receptor subunits ifnar2 and ifnar1 on membrane was developed and determinants of the 2-dimensional interactions, such as dimensionality, size, valency, orientation, membrane fluidity and receptor density were quantitatively addressed The C-terminal decahistidine tagged extracellular domains (EC) of ifnar1 and ifnar2 were site- specifically tethered onto solid-supported fluid lipid membrane, which carried covalently attached chelator bis-nitrilotriacetic acid (bis-NTA) groups. Interactions on the lipid bilayer were detected with a novel solid phase detection technique, which allows simultaneous detection of ligand binding to a membrane anchored receptors and lateral interaction between them in the real time. This was achieved by combining two optical techniques: label-free reflectance interferometry (RIf) and total internal reflection fluorescence spectroscopy (TIRFS). Fluorescence signals, in the order of 10 fluorophores/µm2, were detected without substantial photobleaching. The sensitivity of the label-free interferometric detection was in the range of 10 pg/mm2. The crosstalk between the two signals was eliminated by means of spectral separation. Fluorescence was detected in the visible region and RIf was performed at 800 nm in the near infrared. Flow through conditions allowed to automate experiments and measure binding events as fast as ~ 5 s-1. Using this technique we have dissected the interactions involved in IFN-induced ifnar crosslinking. 2-dimensional association and dissociation rate constants were independently determined by tethering high stoichiometric excess of one of the receptor subunits and comparing dissociation of the labelled ligand away from the membrane in the absence and presence of the non-labelled high affinity competitor. Dissociation traces were fitted with the two-step dissociation model: the first step being the 2-dimensional separation of the ternary complex followed by the 3- dimensional ligand dissociation into solution. Label-free RIf detection allowed absolute parameterization of the 2-dimensional concentrations of the ifnar subunits on the membrane. The TIRFS signal provided high sensitivity of the ligand dissociation and was correlated against the RIf signal before fitting. These features of the detection system allowed us to parameterize the model, and the 2-dimensional association or dissociation rate constants were the only variables during the fitting. Another FRET based binding assay was developed to determine the 2- dimensional dissociation rate constant using a pulse-chase approach. The donor fluorescence from ifnar2-EC was quenched upon the ternary complex formation with the acceptor-labelled IFN and the nonlabelled ifnar1-EC. The equilibrium was perturbed by rapid tethering of substantial excess of the nonlabelled ifnar2-EC onto the membrane. The exchange of the labelled ifnar2-EC with the nonlabelled one was monitored as the decrease in the FRET signal with the 2-dimensional dissociation of ifnar2-EC from the ternary complex being the rate limiting step. Based on the several mutants and variants of the interacting proteins, the effect of different rate constants and receptor orientation on the 2-dimensional crosslinking dynamics was studied. We have identified several critical features of the 2- dimensional interactions on membranes, which cannot be readily concluded from the solution binding assays. The restricted rotation and the increased lifetime of the encounter complex due to high membrane viscosity are the main determinants of the 2-dimensional association. Tethering ifnar1-EC to the membrane via N-terminal decahistidine tag decreased the 2-dimensional association rate constant 4-5 fold. Electrostatic attraction and steering, the important mechanism to enhance association rate constant between the soluble proteins, are not pronounced for interactions on the membrane. Protein orientation due to membrane anchoring dominates over electrostatic effects and together with the increased lifetime of the encounter complex consequence that 2-dimensional association rate constants are quite similar and do not correlate with association rate constants in solution. The 2- dimensional dissociation rate constants were generally 2-5-fold lower compared to the corresponding 3-dimensional dissociation rate constants in solution. Possible explanations for this are that long lifetime of the encounter complex stabilizes the ternary complex or that membrane tethering affects the interaction diagram. In conclusion, combined TIRFS-RIf detection turn to be powerful and versatile technique to characterize protein-protein interactions on membranes.
Virtual screening of potential bioactive substances using the support vector machine approach
(2005)
Die vorliegende Dissertation stellt eine kumulative Arbeit dar, die in insgesamt acht wissenschaftlichen Publikationen (fünf publiziert, zwei eingerichtet und eine in Vorbereitung) dargelegt ist. In diesem Forschungsprojekt wurden Anwendungen von maschinellem Lernen für das virtuelle Screening von Moleküldatenbanken durchgeführt. Das Ziel war primär die Einführung und Überprüfung des Support-Vector-Machine (SVM) Ansatzes für das virtuelle Screening nach potentiellen Wirkstoffkandidaten. In der Einleitung der Arbeit ist die Rolle des virtuellen Screenings im Wirkstoffdesign beschrieben. Methoden des virtuellen Screenings können fast in jedem Bereich der gesamten pharmazeutischen Forschung angewendet werden. Maschinelles Lernen kann einen Einsatz finden von der Auswahl der ersten Moleküle, der Optimierung der Leitstrukturen bis hin zur Vorhersage von ADMET (Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Toxicity) Eigenschaften. In Abschnitt 4.2 werden möglichen Verfahren dargestellt, die zur Beschreibung von chemischen Strukturen eingesetzt werden können, um diese Strukturen in ein Format zu bringen (Deskriptoren), das man als Eingabe für maschinelle Lernverfahren wie Neuronale Netze oder SVM nutzen kann. Der Fokus ist dabei auf diejenigen Verfahren gerichtet, die in der vorliegenden Arbeit verwendet wurden. Die meisten Methoden berechnen Deskriptoren, die nur auf der zweidimensionalen (2D) Struktur basieren. Standard-Beispiele hierfür sind physikochemische Eigenschaften, Atom- und Bindungsanzahl etc. (Abschnitt 4.2.1). CATS Deskriptoren, ein topologisches Pharmakophorkonzept, sind ebenfalls 2D-basiert (Abschnitt 4.2.2). Ein anderer Typ von Deskriptoren beschreibt Eigenschaften, die aus einem dreidimensionalen (3D) Molekülmodell abgeleitet werden. Der Erfolg dieser Beschreibung hangt sehr stark davon ab, wie repräsentativ die 3D-Konformation ist, die für die Berechnung des Deskriptors angewendet wurde. Eine weitere Beschreibung, die wir in unserer Arbeit eingesetzt haben, waren Fingerprints. In unserem Fall waren die verwendeten Fingerprints ungeeignet zum Trainieren von Neuronale Netzen, da der Fingerprintvektor zu viele Dimensionen (~ 10 hoch 5) hatte. Im Gegensatz dazu hat das Training von SVM mit Fingerprints funktioniert. SVM hat den Vorteil im Vergleich zu anderen Methoden, dass sie in sehr hochdimensionalen Räumen gut klassifizieren kann. Dieser Zusammenhang zwischen SVM und Fingerprints war eine Neuheit, und wurde von uns erstmalig in die Chemieinformatik eingeführt. In Abschnitt 4.3 fokussiere ich mich auf die SVM-Methode. Für fast alle Klassifikationsaufgaben in dieser Arbeit wurde der SVM-Ansatz verwendet. Ein Schwerpunkt der Dissertation lag auf der SVM-Methode. Wegen Platzbeschränkungen wurde in den beigefügten Veröffentlichungen auf eine detaillierte Beschreibung der SVM verzichtet. Aus diesem Grund wird in Abschnitt 4.3 eine vollständige Einführung in SVM gegeben. Darin enthalten ist eine vollständige Diskussion der SVM Theorie: optimale Hyperfläche, Soft-Margin-Hyperfläche, quadratische Programmierung als Technik, um diese optimale Hyperfläche zu finden. Abschnitt 4.3 enthält auch eine Diskussion von Kernel-Funktionen, welche die genaue Form der optimalen Hyperfläche bestimmen. In Abschnitt 4.4 ist eine Einleitung in verschiede Methoden gegeben, die wir für die Auswahl von Deskriptoren genutzt haben. In diesem Abschnitt wird der Unterschied zwischen einer „Filter“- und der „Wrapper“-basierten Auswahl von Deskriptoren herausgearbeitet. In Veröffentlichung 3 (Abschnitt 7.3) haben wir die Vorteile und Nachteile von Filter- und Wrapper-basierten Methoden im virtuellen Screening vergleichend dargestellt. Abschnitt 7 besteht aus den Publikationen, die unsere Forschungsergebnisse enthalten. Unsere erste Publikation (Veröffentlichung 1) war ein Übersichtsartikel (Abschnitt 7.1). In diesem Artikel haben wir einen Gesamtüberblick der Anwendungen von SVM in der Bio- und Chemieinformatik gegeben. Wir diskutieren Anwendungen von SVM für die Gen-Chip-Analyse, die DNASequenzanalyse und die Vorhersage von Proteinstrukturen und Proteininteraktionen. Wir haben auch Beispiele beschrieben, wo SVM für die Vorhersage der Lokalisation von Proteinen in der Zelle genutzt wurden. Es wird dabei deutlich, dass SVM im Bereich des virtuellen Screenings noch nicht verbreitet war. Um den Einsatz von SVM als Hauptmethode unserer Forschung zu begründen, haben wir in unserer nächsten Publikation (Veröffentlichung 2) (Abschnitt 7.2) einen detaillierten Vergleich zwischen SVM und verschiedenen neuronalen Netzen, die sich als eine Standardmethode im virtuellen Screening etabliert haben, durchgeführt. Verglichen wurde die Trennung von wirstoffartigen und nicht-wirkstoffartigen Molekülen („Druglikeness“-Vorhersage). Die SVM konnte 82% aller Moleküle richtig klassifizieren. Die Klassifizierung war zudem robuster als mit dreilagigen feedforward-ANN bei der Verwendung verschiedener Anzahlen an Hidden-Neuronen. In diesem Projekt haben wir verschiedene Deskriptoren zur Beschreibung der Moleküle berechnet: Ghose-Crippen Fragmentdeskriptoren [86], physikochemische Eigenschaften [9] und topologische Pharmacophore (CATS) [10]. Die Entwicklung von weiteren Verfahren, die auf dem SVM-Konzept aufbauen, haben wir in den Publikationen in den Abschnitten 7.3 und 7.8 beschrieben. Veröffentlichung 3 stellt die Entwicklung einer neuen SVM-basierten Methode zur Auswahl von relevanten Deskriptoren für eine bestimmte Aktivität dar. Eingesetzt wurden die gleichen Deskriptoren wie in dem oben beschriebenen Projekt. Als charakteristische Molekülgruppen haben wir verschiedene Untermengen der COBRA Datenbank ausgewählt: 195 Thrombin Inhibitoren, 226 Kinase Inhibitoren und 227 Faktor Xa Inhibitoren. Es ist uns gelungen, die Anzahl der Deskriptoren von ursprünglich 407 auf ungefähr 50 zu verringern ohne signifikant an Klassifizierungsgenauigkeit zu verlieren. Unsere Methode haben wir mit einer Standardmethode für diese Anwendung verglichen, der Kolmogorov-Smirnov Statistik. Die SVM-basierte Methode erwies sich hierbei in jedem betrachteten Fall als besser als die Vergleichsmethoden hinsichtlich der Vorhersagegenauigkeit bei der gleichen Anzahl an Deskriptoren. Eine ausführliche Beschreibung ist in Abschnitt 4.4 gegeben. Dort sind auch verschiedene „Wrapper“ für die Deskriptoren-Auswahl beschrieben. Veröffentlichung 8 beschreibt die Anwendung von aktivem Lernen mit SVM. Die Idee des aktiven Lernens liegt in der Auswahl von Molekülen für das Lernverfahren aus dem Bereich an der Grenze der verschiedenen zu unterscheidenden Molekülklassen. Auf diese Weise kann die lokale Klassifikation verbessert werden. Die folgenden Gruppen von Moleküle wurden genutzt: ACE (Angiotensin converting enzyme), COX2 (Cyclooxygenase 2), CRF (Corticotropin releasing factor) Antagonisten, DPP (Dipeptidylpeptidase) IV, HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus) protease, Nuclear Receptors, NK (Neurokinin receptors), PPAR (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor), Thrombin, GPCR und Matrix Metalloproteinasen. Aktives Lernen konnte die Leistungsfähigkeit des virtuellen Screenings verbessern, wie sich in dieser retrospektiven Studie zeigte. Es bleibt abzuwarten, ob sich das Verfahren durchsetzen wird, denn trotzt des Gewinns an Vorhersagegenauigkeit ist es aufgrund des mehrfachen SVMTrainings aufwändig. Die Publikationen aus den Abschnitten 7.5, 7.6 und 7.7 (Veröffentlichungen 5-7) zeigen praktische Anwendungen unserer SVM-Methoden im Wirkstoffdesign in Kombination mit anderen Verfahren, wie der Ähnlichkeitssuche und neuronalen Netzen zur Eigenschaftsvorhersage. In zwei Fällen haben wir mit dem Verfahren neuartige Liganden für COX-2 (cyclooxygenase 2) und dopamine D3/D2 Rezeptoren gefunden. Wir konnten somit klar zeigen, dass SVM-Methoden für das virtuelle Screening von Substanzdatensammlungen sinnvoll eingesetzt werden können. Es wurde im Rahmen der Arbeit auch ein schnelles Verfahren zur Erzeugung großer kombinatorischer Molekülbibliotheken entwickelt, welches auf der SMILES Notation aufbaut. Im frühen Stadium des Wirstoffdesigns ist es wichtig, eine möglichst „diverse“ Gruppe von Molekülen zu testen. Es gibt verschiedene etablierte Methoden, die eine solche Untermenge auswählen können. Wir haben eine neue Methode entwickelt, die genauer als die bekannte MaxMin-Methode sein sollte. Als erster Schritt wurde die „Probability Density Estimation“ (PDE) für die verfügbaren Moleküle berechnet. [78] Dafür haben wir jedes Molekül mit Deskriptoren beschrieben und die PDE im N-dimensionalen Deskriptorraum berechnet. Die Moleküle wurde mit dem Metropolis Algorithmus ausgewählt. [87] Die Idee liegt darin, wenige Moleküle aus den Bereichen mit hoher Dichte auszuwählen und mehr Moleküle aus den Bereichen mit niedriger Dichte. Die erhaltenen Ergebnisse wiesen jedoch auf zwei Nachteile hin. Erstens wurden Moleküle mit unrealistischen Deskriptorwerten ausgewählt und zweitens war unser Algorithmus zu langsam. Dieser Aspekt der Arbeit wurde daher nicht weiter verfolgt. In Veröffentlichung 6 (Abschnitt 7.6) haben wir in Zusammenarbeit mit der Molecular-Modeling Gruppe von Aventis-Pharma Deutschland (Frankfurt) einen SVM-basierten ADME Filter zur Früherkennung von CYP 2C9 Liganden entwickelt. Dieser nichtlineare SVM-Filter erreichte eine signifikant höhere Vorhersagegenauigkeit (q2 = 0.48) als ein auf den gleichen Daten entwickelten PLS-Modell (q2 = 0.34). Es wurden hierbei Dreipunkt-Pharmakophordeskriptoren eingesetzt, die auf einem dreidimensionalen Molekülmodell aufbauen. Eines der wichtigen Probleme im computerbasierten Wirkstoffdesign ist die Auswahl einer geeigneten Konformation für ein Molekül. Wir haben versucht, SVM auf dieses Problem anzuwenden. Der Trainingdatensatz wurde dazu mit jeweils mehreren Konformationen pro Molekül angereichert und ein SVM Modell gerechnet. Es wurden anschließend die Konformationen mit den am schlechtesten vorhergesagten IC50 Wert aussortiert. Die verbliebenen gemäß dem SVM-Modell bevorzugten Konformationen waren jedoch unrealistisch. Dieses Ergebnis zeigt Grenzen des SVM-Ansatzes auf. Wir glauben jedoch, dass weitere Forschung auf diesem Gebiet zu besseren Ergebnissen führen kann.
In the present study possible sources and pathways of the gasoline additive methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) in the aquatic environment in Germany were investigated. The objective of the present study was to clarify some of the questions raised by a previous study on the MTBE situation in Germany. In the USA and Europe 12 million t and 3 million t of MTBE, respectively, are used as gasoline additive. The detection of MTBE in the aquatic environment and the potential risk for drinking water resources led to a phase-out of MTBE as gasoline additive in single states of the USA. Meanwhile there is also an ongoing discussion about the substitution of MTBE in Europe and Germany. The annual usage of MTBE in Germany is about 600,000 t. However, compared to the USA, significant less data exists on the occurrence of MTBE in the aquatic environment in Europe. Because of its physico-chemical properties, MTBE readily vaporizes from gasoline, is water soluble, adsorbs only weakly to the underground matrix and is largely persistent to biological degradation. The toxicity of MTBE remains to be completely investigated, but MTBE in drinking water has low taste- and odor thresholds of 20-40 microgram/L. The present study was conducted by collecting water samples and analyzing them for their MTBE concentrations through a combination of headspace-solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The detection limit was 10 ng/L. The method was successfully tested in the framework of an interlaboratory study and showed recoveries of reference values of 89% (74 ng/L) and 104% (256 ng/L). The relative standard deviations were 12% and 6%. The investigation of 83 water samples from 50 community water systems (CWSs) in Germany revealed a detection frequency of 40% and a concentration range of 17-712 ng/L. The detection of MTBE in the drinking water samples could be explained by a groundwater pollution and the pathway river - riverbank filtration - waterworks. Rivers are important drinking water sources. MTBE is emitted into rivers through a variety of sources. In the present study, potential point sources were investigated, i.e. MTBE production sites/refineries/tank farms and groundwater pollutions. For this purpose, the spatial distribution of MTBE in three German rivers with the named potential emission sources located close to the rivers was investigated by analyzing 49 corresponding river water samples. The influence of the potential emission sources groundwater pollution and refinery/tank farm was successfully demonstrated in certain parts of the River Saale and the River Rhine. Increasing MTBE concentrations from 24 ng/L to 379 ng/L and from 73 ng/L to 5 microgram/L, respectively, could be observed in the parts investigated in these two rivers. The identification of such emission sources is important for future modeling. Further sources of MTBE emission into surface water are industrial (non-petrochemical) and municipal sewage plant effluents. In the present study long-term monitoring of water from the River Main (n=67 samples), precipitation (n=89) and industrial (n=34) and municipal sewage plant effluents (n=66) was conducted. The comparison of the data sets revealed that maximum MTBE concentrations in the River Main of up to 1 microgram/L were most possibly due to single industrial effluents with MTBE concentrations of up to 28 microgram/L (measured in this study). The average MTBE content of 66 ng/L in the River Main most probably originated from municipal sewage plant effluents and further industrial effluents. Background concentrations of <30 ng/L could be related to the direct atmospheric input via precipitation. A certain aspect of the atmospheric MTBE input is represented by the input of MTBE into river water or groundwater through snow. In the present study 43 snow samples from 13 different locations were analyzed for their MTBE content. MTBE could be detected in 65% of the urban and rural samples. The concentrations ranged from 11-613 ng/L and were higher than the concentrations in rainwater samples formerly analyzed. Furthermore, a temperature dependency and wash-out effects could be observed. The atmospheric input of MTBE was in part also visible in the analyzed groundwater samples (n=170). The detection frequencies in non-urban and urban wells were 24% and 63%, respectively. The median concentrations were 177 ng/L and 57 ng/L. In wells located in the vicinity of sites with gasoline contaminated groundwater, MTBE concentrations of up to 42 mg/L could be observed. The MTBE emission sources and the different pathways of MTBE in the aquatic environment demonstrated in the present study and other works raise the question whether the use of MTBE in a bulk product like gasoline should be continued in the future. Currently, possible substitutes like ethyl tertiary-butyl ether (ETBE) or ethanol are being discussed.
Biophysical investigation of the ligand-induced assembling of the human type I interferon receptor
(2005)
Type I interferons (IFNs) elicit antiviral, antiproliferative and immunmodulatory responses through binding to a shared receptor consisting of the transmembrane proteins ifnar1 and ifnar2. Differential signaling by different interferons – in particular IFNalpha´s and IFNbeta – suggest different modes of receptor engagement. In this work either single ligand-receptor interactions or the formation of the extracellular part of a signaling complex were investigated referring to thermodynamics, kinetics, stoichiometry and structural organization. Initially an expression and purification strategy for the extracellular domain of ifnar1 (ifnar1-EC) using Sf9 insect cells yielding in mg amounts of glycosylated protein was established. Using reflectometric interference spectroscopy (RIfS) the interactions between IFNalpha2/beta and ifnar1-EC and ifnar2-EC was studied in order to understand the individual energetic contributions within the ternary complex. For IFNalpha2 a Kd of 5 µM for the interaction with ifnar1-EC was determined. Substantially tighter binding of IFNbeta with both ifnar2-EC and ifnar1-EC compared to IFNalpha2 was observed. For neither IFNalpha2 nor IFNbeta stabilization of the complex with ifnar1-EC in presence of soluble ifnar2-EC was detectable. In addition, no direct interaction between ifnar2 and ifnar1 was could be shown. Thus, stem-stem interactions between the extracellular domains of ifnar1 and ifnar2 do not seem to play a role for ternary complex formation. Furthermore, ligand-induced cross-talk between ifnar1-EC and ifnar2-EC being tethered onto solid-supported, fluid lipid bilayers was investigated by RIfS and total internal reflection fluorescence spectroscopy. A very stable binding of IFNalpha2 at high receptor surface concentrations was observed with an apparent kd approximately 200-times lower than for ifnar2-EC alone. This apparent kd was strongly dependent on the surface concentration of the receptor components, suggesting kinetic rather than static stabilization, which was corroborated by competition experiments. These results indicate that signaling is activated by transient cross-talk between ifnar1 and ifnar2, which is by several orders of magnitude more efficiently engaged by IFNbeta than by IFNalpha2. With respect to differential recognition of different IFNs ifnar1-EC was dissected into sub-fragments containing different of the four Ig-like domains. The appropriate folding and glycosylation of these proteins, also purified in mg amounts were confirmed by SDS-PAGE, size exclusion chromatography and CD-spectroscopy. Surprisingly, only one construct containing all three N-terminal Ig-like domains was active in terms of ligand binding, indicating that these domains were required. Competitive binding of IFNalpha2 and IFNbeta to both this fragment and ifnar1-EC was demonstrated. Cellular binding assays with different fragments, however, highlight the key role of the membrane-proximal Ig-like domain for the formation of an in situ IFN-receptor complex and the ensuing signal activation. Even substitution with Ig-like domains from homologous cytokine receptors did not restore high-affinity ligand binding. Receptor assembling analysis on supported lipid bilayer revealed that appropriate orientation of the receptor is required, which is controlled by the membrane-proximal Ig-domain. All results indicate that differential signalling is encoded by the efficiency of signalling complex formation, which is controlled by the binding affinity of IFNs to the extracellular domains of ifnar1 and 2.
Mitochondial NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (complex I) the largest multiprotein enzyme of the respiratory chain, catalyses the transfer of two electrons from NADH to ubiquinone, coupled to the translocation of four protons across the membrane. In addition to the 14 strictly conserved central subunits it contains a variable number of accessory subunits. At present, the best characterized enzyme is complex I from bovine heart with a molecular mass of about 980 kDa and 32 accessory proteins. In this study, the subunit composition of mitochondrial complex I from the aerobic yeast Y. lipolytica has been analysed by a combination of proteomic and genomic approaches. The sequences of 37 complex I subunits were identified. The sum of their individual molecular masses (about 930 kDa) was consistent with the native molecular weight of approximately 900 kDa for Y. lipolytica complex I obtained by BN-PAGE. A genomic analysis with Y. lipolytica and other eukaryotic databases to search for homologues of complex I subunits revealed 31 conserved proteins among the examined species. A novel protein named “X” was found in purified Y. lipolytica complex I by MALDI-MS. This protein exhibits homology to the thiosulfate sulfurtransferase enzyme referred to as rhodanese. The finding of a rhodanese-like protein in isolated complex I of Y. lipolytica allows to assume a special regulatory mechanism of complex I activity through control of the status of its iron-sulfur clusters. The second part of this study was aimed at investigating the possible role of one of these extra subunits, 39 kDa (NUEM) subunit which is related to the SDRs-enzyme family. The members of this family function in different redox and isomerization reactions and contain a conserved NAD(P)H-binding site. It was proposed that the 39 kDa subunit may be involved in a biosynthetic pathway, but the role of this subunit in complex I is unknown. In contrast to the situation in N. crassa, deletion of the 39 kDa encoding gene in Y. lipolytica led to the absence of fully assembled complex I. This result might indicate a different pathway of complex I assembly in both organisms. Several site-directed mutations were generated in the nucleotide binding motif. These had either no effect on enzyme activity and NADPH binding, or prevented complex I assembly. Mutations of arginine-65 that is located at the end of the second b-strand and responsible for selective interaction with the 2’-phosphate group of NADPH retained complex I activity in mitochondrial membranes but the affinity for the cofactor was markedly decreased. Purification of complex I from mutants resulted in decrease or loss of ubiquinone reductase activity. It is very likely that replacement of R65 not only led to a decrease in affinity for NADPH but also caused instability of the enzyme due to steric changes in the 39 kDa subunit. These data indicate that NADPH bound to the 39 kDa subunit (NUEM) is not essential for complex I activity, but probably involved in complex I assembly in Y. lipolytica.
Calcium-activated potassium channels are fundamental regulators of neuron excitability. SK channels are activated by an intracellular increase of Ca++ (such as occurs during an action potential). They have a small single channel conductance (less than 20pS) and show no voltage dependence of activation. To date, there are only a few examples of high-resolution structures of eukaryotic membrane proteins. All of them were purified from natural sources. Since no abundant natural sources of eukaryotic K+ channels are available we overexpressed rSK2 in order to produce the quantities necessary for structural analysis. Unfortunately the Pichia pastoris expression system did not yield sufficient amount of pure protein, mainly because most of the protein was retained by in the ER and was only partially soluble. Subsequently, two constructs were expressed: SK2-FCYENE (containing a specific sequence that promotes surface expression), and SK2-q-CaM a concatamer of SK2 and calmodulin. Although these proved an improvement in terms of solubilisation, little improvement was found in terms of amounts of purified material obtained. For this reason we tested the Semliki Forest virus expression system, since the protein is expressed in a mammalian system where we hoped that it would be trafficked in the same way as in vivo. Using this system it was possible to express rSK2 and solubilise it with several detergents and to achieve much better purification. However, the levels were still not sufficient for high-resolution structural studies, although sufficient for single particle electron microscopy analysis.
Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation serves as an important and widely used computational tool to study molecular systems at an atomic resolution. No experimental technique is capable of generating a complete description of the dynamical structure of the biomolecules in their native solution environment. MD simulations allow us to study the dynamics and structure of the system and, moreover, helps in the interpretation of experimental observations. MD simulation was first introduced and applied by Alder and Wainwright in 1957 \cite{Alder57}. However, the first MD simulation of a macromolecule of biological interest was published 28 years ago \cite{McCammon77}. The simulation was concerned with the bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (BPTI) protein, which has served as the hydrogen molecule'' of protein dynamics because of its small size, high stability, and relatively accurate X-ray structure available in 1977 \cite{Deisenhofer75}. This method is now widely used to tackle larger and more complex biological systems \cite{Groot01,Roux02} and has been facilitated by the development of fast and efficient methods for treating the long-range electrostatic interactions \cite{Essmann95}, the availability of faster parallel computers, and the continuous development of empirical molecular mechanical force fields \cite{Langley98,Cheatham99,Foloppe00}. It took several years until the first MD simulations of nucleic acid systems were performed \cite{Levitt83,Tidor83,Prabhakaran83,Nilsson86}. These investigations, which were also performed in vacuo, clearly demonstrated the importance of proper handling of electrostatics in a highly charged nucleic acid system, and different approaches, such as reduction of the phosphate charges and addition of hydrated counterions, have been applied to remedy this shortcoming and to maintain stable DNA structures. A few years later, the first MD simulation of a DNA molecule, including explicit water molecules and counterions was published \cite{Seibel85}. Various MD simulations on fully solvated RNA molecules with explicit inclusion of mobile ions indicated the importance of proper treatment of the environment of highly charged nucleic acids \cite{Lee95,Zichi95,Auffinger97,Auffinger99}. Given the central roles of RNA in the life of cells, it is important to understand the mechanism by which RNA forms three dimensional structures endowed with properties such as catalysis, ligand binding, and recognition of proteins. Furthermore, the increasing awareness of the essential role of RNA in controlling viral replication and in bacterial protein synthesis emphazises the potential of ribonucleicacids as targets for developing new antibacterial and new antiviral drugs. Driven by fruitful collaborations in the Sonderforschungsbereich RNA-Ligand interactions" the model RNA systems in this study include various RNA tetraloops and HIV-1 TAR RNA. For the latter system, the binding sites of heteroaromatic compounds have been studied employing automated docking calculations \cite{Goodsell90}. The results show that it is possible to use this tool to dock small rigid ligands to an RNA molecule, while large and flexible molecules are clearly problematic. The main part of this work is focused on MD simulations of RNA tetraloops.
The quinol:fumarate reductase (QFR) is the terminal reductase of anaerobic fumarate respiration, the most commonly occurring type of anaerobic respiration. This membrane protein complex couples the oxidation of menaquinol to menaquinone to the reduction of fumarate to succinate. The three-dimensional crystal structure of the QFR from Wolinella succinogenes has previoulsy been solved at 2.2 Å resolution. Although the diheme-containing QFR from W. succinogenes is known to catalyze an electroneutral process, structural and functional characterization of parental and variant enzymes has revealed active site locations which indicate electrogenic catalysis across the membrane. A solution to this apparent controversy was proposed with the so-called “Epathway hypothesis”. According to this, transmembrane electron transfer via the heme groups is strictly coupled to a parallel, compensatory transfer of protons via a transiently established pathway, which is inactive in the oxidized state of the enzyme. Proposed constituents of the E-pathway are the side chain of Glu C180, and the ring C propionate of the distal heme. Previous experimental evidence strongly supports such a role for the former constituent. One aim of this thesis is to investigate by a combination of specific 13C-heme propionate labeling and FTIR difference spectroscopy whether the ring C propionate of the distal heme is involved in redox-coupled proton transfer in the QFR from W. succinogenes. In addition to W. succinogenes, the primary structures of the QFR enzymes of two other e- proteobacteria are known. These are Campylobacter jejuni and Helicobacter pylori, which unlike W. succinogenes are human pathogens. The QFR from H. pylori has previously been established to be a potential drug target, and the same is likely for the QFR from C. jejuni. The two pathogenic species colonize mucosal surfaces causing several diseases. The possibility of studying these QFRs from these bacteria and creating more efficient drugs specifically active for this enzyme depends substantially on the availability of large amounts of high-quality protein. Further, biochemical and structural studies on QFR enzymes from e- proteobacteria species other than W. succinogenes can be valuable to enlighten new aspects or corroborate the current understanding of this class of membrane proteins.
Prion diseases, also called transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, are a group of fatal neurodegenerative conditions that affect humans and a wide variety of animals. To date there is no therapeutic or prophylactic approach against prion diseases available. The causative infectious agent is the prion, also termed PrPSc, which is a pathological conformer of a cellular protein named prion protein PrPc. Prions are thought to multiply upon conversion of PrPc to PrPSc in a self-propagating manner. Immunotherapeutic strategies directed against PrPc represent a possible approach in preventing or curing prion diseases. Accordingly, it was already shown in animal models, that passive immunization delays the onset of prion diseases. The present thesis aimed at the development of a candidate vaccine towards the active immunization against prion diseases, an immune response, which has to be accompanied by the circumvention of host tolerance to the self-antigen PrPc. The vaccine development was approached using virus-like particles (retroparticles) derived from either the murine leukemia (MLV) or the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The display of PrP on the surface of such particles was addressed for both the cellular and the pathogenic form of PrP. The display of PrPc was achieved by either fusion to the transmembrane domain of the platelet derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR) or to the N-terminal part of the viral envelope protein (Env). In both cases, the corresponding PrPD- and PrPE-retroparticles were successfully produced and analyzed via immune fluorescence, Western Blot analysis, immunogold electron microscopy as well as by ELISA methods. Both, PrPD- and PrPE-retroparticles showed effective incorporation of N-terminally truncated forms of PrPc but not for the complete protein. PrPc at this revealed the typical glycosylation pattern, which was specifically removed by a glycosidase enzyme. Upon display of PrPc on retroparticles the protein remained detectable by PrP-specific antibodies under native conditions. Electron microscopy analysis of PrPc-variants revealed no alteration of the characteristic retroviral morphology of the generated particles. MLV-derived PrPD-retroparticles were successfully used in immunization studies. Contrary to approaches using bacterially expressed PrPc, the immunization of mice resulted in a specific antibody response. The display of the pathogenic isoform was aimed by two different strategies. The first one was directed at the conversion of the proteinase K (PK) sensitive from of PrP on the surface of PrPD-retroparticles into the PK resistant form. Albeit specific adaption of the PK digestion assay detecting resistant PrP, no PrP conversion was observed for PrPD-retroparticles. The second approach utilized a replication competent variant of the ecotropic MLV displaying PrPc on the viral Env protein. This MLV variant was stable in cell culture for six passages but did not replicate on scrapie-infected, PrPSc-propagating neuroblastoma cells. Thus, besides PrPc-displaying virus-like particles a replication competent MLV variant was obtained, which stably incorporated PrPc at the N-terminus of the viral Env protein. The incorporation of the cell-surface located PrPc into particles was expected from previously obtained data on protein display in the context of retrovirus-derived particles. Thus, the lack of incorporation observed for the complete PrPc sequence was rather unexpected and was found to be inhibited at both, fusion to PDGFR and the viral Env. In contrast to N-terminally truncated PrPc, the complete PrPc was shown to exhibit increased cell surface internalization rates and half-life times eventually contributing to the observed results. The PrP-vaccination approach described in this work represents the first successful system inducing PrP-specific antibody responses against the prion protein in wt mice. Explanations at this are based on the induction of specific T cell help or effects of the innate immunity, respectively. MLV-and HIV-derived particles bearing the PrP-coding sequence or being replication competent variants generated during this thesis might help to further improve the PrP-specific immune response.
In dieser Arbeit werden Untersuchungen über die Anwendbarkeit von vier Methoden zur selektiven Einführung von Radikalen in DNA vorgestellt. Hierzu wurde die EPR-Spektroskopie (Elektronen-paramagnetische Resonanz) benutzt. Die selektive Einführung und Erzeugung von Radikalen in DNA ist nötig, um J-Kopplungen in DNA zu untersuchen. Vor dem Fernziel der Bestimmung der Austauschkopplungskonstanten J in biradikalischer DNA und deren Korrelation mit der charge-transfer-Geschwindigkeitskonstanten kCT stellen diese Untersuchungen einen wichtigen Ausgangspunkt dar. Stabile aromatische Nitroxide. Simulationen von Raumtemperatur-CW-X-Band-EPRSpektren fünf verschiedener aromatischer Nitroxide, welche potentielle DNA-Interkalatoren sind, wurden durchgeführt. Die aromatischen Nitroxide zeigen aufgelöste Hyperfeinkopplungen, welche zu dem Schluss führen, dass die Spindichte in hohem Maße delokalisiert ist, was die Verwendung dieser Verbindungen zur Messung von J-Kopplungen in biradikalischer DNA erlaubt. Transiente Guanin-Radikale. Transiente Guanin-Radikale werden in DNA selektiv durch die Flash-Quench-Technik erzeugt, bei der optisch anregbare Ruthenium-Interkalatoren verwendet werden. Transiente Thymyl-Radikale aus UV-bestrahltem 4'-Pivaloyl-Thymidin. Es werden photoinduzierte Prozesse untersucht, welche durch Bestrahlung von Thymin-Nukleosiden, die an der 4’-Position die optisch spaltbare Pivaloyl-Gruppe tragen, erzeugt werden. Dieses Nukleosid wurde speziell dafür entworfen, um Elektronenlöcher in DNA zu injizieren. In dieser Arbeit wird gezeigt, dass diese Verbindung benutzt werden kann, um selektiv eine Thymin-Base zu reduzieren. Transiente Thymyl-Radikale erzeugt durch ein neuartig modifiziertes Thymin nach UV-Bestrahlung. Photoinduzierte Prozesse, welche durch Bestrahlung eines ähnlichen Thymidin-Nukleosids erzeugt wurden, werden hier untersucht. Dieses Thymidin- Nukleosid wurde modifiziert, indem die optisch spaltbare Pivaloyl-Gruppe an eine Seitenkette angehängt wurde, welche an der C6-Position der Thymin-Base sitzt. Die Thymin-Base wurde speziell dafür entworfen, um Elektronen in DNA zu injizieren. In dieser Arbeit wurde bestätigt, dass ein Überschuss-Elektron selektiv auf eine Thymin-Base transferiert werden kann.
Die Ermittlung von Proteinstukturen mittels NMR-Spektroskopie ist ein komplexer Prozess, wobei die Resonanzfrequenzen und die Signalintensitäten den Atomen des Proteins zugeordnet werden. Zur Bestimmung der räumlichen Proteinstruktur sind folgende Schritte erforderlich: die Präparation der Probe und 15N/13C Isotopenanreicherung, Durchführung der NMR Experimente, Prozessierung der Spektren, Bestimmung der Signalresonanzen ('Peak-picking'), Zuordnung der chemischen Verschiebungen, Zuordnung der NOESY-Spektren und das Sammeln von konformationellen Strukturparametern, Strukturrechnung und Strukturverfeinerung. Aktuelle Methoden zur automatischen Strukturrechnung nutzen eine Reihe von Computeralgorithmen, welche Zuordnungen der NOESY-Spektren und die Strukturrechnung durch einen iterativen Prozess verbinden. Obwohl neue Arten von Strukturparametern wie dipolare Kopplungen, Orientierungsinformationen aus kreuzkorrelierten Relaxationsraten oder Strukturinformationen, die sich in Gegenwart paramagnetischer Zentren in Proteinen ergeben, wichtige Neuerungen für die Proteinstrukturrechnung darstellen, sind die Abstandsinformationen aus NOESY-Spektren weiterhin die wichtigste Basis für die NMR-Strukturbestimmung. Der hohe zeitliche Aufwand des 'peak-picking' in NOESY-Spektren ist hauptsächlich bedingt durch spektrale Überlagerung, Rauschsignale und Artefakte in NOESY-Spektren. Daher werden für das effizientere automatische 'Peak-picking' zuverlässige Filter benötigt, um die relevanten Signale auszuwählen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird ein neuer Algorithmus für die automatische Proteinstrukturrechnung beschrieben, der automatisches 'Peak-picking' von NOESY-Spektren beinhaltet, die mit Hilfe von Wavelets entrauscht wurden. Der kritische Punkt dieses Algorithmus ist die Erzeugung inkrementeller Peaklisten aus NOESY-Spektren, die mit verschiedenen auf Wavelets basierenden Entrauschungsprozeduren prozessiert wurden. Mit Hilfe entrauschter NOESY-Spektren erhält man Signallisten mit verschiedenen Konfidenzbereichen, die in unterschiedlichen Schritten der kombinierten NOE-Zuordnung/Strukturrechnung eingesetzt werden. Das erste Strukturmodell beruht auf stark entrauschten Spektren, die die konservativste Signalliste mit als weitgehend sicher anzunehmenden Signalen ergeben. In späteren Stadien werden Signallisten aus weniger stark entrauschten Spektren mit einer größeren Anzahl von Signalen verwendet. Die Auswirkung der verschiedenen Entrauschungsprozeduren auf Vollständigkeit und Richtigkeit der NOESY Peaklisten wurde im Detail untersucht. Durch die Kombination von Wavelet-Entrauschung mit einem neuen Algorithmus zur Integration der Signale in Verbindung mit zusätzlichen Filtern, die die Konsistenz der Peakliste prüfen ('Network-anchoring' der Spinsysteme und Symmetrisierung der Peakliste), wird eine schnelle Konvergenz der automatischen Strukturrechnung erreicht. Der neue Algorithmus wurde in ARIA integriert, einem weit verbreiteten Computerprogramm für die automatische NOE-Zuordnung und Strukturrechnung. Der Algorithmus wurde an der Monomereinheit der Polysulfid-Schwefel-Transferase (Sud) aus Wolinella succinogenes verifiziert, deren hochaufgelöste Lösungsstruktur vorher auf konventionelle Weise bestimmt wurde. Neben der Möglichkeit zur Bestimmung von Proteinlösungsstrukturen bietet sich die NMR-Spektroskopie auch als wirkungsvolles Werkzeug zur Untersuchung von Protein-Ligand- und Protein-Protein-Wechselwirkungen an. Sowohl NMR Spektren von isotopenmarkierten Proteinen, als auch die Spektren von Liganden können für das 'Screening' nach Inhibitoren benutzt werden. Im ersten Fall wird die Sensitivität der 1H- und 15N-chemischen Verschiebungen des Proteinrückgrats auf kleine geometrische oder elektrostatische Veränderungen bei der Ligandbindung als Indikator benutzt. Als 'Screening'-Verfahren, bei denen Ligandensignale beobachtet werden, stehen verschiedene Methoden zur Verfügung: Transfer-NOEs, Sättigungstransferdifferenzexperimente (STD, 'saturation transfer difference'), ePHOGSY, diffusionseditierte und NOE-basierende Methoden. Die meisten dieser Techniken können zum rationalen Design von inhibitorischen Verbindungen verwendet werden. Für die Evaluierung von Untersuchungen mit einer großen Anzahl von Inhibitoren werden effiziente Verfahren zur Mustererkennung wie etwa die PCA ('Principal Component Analysis') verwendet. Sie eignet sich zur Visualisierung von Ähnlichkeiten bzw. Unterschieden von Spektren, die mit verschiedenen Inhibitoren aufgenommen wurden. Die experimentellen Daten werden zuvor mit einer Serie von Filtern bearbeitet, die u.a. Artefakte reduzieren, die auf nur kleinen Änderungen der chemischen Verschiebungen beruhen. Der am weitesten verbreitete Filter ist das sogenannte 'bucketing', bei welchem benachbarte Punkte zu einen 'bucket' aufsummiert werden. Um typische Nachteile der 'bucketing'-Prozedur zu vermeiden, wurde in der vorliegenden Arbeit der Effekt der Wavelet-Entrauschung zur Vorbereitung der NMR-Daten für PCA am Beispiel vorhandener Serien von HSQC-Spektren von Proteinen mit verschiedenen Liganden untersucht. Die Kombination von Wavelet-Entrauschung und PCA ist am effizientesten, wenn PCA direkt auf die Wavelet-Koeffizienten angewandt wird. Durch die Abgrenzung ('thresholding') der Wavelet-Koeffizienten in einer Multiskalenanalyse wird eine komprimierte Darstellung der Daten erreicht, welche Rauschartefakte minimiert. Die Kompression ist anders als beim 'bucketing' keine 'blinde' Kompression, sondern an die Eigenschaften der Daten angepasst. Der neue Algorithmus kombiniert die Vorteile einer Datenrepresentation im Wavelet-Raum mit einer Datenvisualisierung durch PCA. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird gezeigt, dass PCA im Wavelet- Raum ein optimiertes 'clustering' erlaubt und dabei typische Artefakte eliminiert werden. Darüberhinaus beschreibt die vorliegende Arbeit eine de novo Strukturbestimmung der periplasmatischen Polysulfid-Schwefel-Transferase (Sud) aus dem anaeroben gram-negativen Bakterium Wolinella succinogenes. Das Sud-Protein ist ein polysulfidbindendes und transferierendes Enzym, das bei niedriger Polysulfidkonzentration eine schnelle Polysulfid-Schwefel-Reduktion katalysiert. Sud ist ein 30 kDa schweres Homodimer, welches keine prosthetischen Gruppen oder schwere Metallionen enthält. Jedes Monomer enhält ein Cystein, welches kovalent bis zu zehn Polysulfid-Schwefel (Sn 2-) Ionen bindet. Es wird vermutet, dass Sud die Polysulfidkette auf ein katalytischen Molybdän-Ion transferiert, welches sich im aktiven Zentrum des membranständigen Enzyms Polysulfid-Reduktase (Psr) auf dessen dem Periplasma zugewandten Seite befindet. Dabei wird eine reduktive Spaltung der Kette katalysiert. Die Lösungsstruktur des Homodimeres Sud wurde mit Hilfe heteronuklearer, mehrdimensionaler NMR-Techniken bestimmt. Die Struktur beruht auf von NOESY-Spektren abgeleiteten Distanzbeschränkungen, Rückgratwasserstoffbindungen und Torsionswinkeln, sowie auf residuellen dipolaren Kopplungen, die für die Verfeinerung der Struktur und für die relative Orientierung der Monomereinheiten wichtig waren. In den NMR Spektren der Homodimere haben alle symmetrieverwandte Kerne äquivalente magnetische Umgebungen, weshalb ihre chemischen Verschiebungen entartet sind. Die symmetrische Entartung vereinfacht das Problem der Resonanzzuordnung, da nur die Hälfte der Kerne zugeordnet werden müssen. Die NOESY-Zuordnung und die Strukturrechnung werden dadurch erschwert, dass es nicht möglich ist, zwischen den Intra-Monomer-, Inter-Monomer- und Co-Monomer- (gemischten) NOESY-Signalen zu unterscheiden. Um das Problem der Symmetrie-Entartung der NOESY-Daten zu lösen, stehen zwei Möglichkeiten zur Verfügung: (I) asymmetrische Markierungs-Experimente, um die intra- von den intermolekularen NOESY-Signalen zu unterscheiden, (II) spezielle Methoden der Strukturrechnung, die mit mehrdeutigen Distanzbeschränkungen arbeiten können. Die in dieser Arbeit vorgestellte Struktur wurde mit Hilfe der Symmetrie-ADR- ('Ambigous Distance Restraints') Methode in Kombination mit Daten von asymetrisch isotopenmarkierten Dimeren berechnet. Die Koordinaten des Sud-Dimers zusammen mit den NMR-basierten Strukturdaten wur- den in der RCSB-Proteindatenbank unter der PDB-Nummer 1QXN abgelegt. Das Sud-Protein zeigt nur wenig Homologie zur Primärsequenz anderer Proteine mit ähnlicher Funktion und bekannter dreidimensionaler Struktur. Bekannte Proteine sind die Schwefeltransferase oder das Rhodanese-Enzym, welche beide den Transfer von einem Schwefelatom eines passenden Donors auf den nukleophilen Akzeptor (z.B von Thiosulfat auf Cyanid) katalysieren. Die dreidimensionalen Strukturen dieser Proteine zeigen eine typische a=b Topologie und haben eine ähnliche Umgebung im aktiven Zentrum bezüglich der Konformation des Proteinrückgrades. Die Schleife im aktiven Zentrum umgibt das katalytische Cystein, welches in allen Rhodanese-Enzymen vorhanden ist, und scheint im Sud-Protein flexibel zu sein (fehlende Resonanzzuordnung der Aminosäuren 89-94). Das Polysulfidende ragt aus einer positiv geladenen Bindungstasche heraus (Reste: R46, R67, K90, R94), wo Sud wahrscheinlich in Kontakt mit der Polysulfidreduktase tritt. Das strukturelle Ergebnis wurde durch Mutageneseexperimente bestätigt. In diesen Experimenten konnte gezeigt werden, dass alle Aminosäurereste im aktiven Zentrum essentiell für die Schwefeltransferase-Aktivität des Sud-Proteins sind. Die Substratbindung wurde früher durch den Vergleich von [15N,1H]-TROSY-HSQC-Spektren des Sud-Proteins in An- und Abwesenheit des Polysulfidliganden untersucht. Bei der Substratbindung scheint sich die lokale Geometrie der Polysulfidbindungsstelle und der Dimerschnittstelle zu verändern. Die konformationellen Änderungen und die langsame Dynamik, hervorgerufen durch die Ligandbindung können die weitere Polysulfid-Schwefel-Aktivität auslösen. Ein zweites Polysulfid-Schwefeltransferaseprotein (Str, 40 kDa) mit einer fünffach höheren nativen Konzentration im Vergleich zu Sud wurde im Bakterienperiplasma von Wolinella succinogenes entdeckt. Es wird angenommen, dass beide Protein einen Polysulfid-Schwefel-Komplex bilden, wobei Str wässriges Polysulfid sammelt und an Sud abgibt, welches den Schwefeltransfer zum katalytischen Molybdän-Ion auf das aktive Zentrum der dem Periplasma zugewandten Seite der Polysulfidreduktase durchführt. Änderungen chemischer Verschiebungen in [15N,1H]-TROSY-HSQC-Spektren zeigen, dass ein Polysulfid-Schwefeltransfer zwischen Str und Sud stattfindet. Eine mögliche Protein-Protein-Wechselwirkungsfläche konnte bestimmt werden. In der Abwesenheit des Polysulfidsubstrates wurden keine Wechselwirkungen zwischen Sud und Str beobachtet, was die Vermutung bestätigt, dass beide Proteine nur dann miteinander wechselwirken und den Polysulfid-Schwefeltransfer ermöglichen, wenn als treibende Kraft Polysulfid präsent ist.
The cytochrome bc1 complex is a cornerstone in bioenergetic electron transfer chains, where it carries out tasks as diverse as respiration, photosynthesis, and nitrogen fixation. This homodimeric multisubunit membrane protein has been studied extensively for several decades and the enzyme mechanism is described with the modified protonmotive Q cycle. Still, the molecular and kinetic description of the catalytic cycle is not complete and questions remain regarding the bifurcation of electron transfer at the quinol oxidation (Qo) site, substrate occupancy, pathways of proton conduction, and the nature of the Rieske protein domain movement. We used competitive inhibitors to study the molecular architecture at the Qo site with X-ray crystallography. The structure of the enzyme with the substrate analog 5-n-heptyl-6-hydroxy-4,7-dioxobenzothiazole (HHDBT) bound at the Qo site was determined at 2.5 Å resolution. Spectroscopic studies showed that HHDBT is negatively charged when bound at the active site. Mechanistic interpretations from inhibitor binding are in line with single occupancy model for quinol oxidation and structural analysis supports the proposed proton transfer pathway. For functional insight into the enzyme mechanism, redox-sensitive protonation changes were studied by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The protein purification procedure was optimized for less delipidation and the isolated enzyme was more active. Furthermore, two new phospholipids were identified in the X-ray structures, including a cardiolipin. Strikingly, conserved lipid binding cavities were observed in structural comparison with homologous enzymes. The functional role of tightly bound phospholipids will be discussed. Finally, the Qo site is a target for various compounds of agricultural and pharmaceutical importance. Importantly, the X-ray structures permit detailed analysis of the molecular reasons for acquired resistance to and treatment failure of Qo site inhibitors, such as atovaquone, that is used to treat malaria and pneumonia, as discussed herein.
The cytochrome bc1 complex or ubiquinol:cytochrome c oxidoreductase (QCR) catalyses electron transfer from ubiquinol to cytochrome c in respiration and photosynthesis coupled to a vectorial proton transport across the membrane, in which the enzyme resides. In both bacteria and eukaryotic organisms, QCR participates in supramolecular assembly of membrane proteins that comprise the respiratory or photosynthetic chain. In the present work, proton transfer pathways, substrate binding and the supramolecular assembly of the respiratory chain in yeast were probed by structure-based site-directed mutagenesis and characterization of the variants. Both active sites centre P, the place of quinol oxidation, and centre N, where quinone reduction takes place, lack direct access to the bulk solvent necessary for proton release and uptake. Based on the X-ray structure, proton transfer pathways were postulated. Analysis at centre P showed, that E272 and Y132 of cytochrome b are important for QCR catalysis as indicated by increased superoxide production and lowered Cyc1p reductase activity in these variants. Pre-steady state heme reduction kinetics in combination with stigmatellin resistance indicated that charge and length of the side chain at position 272 are crucial for efficient docking of the ISP to form the enzyme substrate complex and for electron bifurcation at centre P. Variants of Y312 and F129, both residues of cytochrome b, showed an increased Km indicating participation of these residues in coordination of ubiquinol or the possible intermediate semiquinone anion radical. F129 proved to be crucial for a functional Q-cycle as indicated by respiratory negative growth phenotype and a lowered H+/e- stoichiometry of F129 variants. At centre N, the postulated CL/K and E/R proton transfer pathways are located at opposite sites of the bound ubiquinone. Variants in the surface residues R218 (cytochrome b) and E52 (Qcr7) of the E/R pathway and E82 (Qcr7) of the CL/K pathway showed instability upon purification indicating an important role of these residues for QCR integrity. The slowed down centre N reduction kinetics in H85 (CL/K), R218 and N208 (both E/R) variant was attributed to a destabilised semiquinone anion consistent with the observed decreased sensitivity towards the site-specific inhibitor antimycin and an increased Km. Variants of residues of both pathway, E82Q and R218M, exhibited a decreased H+/e- stoichiometry indicating a crucial role of both residue for maintaining a working Q-cycle and supporting the proposed protonation of the substrate via the Cl/K and the E/R pathway. Long-range interaction between centre N and centre P were observed by altered reduction kinetics of the high potential chain and increased superoxide production in the centre N variants. The role of the cation-pi-interaction between F230 of Cyt1p and R19 of cytochrome c in binding of the redox carrier to QCR was analysed. In F230L hydrophobic interaction were partially lost as was deduced from the ionic strength dependence of Cyc1p reductase activity and Cycp1 binding, as detected by ionic strength sensitive Kd and Km for Cyc1p. The decreased enzymatic rate of F230W could be explained by a disturbed binding of Cyc1p to the variant enzyme. F230 may influence the heme mid point potential and thereby the electron transfer rate to Cyc1p. Reduction of Cobp via both centre P and centre N was disturbed suggesting an interaction between high and low potential chain. Supramolecular association between QCR and cytochrome c oxidase (COX) in yeast mitochondria was probed by affinity chromatography of a his-tagged QCR in the presence of the mild detergent digitonin. In comparison to purification with laurylmaltoside, the presence of both QCR and COX subunits was detected in the elution fractions by SDS-PAGE, Cyc1p reductase and TMPD oxidase activity assays and immunoblot analysis. The CL-dependent formation of the supercomplex between QCR and COX was analysed by replacement variants in the CL-binding site of QCR in CL containing and CL free environment. With an increasing number of replacements of the three lysines the CL-binding pocket supercomplex formation was not abolished, when CL is present as shown by BN-PAGE analysis. This was supported by the synergetic decrease in enzyme activity for both enzymes upon increased number of replacements. In the CL-free environment, no supracomplex formation was observed for a wildtype CL binding site. By replacements of two lysines in the CL-binding pocket, supercomplex formation could be recovered as revealed by BN-PAGE. This indicates, that CL may serve as a charge neutralizer for the lysines near the presumed interaction domain between complex III and complex IV. The obtained results for centre P provide new information of residues critical for stabilisation of ubiquinol and controlling electron short circuit reactions. The observations for centre N variants clearly support the proposed two proton transfer pathways and the role of the bound phospholipids in centre N kinetics. Variants in the Cyc1p binding site suggest a role for F230 both in Cyc1p binding and electron transfer. Clear interaction between the high and low potential chain in both Cyt1p and centre N variants strongly support long-range interactions in the complex. Studies on the supramolecular association of complex III and complex IV indicate a new role of Cl in stabilising a supracomplex.
Proton-translocating NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (complex I) transports two electrons from NADH to membranal ubiquinone: in this process protons are translocated across the membrane, producing 40% of the total proton gradient between matrix side and intermembrane space. Mitochondrial complex I contains at least 46 subunits in mammals, and has a molecular weight of around 1000 kDa. Electronic microscopy analysis showed that complex I has an L-form, which consists of two domains: a peripheral “arm” (hydrophilic domain) and a membrane “arm” (hydrophobic domain). The peripheral domain, which protrudes into the matrix, contains one non-covalently bound flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and the iron-sulfur clusters N1a, N1b, N2, N3, N4 and N5 as redox active groups. They transport electrons from NADH to ubiquinone. Cluster N2 is supposed to be the immediate electron donor to ubiquinone by virtue of its highest and pH dependent redox midpoint potential (Em,7 –150 mV). The exact location of the tetra-nuclear cluster N2 is still object of discussion. The TYKY and the PSST subunits contain three binding motifs for tetranuclear clusters which are formed by twelve cysteins. In an effort to investigate the “ubiquinone reduction module” of complex I, in the first part of this work site directed mutagenesis of the TYKY and PSST subunits has been carried out. Mutant strains were characterised in terms of complex I content, catalytic activity and EPR signature of cluster N2. The second part of this work was aimed at developing a substrate inducible version of the internal alternative NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (NDH2i). A substrate inducible NDH2i is expected to offer a “switch” between complex I activity dependent (no NDH2i activity) and independent (NDH2i activity) cell growth, by changing between activating and non-activating substrates. This strategy would allow the screening for two types of complex I mutants, which is a prerequisite for realising a random PCR mutagenesis of single subunits of complex I, that allows the production of a high number of point mutations in relatively short time. Y. lipolytica complex I deficiency mutant strains could be easily identified, by virtue of their inability to survive under complex I dependent growth conditions (no NDH2i activity). By this way, amino acids that have an important role for complex I structure or function could be identified by subsequent sequence analysis. Each of the twelve cysteines that form the above mentioned three binding motifs for iron-sulfur cluster have been mutagenised. In mutant mitochondrial membranes, no assembled complex I could be detected. From these data one may conclude that the mutagenised 6 SUMMARY 92 cysteines play an important role for complex I stability, or that are a prerequisite for complex I assembly in Y. lipolytica, but there is not direct evidence indicating that any of the four mutagenised residues acts as a ligand. Two aspartates in the PSST subunit, Asp-99 and Asp-115, were found to be essential for complex I catalytic activity. EPR spectroscopic analysis indicated that the electron transfer to N2 cluster was not blocked and implied that this was not the reason for the loss of catalytic activity. From these data it can be concluded that D99 and D115 play a vital role for complex I NADH:ubiquinone reductase activity, but are not ligands for cluster N2 and that their position is not close enough to the cluster to influence directly its electromagnetic environment. Three mutations, identified in the PSST and TYKY homologous subunits of patients affected with Leigh syndrome (V119M in PSST, P78L and R101H in TYKY) were reconstructed in the obligate aerobic yeast Y. lipolytica. This approach may help to understand the aetiology of the Leigh syndrome, in terms of the ability of complex I to oxidize NADH and to transport electrons. In fact, all three mutations showed effects on electron transport, reducing the VMax by about 50%. Mutant V119M in the PSST subunit, which had a lethal effect in two patients that were homozygous for this mutation, affects a fully conserved residue. Overall, the results from site directed mutagenesis carried out so far support the theory that the “catalytic core ” (N2 cluster and quinone binding site) of complex I has been evolved from the electron transfer module of the [Ni-Fe] hydrogenases. In fact, mutagenesis of residues that are fully conserved between complex I and [Ni-Fe] hydrogenases, showed dramatic effects on complex I in terms of assembly (cysteine mutants) or catalytic activity (D99-D115). Differently, changing aspartate 174 and glutamic acid 185 (not fully conserved, Fig 4.1A) had little or no effect on the Michaelis-Menten parameters and N2 EPR signal. In recent years Y. lipolytica has been developed as a yeast genetic system to study mitochondrial complex I. The present work introduced the promoter for the isocitrate lyase (pICL1) as a useful tool for the substrate selective expression of the internal version of the alternative NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (pICL1-NDH2i). This allows to rescue complex I deficiencies “in vivo” selectively by growth on acetate (or ethanol) medium. The integration of the pICL1-NDH2i construct into the genome of Y. lipolytica and subsequent deletion of nuclear-coded subunits like PSST, TYKY and 49 kDa, would contribute to further develop this organism as a useful genetic model for studying subunits of mitochondrial complex I by site directed mutagenesis.
A new experimental setup, for pump-probe fs DFWM measurements, which is based on a femtosecond laser system, has been constructed. It allows for the investigation of molecular species in the gas phase at different temperatures, from ~30 K in a seeded supersonic jet up to ~500 K in a heat-pipe oven. In comparison to other RCS methods the employed fs DFWM technique is less complicated and gives much higher signal-to-noise ratio [BFZ86, FeZ95a, CKS89, CCH90, HCF91, WRM02, Rie02]. A general computer code for the simulation of fs DFWM spectra of nonrigid asymmetric top molecules has been developed. This new DFWM code in combination with a non-linear fitting routine allows one to determine rotational and centrifugal distortion constants and obtain information on the polarizability tensor components from the experimental spectra. Fs DFWM spectroscopy was successfully applied to the medium-sized molecules benzene and benzene-d6 in a gas cell and in a supersonic jet. The spectrum from a seeded expansion has been measured up to delay time of 3.9 ns (restricted by the length of the delay stage) with excellent signal-to-noise ratio (102-103). In that way 87 and 72 J-type transients have been recorded for benzene and benzene-d6, correspondingly. A relative accuracy on the order of 10-5 has been achieved for the rotational constant. From the room temperature experiments, precise values of centrifugal distortion constants DJ and DJK have been extracted. The literature data for cyclohexane have been revised and a new precise rotational constant B0 has been obtained, which is (+5.5 MHz) shifted from the one reported in the former Raman investigation by Peters et al. [PWW73]. Additionally, high-level ab initio calculations of cyclohexane have been carried out using a large number of basis sets at several levels of theory. In particular, the vibrational averaging effects have been examined in order to critically compare the experimentally determined and theoretically evaluated rotational constants. The contribution of highly symmetric vibrational modes to vibrational averaging effects was clarified. More structural information could be obtained from fs DFWM measurements of asymmetric top species, since different type of rotational recurrences can appear, and all three rotational constants (A, B, C) can be extracted. On the other hand the analysis of the asymmetric top spectra is no longer trivial. In fact the simple formula for rotational recurrence periods of symmetric top species (Tab. 2.1) can not be applied to asymmetric top molecules. Thus, in order to extract high-resolution data for asymmetric species, a complete fitting of the experimental spectra is necessary. The fs DFWM and (1+2') PPI method have been applied to the asymmetric top molecules pyridine in the ground (S0) and pDFB in the S0 and electronically excited (S1) states. By fitting the measured fs DFWM spectra the rotational and centrifugal distortion constants have been extracted with good precision and the value of the parametrized polarizability angle of pDFB was obtained. In this work, the first application of fs DFWM spectroscopy to a molecular cluster has been reported. Also, the chemical equilibrium between monomeric and dimeric species was studied. In particular formic and acetic acid have been investigated in a gas cell and in a supersonic expansion. Many spectral features have been observed and analized in the fs DFWM spectrum of formic acid vapor in a gas cell at room temperature. Most of them were attributed to rotational recurrences of the formic acid monomer, but also spectral feature originating from the formic acid dimer of O-H×××O/O×××H-O type have been detected and analyzed. From the fitted simulation, the rotational and centrifugal distortion constants, and parametrized polarizability angle were extracted for the dimeric structure of O-H×××O/O×××HO type. With the assumption of unperturbed monomers a center-of-mass distance of R = 2.990 ± 0.001 Å for the monomers within the dimer has been calculated from the spectroscopic results. This distance is 0.028 Å smaller than that reported from electron diffraction [ABM69]. Thus, the centers-of-mass distance was assigned as the main point of disagreement between results of fs DFWM and electron diffraction experiments. In contrast to formic acid, acetic acid shows strong recurrences from dimeric species even in the fs DFWM spectra at room temperature. This is explained in terms of different symmetry of the moments-of-inertia tensor, which modulates the intensity of RRs (the fs DFWM signal is in general stronger from symmetric species). Due to the symmetric nature of the acetic acid dimer, only the sum (B+C) of the rotational constants has been extracted. The changes of geometrical parameters upon dimer formation have been analyzed for, both, formic and acetic acid. A heat-pipe oven has been used in order to overcome the main drawback of fs DFWM spectroscopy – the square dependence of the signal intensity on the sample number density. Two-ring molecules (cyclohexylbenzene, para-cyclohexylaniline and nicotine) with low vapor pressure (<0.1 mbar) at room temperature have been investigated. From the analysis of the experimental and ab-initio results for CHB and pCHA a nearly perpendicular conformation of the aromatic vs. cyclohexane ring for both system is inferred. The enlargement of the benzene ring of CHB in the electronically excited state (S1) has been found to cause the smaller rotational constants in S1. This conclusion has been drawn from the comparison of the ground and electronically excited state experimental rotational constants in combination with ab-initio calculations. The extraction of precise structural information for nicotine was not possible due to it weak fs DFWM signal. However, the fact that fs DFWM technique can be applied to conformational analysis of molecular species in an equilibrium mixture opens other applications for this kind of spectroscopy. In general the results obtained in this work show that the fs DFWM technique, being an experimental implementation of RCS, provides one with an important tool for structural analysis of molecular species in the gas phase in particular for the species to which microwave spectroscopy can not be applied. It gives spectra with excellent signal-to-noise ratio even at low number density samples expanded in a seeded supersonic jet. It provides an alternative and innovative approach towards rotational Raman spectroscopy of large polyatomic molecules applicable under various experimental conditions (broad temperature and pressure range). With the introduction of femtosecond (10-15s) laser pulses (usually picosecond (10-12s) laser pulses were used in RCS) an improvement in time-resolution and therefore in precision for the rotational constants by more than one order of magnitude has been achieved. Molecular systems in the ground electronic state without permanent dipole moment and chromophore can be studied with high precision, providing thereby molecular benchmark systems for the electronic structure theory. As has been shown, the study of molecular clusters by fs DFWM spectroscopy is possible, but its potential are restricted by the square dependence of the fs DFWM signal from the sample number density, which is even more important for supersonic jet expansions. Here, the application of near-resonant and resonant FWM schemes should help in order to compensate for the low sample concentration. With the introduction of the heat pipe oven for fs DFWM experiments, the investigation of large nonvolatile molecules under equilibrium conditions is possible now. In our laboratory the first results on the structural analysis of different conformers of pyrrolidine in the gas phase have been obtained [MaR04]. This method can have even more prospects for the structural investigations of large molecular species in combination with new non-thermal gas phase sources for nonvolatile molecules, like laser desorption [CTL89], laser oblation [MHL83], electrospray [FMM90], laser induced liquid beam ion desorption [KAB96, Sob00] etc. A very recent application of the fs DFWM technique is the investigation of the influence of strong laser fields on molecular gas phase sample, which could range from active alignment [PPB03] over molecular deformation to field ionization [CSD03]. In regards to future development in fs DFWM spectroscopy for more complex molecules one has to take into account, how large amplitude motions such as the van der Waals vibrations or internal rotation (see section 6.4.2) affect the rotational coherences. In any case, femtosecond Degenerate Four-Wave Mixing as experimental implementation of Rotational Coherence Spectroscopy can be considered as an innovative, developing, and powerful method for the structural investigation of the molecular species, which are hard to study by classical frequency-resolved spectroscopy [FeZ95a, Dan01, Rie02].
Nitric oxide (NO) represents a short-lived mediator that pivotally drives keratinocyte movements during cutaneous wound healing. In this study, we have identified p68 DEAD box RNA helicase (p68) from a NO-induced differential keratinocyte cDNA library. Subsequently, we have analyzed regulation of p68 by wound-associated mediators in the human keratinocyte cell line HaCaT. NO, serum, growth factors and pro-inflammatory cytokines were potent inducers of p68 expression in the cells. p68 was constitutively expressed in murine skin, but rapidly down-regulated upon injury. The down-regulation appeared to be transient, as p68 protein expression increased again after the inflammatory phase of repair. However, p68 protein expression did not completely disappear during wound inflammation, as immunohistochemistry and cell fractiona tion analysis revealed a restricted localization of p68 in keratinocyte nuclei of the developing epithelium. In line, cultured human (HaCaT) and murine (PAM 212) keratinocyte cell lines showed a nuclear localization of the helicase. Moreover, confocal microscopy revealed a strong localization of p68 protein within the nucleoli of the keratinocytes. Functional analyses demonstrated that p68 strongly participates in keratinocyte proliferation and gene expression. Keratinocytes that constitutively overexpressed p68 protein were characterized by a marked increase in serum-induced proliferation and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression, whereas down-regulation of endogenous p68 using small interfering RNA (siRNA) markedly attenuated serum-induced proliferation and VEGF expression. Altogether, our results suggest a tightly controlled expression and nucleolar localization of p68 in keratinocytes in vitro and during skin repair in vivo that functionally contributes to keratinocyte proliferation and gene expression.
The detailed mechanism of the 20 S proteasome from Thermoplasma acidophilum is unknown. Substrates are degraded processively to small fragments without the release of intermediates, but the basis for this unique degradation mode remains obscure. The proteasome is a molecular machine, but how the different nanocompartments interplay and whether more than one substrate can be treated simultaneously has not been elucidated yet. To address these questions we had to disable the functionality of one aperture in order to dissect whether the other pore can compensate for the loss. As it is challenging to introduce mutations solely around one pore aperture of the highly symmetrical construct, we chose a novel approach by unique orientation of the proteasome at interfaces. For this purpose we purified recombinant 20 S proteasomes, where hexahistidine tags were fused either around the entrances or at the sides. According to electron microscopic studies we immobilized these constructs uniformly either end-on or side-on at metal-chelating interfaces (lipid vesicles, lipid monolayers and self-assembled thiol monolayers). Degradation of small fluorogenic peptides and large proteins like casein was analyzed. Small substrates were degraded with comparable activity by free and immobilized proteasomes, irrespective of their orientation. Thus it can be assumed that peptides can pass the sealed entrance of the 'dead-end' proteasome. However, larger substrates like fluorescently labeled casein were processed near the temperature optimum by side-on immobilized and soluble proteasomes with threefold activity compared to end-on immobilized proteasomes. Hence it can be concluded that one pore is sufficient for substrate entry and product release. In other words, the pore and antechamber can fulfil a triple function in the import and unwinding of substrates and the egress of products. With means of surface plasmon resonance the exact substrate/proteasome stoichiometry could be determined to ~1 for 'dead-end' proteasomes and ~2 for side-on immobilized (active and inactive) proteasomes. Most importantly, a fit with the Hill equation revealed positive cooperativity for side-on immobilized (Hill coefficient ~2) in contrast to end-on immobilized proteasomes (Hill coefficient ~1). Thus in case of soluble proteasomes two substrates bind presumably in opposite antechambers with positive cooperativity. The off-rate of casein as substrate is twofold for the active side-on immobilized proteasome in comparison to the end-on immobilized proteasome. The exact 2:1 stoichiometry of the off-rates equals the ratio of exit pathways amenable in case of side-on orientated versus 'dead-end' immobilized proteasomes. Thus crevices along the cylindrical body of the 20 S proteasome seem not to participate in the egress of small products. An inactive proteasome mutant displays a concentration-dependent off-kinetic against casein. Accordingly, the off-rate of the bisubstrate:proteasome complex can be attributed around half the value of the monosubstrate:proteasome complex. Consequently, substrates exit the inactive proteasome via the route of access due to obstruction of the trans side with an entering substrate. Hence the active proteasomes have to chop substrates down to small fragments prior to release through both pores. Thus the processive degradation mode might result from positive binding cooperativity. The on-rate constants for casein suggested that substrate association represents a two-step process comprising a rate-limiting translocation step and a fast binding step. As fluorescence cross-correlation revealed that two substrates can be co-localized in the proteasome and bind successively with increasing affinity (KD,1 = 8 µM versus KD,2 = 700 nM), an allosteric transition in the proteasome can be assumed. Combining our results with the data from other research groups led to a mechanistic model for the 20 S proteasome. Accordingly, the first substrate undergoes a slow translocation step, binds in the antechamber and diffuses subsequently to the catalytic centers, where it is degraded. By switching on the catalytic activity, the pores at both termini are dilated via conformational changes. Hence entry of the second substrate into the proteasome is facilitated due to omission of the rate-determining translocation step. The second substrate is either accommodated in the antechamber before it is processed (alternating degradation) or, most probably, is directly threaded into the central cavity (simultaneous degradation). As effusing peptides compete with entering proteins for binding in the antechamber, the pores are kept in an open state. After finishing digestion the pores are closed and a new degradation cycle can be reinitiated. In summary, substrate association with the proteasome underlies an ordered alternating binding mechanism in contrast to the random mode of degradation. Thus the two-stroke engine offers the advantage of speeding up degradation without enhancing complexity.
The transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) plays a pivotal role in the adaptive immune response against virus-infected or malignantly transformed cells. As member of the ABC transporter family, TAP hydrolyzes ATP to energize the transport of antigenic peptides from the cytosol into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum. TAP forms a heterodimeric complex composed of TAP1 and TAP2 (ABCB2/3). Both subunits contain a hydrophobic transmembrane domain and a hydrophilic nucleotide-binding domain. The aim of this work was to study the ATP hydrolysis event of the TAP complex and gain further insights into the mechanism of peptide transport process. To analyze ATP hydrolysis of each subunit I developed a method of trapping 8- azido-nucleotides to TAP in the presence of phosphate transition state analogs followed by photocross-linking, immunoprecipitation, and high-resolution SDS-PAGE. Strikingly, trapping of both TAP subunits by beryllium fluoride is peptide-specific. The peptide concentration required for half-maximal trapping is identical for TAP1 and TAP2 and directly correlates with the peptide-binding affinity. Only background levels of trapping were observed for low affinity peptides or in the presence of the herpes simplex viral protein ICP47, which specifically blocks peptide binding to TAP. Importantly, the peptideinduced trapped state is reached after ATP hydrolysis and not in a backward reaction of ADP binding and trapping. In the trapped state, TAP can neither bind nor exchange nucleotides, whereas peptide binding is not affected. In summary, these data support the model that peptide binding induces a conformation that triggers ATP hydrolysis in both subunits of the TAP complex within the catalytic cycle. The role of the ABC signature motif (C-loop) on the functional non-equivalence of the NBDs was investigated. The C-loops of TAP transporter contain a canonical C-loop (LSGGQ) for TAP1 and a degenerated ABC signature motif (LAAGQ) for TAP2. Mutation of the leucine or glycine (LSGGQ) in TAP1 fully abolished peptide transport. TAP complexes with equivalent mutations in TAP2 showed however still residual peptide transport activity. To elucidate the origin of the asymmetry of the NBDs of TAP, we further examined TAP complexes with exchanged C-loops. Strikingly, the chimera with two canonical C-loops showed the highest transport rate whereas the chimera with two degenerated C-loops had the lowest transport rate, demonstrating that the ABC signature motifs control the peptide transport efficiency. All single-site mutants and chimeras showed similar activities in peptide or ATP binding, implying that these mutations affect the ATPase activity of TAP. In addition, these results prove that the serine of the C-loop is not essential for TAP function, but rather coordinates, together with other residues of the C-loop, the ATP hydrolysis in both nucleotide-binding sites. To study the coupling between the ATP binding/hydrolysis and the peptide binding, the putative catalytic bases of the TAP complex were mutated to generate the so-called EQ mutants. The mutations did not influence the peptide-binding ability. Dimerization of the NBDs of EQ mutants upon ATP binding does not alter the peptide binding property. At 27°C, both ATP and ADP could induce the loss of peptide-binding ability (Bmax) only in the variants bearing a mutated TAP2. Further studies are required to deduce at which stage in the catalytic cycle the peptide-binding site is affected. In addition, mutation of the putative catalytic base of both subunits showed a magnesium-dependent peptide transport activity, demonstrating these mutants did not abolish the ATP hydrolysis. Thus, the function of this acidic residue as the catalytic base is not likely to be universe for all ABC transporters.
Ligands of Iron-Sulphur Cluster N2: In this work the ubiquinone reducing catalytic core of NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (complex I) from Y. lipolytica was studied by a series of point mutations replacing conserved histidines or arginines in the 49-kDa subunit. Although the missing 4th ligand of cluster N2 could not be found in the 49-kDa subunit of complex I, it was clearly demonstrated that iron-sulphur cluster N2 resides directly on the interface between the PSST and 49-kDa subunits. The results presented in this work show that residues in the 49-kDa subunit have strong influence on this redox centre and also on catalytic activity. The strong influence of Arg-141 and His-226 residues in 49-kDa subunit on this cluster can be deducted from complete loss of N2 signals in EPR spectra such as in case of mutants H226A and R141A. In the case of mutant H226M the EPR signal from cluster N2 was shifted and cluster N2 even lost the pH dependence of its redox midpoint potential and became more similar to the other so called 'isopotential' clusters. Specifically in the case of mutants R141M and R141K the characteristic signature of cluster N2 became undetectable in EPR spectra. However, specific dNADH:DBQ oxidoreductase activity that could be inhibited with the specific complex I inhibitors DQA and rotenone was not absolutely abolished but rather reduced. These reductions in complex I activity did not correspond to similar reductions in the specific EPR signal of cluster N2 as it was observed in the His-226 mutant series. No indications could be found that these mutations had modified the magnetic properties of cluster N2, resulting in different EPR spectra. From these observations it could be concluded that both mutants R141K and R141M virtually or entirely lack iron-sulphur cluster N2. The rates in complex I activity could be reconciled with electron transfer theory: After removal of a single redox centre in a chain, electron transfer rates are predicted to be still much faster than steady-state turnover of complex I. These results from mutants R141K, R141M and also the result from mutant H226M that protons are being pumped even if the redox midpoint potential of cluster N2 is not pH dependent questions the prominent role in the catalytic mechanism of complex I that has been ascribed to cluster N2. Histidine 91 and 95 were found to be absolutely essential for activity of complex I since in both mutants complex I was fully assembled and artificial NADH:HAR activity was parental whereas complex I specific dNADH:DBQ activity was abolished. The signal from cluster N2 in EPR spectra was parental for all His-91 and -95 mutants. Mutations at the C-terminal arginine 466 affected ubiquinone affinity and inhibitor sensitivity but also destabilised complex I. All these results provide further support for a high degree of structural conservation between the 49-kDa subunit of complex I and the large subunit of water soluble [NiFe] hydrogenases. Remodelling of Human Pathogenic 49-kDa Mutations in Y. lipolytica: Y. lipolytica has been proven a good system for studying complex I properties and thus also for studying defects that occur in humans. In this work pathogenic mutations in the 49-kDa subunit of complex I were recreated and studied. The P232Q mutant showed non-assembly of complex I and this is probably the cause why this mutation was lethal in patients. The mutants R231Q and S416P were parental for the content, artificial and also specific complex I activity, Km for DBQ and IC50 for DQA. From these results we can conclude that these two residues Arg-228 and Ser-413 in mammalian cells have specific structural importance for the 49-kDa subunit even if they are not directly involved in catalytic process.
The endothelin B receptor belongs to the rhodopsin-like G-protein coupled receptors family. It plays an important role in vasodilatation and is found in the membranes of the endothelial cells enveloping blood vessels. During the course of this work, the production of recombinant human ETB receptor in yeast, insect and mammalian cells was evaluated. A number of different receptor constructs for production in the yeast P. pastoris was prepared. Various affinity tags were appended to the receptor N-and C-termini to enable receptor detection and purification. The clone pPIC9KFlagHisETBBio, with an expression level of 60 pmol/mg, yielded the highest amount of active receptor (1.2 mg of receptor per liter of shaking culture). The expression level of the same clone in fermentor culture was 17 pmol/mg, and from a 10L fermentor it was possible to obtain 3 kg of cells that contained 20-39 mg of the receptor. For receptor production in insect cells, Sf9 (S. frugiperda) suspension cells were infected with the recombinant baculovirus pVlMelFlagHisETBBio. The peak of receptor production was reached at 66 h post infection, and radioligand binding assays on insect cell membranes showed 30 pmoL of active receptor /mg of membrane protein. Subsequently, the efficiency of different detergents in solubilizing the active receptor was evaluated. N-dodecyl-beta-D-maltoside (LM), lauryl-sucrose and digitonine/cholate performed best, and LM was chosen for further work. The ETB receptor was produced in mammalian cells using the Semliki Forest Virus expression system. Radioligand binding assays on membranes from CHO cells infected with the recombinant virus pSFV3CAPETBHis showed 7 pmol of active receptor /mg of membrane protein. Since the receptor yield from mammalian cells was much lower than in yeast and insect cells, this system was not used for further large-scale receptor production. After production in yeast and insect cells, the ETB receptor was saturated with its ligand, endothelin-1, in order to stabilize its native form. The receptor was subsequently solubilized with n-dodecyl-beta-D-maltoside and subjected to purification on various affinity matrices. Two-step affinity purification via Ni2+-NTA and monomeric avidin proved the most efficient way to purify milligram amounts of the receptor. The purity of the receptor preparation after this procedure was over 95%, as judged from silver stained gels. However, the tendency of the ETB receptor produced in yeast to form aggregates was a constant problem. Attempts were made to stabilize the active, monomeric form of the receptor by testing a variety of different buffer conditions, but further efforts in this direction will be necessary in order to solve the aggregation problem. In contrast to preparations from yeast, the purification of the ETB receptor produced in insect cells yielded homogeneous receptor preparations, as shown by gel filtration analysis. This work has demonstrated that the amounts of receptor expressed in yeast and insect cells and the final yield of receptor, isolated by purification, represent a good basis for beginning 3D and continuing 2D crystallization trials.
In the recent years, high-resolution conditions have been established in solid-state NMR by the combination of magic angle spinning, state-of-the-art r.f. pulse schemes and the introduction of ultra-high magnetic fields. Similar to what is now routine in solution-state NMR, this has opened the way for structure determination by HR-SSNMR methods. Complete structural or dynamical characterization of the biomolecule of interest is most easily achieved if multiple or even uniformly [13C, 15N]-labeled versions are studied. In a first step, experiments that allow the complete assignment of the 13C and 15N resonances have been recently designed. To date, nearly complete chemical shift assignments were reported for two well-ordered proteins, the ±-spectrin SH3 domain and the Crh protein. The SSNMR analysis of the later protein has been presented in Section 4.1. For SSNMR applications, not the molecular size or solubility, but the spectral resolution can be of crucial importance. Experimental parameters and sample inherent conditions such molecular disorder may reduce the overall spectral dispersion. In these circumstances, techniques that allow for spectral simplification without the need of elaborated biochemical procedures (of isotopelabeling) are of special importance. In Section 2, several spectral editing methods have been proposed. These methods not only select resonances due to changesin the physical and chemical environment of the nucleus but they can also directly probe molecular properties such as dynamics and conformational heterogeneity. Once the chemical shifts are available for the biomolecule of interest, methods that permit to obtain structural restraints can be applied. In the case of multiply isotope labeled proteins, such techniques can in principle result in multiple structural parameters. In Section 3.1, we have shown that, similar to solution-state NMR, secondary chemical shifts can be readily employed to study the local backbone conformation. Inaddition, distance constraints between protons may be encoded in high-resolution on rare spins like 13C and 15N and measured. Finally, carbon-carbon constraints may be probed by employing frequency selective r.f. pulse schemes. These dihedral and distance constraints may subsequently lead to the determination of protein secondary to tertiary structure from a single protein sample. In Section 4.2,we have shown that high-affinity ligand binding to membrane proteins can be investigated with solid-state NMR. Here, the neuropeptide neurotensin which binds to the Gprotein coupled receptor NTS1 in sub-nanomolar affinity was investigated.Except for the case of rhodopsin, there is currently no information on the high-resolution structure of any other GPCR or a corresponding high-affinity ligand.Our SSNMR results identify, for the first time, a distinct binding mode of neurotensin that could be of considerable relevance for further pharmacological studies. As exemplified in section 4.3, HR-SSNMR based structural studies can also assist in refining existing (X-ray or solution-state NMR) membrane-protein structures. The presented results provide, for the first time, direct experimental evidence for a double occupancy of the Q0 binding site in the ubiquinone-bc1 complex and may provide the basis for the complete 3D structural determination of the ubiquinone binding pocket. Advancements regarding sample preparation (for example, including modular labeling, in vitro expression and intein technology) and improvements in NMR hardware instrumentation could open up new areas of solid-state NMR research such as the investigation of large protein-protein complexes or the complete 3D characterization of larger membrane proteins. Solid-state NMR studies of multiply-labeled biomolecules will furthermore profit from improved procedures for calculating 3D structures, in particular in the presence of ambiguousor a limited number of structural constraints. Unlike X-ray crystallography, protein motion does not hinder solid-state NMR methods. In fact, complementary to solution-state NMR, it may provide a very efficient means to study protein folding, flexibility and function under biologically relevant conditions. Hand in hand with solution-state techniques and crystallographic methods, solid-state NMR could provide insight into protein function and the chemistry of life with unprecedented accuracy and flexibility.
Mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are found in all eukaryotic cells and represent crucial elements in the signal transduction from the plasma membrane to the nucleus. Although a broad variety of extracellular stimuli activate MAPKs, they evoke very distinct cellular responses. The amplitude and duration of MAPK activation determine signal identity and ultimately cell fate. A tight and finely tuned regulation is therefore critical for a specific cellular response. The role and the regulation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 5 (ERK5), a MAPK with a large and unique C-terminal tail, were studied in different cellular systems. The study highlights two aspects of ERK5 regulation: control of the phosphorylation state and regulated protein stability. In analogy to other MAPKs ERK5 is activated by dual phosphorylation of threonine and tyrosine residues in its activation motif. A first part of the study concentrates on whether and how the protein tyrosine phosphatase PTP-SL is involved in the downregulation of the ERK5 signal. The direct interaction of both proteins is shown to result in mutual modulation of their enzymatic activities. PTP-SL is a substrate of ERK5 and, independent of its phosphorylation, binding to the kinase enhances its catalytic phosphatase activity. On the other hand, interaction with PTP-SL does not only downregulate enzymatic ERK5 activity but also effectively impedes its translocation to the nucleus. The second part of this study focuses on the interaction of ERK5 with c-Abl and its oncogenic variants Bcr/Abl and v-Abl. In this study these tyrosine kinases are demonstrated to regulate ERK5 by two mechanisms: first, by induction of kinase activity and secondly, by stabilisation of the ERK5 protein. Stabilisation involves the direct interaction of unique ERK5 domains with Abl kinases and is independent of MAPK cascade activation. The level of ERK5 and its intrinsic basal activity – rather than its activation – are essential for v-Abl-induced transformation as well as for survival of Bcr/Abl-positive leukaemia cells. Stabilisation of ERK5 thus contributes to cell survival and should therefore be considered as an additional aspect in therapy of chronic myeloid leukaemia. Taken together, the results obtained in this study demonstrate that diverse pathways regulate ERK5 signalling by affecting kinase activity, localisation and protein stability. While the phosphatase PTP-SL is involved in negative regulation of ERK5, Abl kinases potently activate ERK5 and increase its half-life. Protein stabilisation thus is presented as a novel mechanism in the regulation of MAPKs.
Periplasmic Sud protein encoded by the Wolinella succinogenes catalyses the transfer of bound polysulfide-sulfur to the active site of the membrane bound polysulfide reductase. The homodimeric protein consists of 131 residues per monomer, each with one cysteine residue in the active site. Polysulfide-sulfur is covalently bound to the catalytic Cys residues of the Sud protein. In order to understand the structure-function relationship of this protein, the features of its solution structure determined by heteronuclear multidimensional NMR techniques are reported here. The first step of structure determination leads to resonance assignments using 15N/13C/2H- and 15N/13C-labeled protein. The sequential backbone and side chain resonance assignments have been successfully completed. Structure calculations were carried out using the ARIA program package. The structure is based on 2688 NOE-derived distance restraints, 68 backbone hydrogen bond restraints derived from 34 slow-exchanging backbone amide protons and 334 torsion angle restraints obtained from the TALOS program as well as 158 residual dipolar coupling restraints for the refinement of relative vector orientations. The three-dimensional structure of the Sud protein was determined with an averaged rootmean- square deviation of 0.72 Å and 1.28 Å for the backbone and heavy atoms, respectively, excluding the terminal residues. Without the poorly defined segment between residues 90-94 the average r.m.s.d. value drops down to 0.6 Å and 1.14 Å. The ensemble refined with residual dipolar coupling (rdc) restraints shows good convergence. The r.m.s.d. value for the backbone heavy atoms, excluding residues 90- 94, drops down from 0.97 to 0.66 for the rdc-refined ensemble. The relative orientation of the two monomers in the protein structures refined with residual dipolar coupling restraints are also different from those without residual dipolar coupling restraints. The structure determination of the dimeric protein has been hampered by the high molecular mass (30 kDa), severe peak degeneracy, and by the small number of experimental intermonomer NOEs (relative orientation problem of two monomers). For the resonance assignments of aliphatic side chain, many resonances were ambiguously assigned because of severe overlap of signals. The Sud dimer protein contains 17 Lys, 14 Leu and one His tag for each monomer. It complicated the resonance assignments. The conventional 3D 15N-separated TOCSY HSQC experiment failed because of the large molecular weight which results in line broadening and hence made the resonance assignments of side chains more difficult. The determined structure contains a five-stranded parallel ß-sheet enclosing a hydrophobic core, a two-stranded anti-parallel ß-sheet and seven a-helices. The dimer structure is stabilized predominantly by hydrophobic residues. Sud catalyses the transfer of the polysulfide-sulfur to cyanide, similar to rhodanese encoded by Azotobacter vinelandii (Bordo et al., 2000). The two proteins are similar in the active site environment primarily owing to the main-chain conformation of the active-site loop with the cysteine residue and with respect to the surrounding positively charged residues. The active-site loop (residues 89-95) in the Sud protein appears to be flexible, reflected by few assigned proton resonances of residues 90-94 in the active site. Despite their similarity in function and their similar structure in active site, the amino acid sequences and the folds of the two proteins are remarkably different. The negatively charged polysulfide interacts with positively charged R46, R67, and R94 and hence may be stabilized in structure. The mutation of one of the three arginines that are also conserved in rhodanese from A. vinelandii leads to a loss of sulfur-transfer activity. The polysulfide chain extends from inside of Sud protein to outside, where Sud may form contacts with polysulfide reductase. These contacts provide the possible polysulfide-sulfur transfer from Sud protein to the active site of polysulfide reductase.
The light-harvesting chlorophyll a/b protein complex (LHC-II) is the major collector of solar energy in all plants and it binds about half of the chlorophyll in green plants. LHCII is a trimer in the photosynthetic membrane; each monomer consists of 232 amino acids, binds and orients a minimum of 12 chlorophyll molecules and three caroteinoids (two luteins and one neoxanthin) for light-harvesting and energy transfer. Although, the structure of LHC-II has been determined at 3.4 Å resolution by electron microscopy of two-dimensional crystals (Kühlbrandt et al., 1994), this is not sufficient to allow a complete understanding of the mechanism of energy transfer from LHC-II to the reaction centre, since the effective resolution in the z dimension is 4.9 Å. In fact, the chemical difference between Chl a and Chl b, which has a formyl group instead of the methyl group at the 7-position in the chlorin ring, is too small to be detected at this level of resolution. In addition, the orientation of the chlorophyll tetrapyrroles have not been determined unambiguously. This information is essential for a detailed understanding of the energy transfer within the complex and to the reaction centres of photosystem II and I (PSII and PSI). X-ray crystallography of three dimensional (3D) crystals may yield a more complete structure at high resolution. 3D crystals have been grown from LHC-II isolated from pea leaves using a standard purification procedure (Burke et al., 1978). The thylakoid membranes are solubilised in Triton X-100 and further purified by sucrose gradient ultra centrifugation. The LHC-II fraction is salt precipitated and pellets resuspended at the chlorophyll a/b ratio 2.8 mg/ml in 0.9 % Nonyl-glucoside. Crystals are currently obtained by vapour diffusion in hanging drops. These crystals are thin hexagonal plates, have a fairly large unit cell and diffract quite weakly. The high level of the background is due both to the detergent, necessary for protein solubilisation, and lipids, required for the trimer and crystals formation. However, three data sets, each from one single crystal have been collected up to 3.2 Å resolution over a rotation range of 135°. The crystals were exposed to a very highly collimated and brilliant beam (ID-14 EH1 at ESRF, Grenoble, France) and were kept under a stream of cold nitrogen to prevent radiation damage. Data were successfully integrated using the program XDS by Kabsch (1993). The crystals were found to belong to the space group P6 22 3 and have unit cell dimensions of a=128.45, b=128.45, c=135.32, a= ß=90º, ?=120. The solution of the phase problem was tackled by molecular replacement using, as a search model, the LHC-II structure solved by electron cryo-microscopy studies of twodimensional crystals (Kühlbrandt et al. 1994). Three different programs were tested: the most used AMoRe (Navaza et al., 1994) and the brute force based program Brute (Fujinaga
Diese Zusammenfassung ist in zwei Abschnitte gegliedert. Im Abschnitt 6.1. wird die physiologische Bedeutung der Glutamatrezeptoren (GluR) und ihr biologischer Hintergrund kurz erklärt. Am Ende dieses Abschnitts wird der Stand der Strukturanalyse des GluR-B Ionenkanals zu Beginn des Projektes zusammengefasst. Im nachfolgenden Abschnitt 6.2. sind die wesentlichen Ergebnisse der hier vorgelegten Arbeit zusammengefasst. 6.1. Die Bedeutung von Glutamatrezeptoren - Stand der Strukturanalyse zum Beginn dieser Arbeit Die Kommunikation zwischen Nervenzellen erfolgt vorwiegend an hochspezialisierten Kontaktstellen den chemischen Synapsen. Der enge Raum zwischen sendender und empfangender Nervenzelle wird auch als synaptischer Spalt bezeichnet. Der Prozess der synaptischen Übertragung beruht auf der präsynaptischen Freisetzung von chemischen Botenstoffen, sogenannten Neurotransmittern in den synaptischen Spalt. Die Aminosäure L- Glutamat (Glu) ist der wichtigste erregende Neurotransmitter im menschlichen Gehirn und Rückenmark. Dementsprechend bedeutend ist die Rolle der ionotropen Glutamatrezeptoren (iGluRs), die sie bei der elektrochemischen Erregungsübertragung am synaptischen Spalt spielen (Seeburg, 1993), (Hollmann and Heinemann, 1994), (Dingledine et al., 1999). Die Freisetzung von Neurotransmittern wird durch ein elektrisches Signal (Aktionspotential) ausgelöst, das sich entlang der Nervenfaser, dem Axon, bis zur Nervenendigung, der Synapse, fortpflanzt. Nach der Freisetzung diffundieren die Neurotransmitter durch den synaptischen Spalt und binden an sogenannte Rezeptoren. Ionotrope Glutamatrezeptoren sind Ionenkanäle, die in die Membran der nachgeschalteten (postsynaptischen) Nervenzelle eingebaut sind. Sie zählen deshalb zu den Membranproteinen. Als ligandgesteuerte kationenselektive Ionenkanäle machen Glutamatrezeptoren (GluRs) die postsynaptische Membran nach Aktivierung durch Ligandbindung für bestimmte Kationen durchlässig. Der Einstrom von Ionen bewirkt eine Änderung des Membranpotentials. Die Stärke der synaptischen Übertragung ist lebenslang modulierbar; die sogennante synaptische Plastizität wird als eine entscheidende Grundlage für die Erklärung von Lernen und Gedächtnis angesehen. Drei synthetische Agonisten aktivieren die GluRs selektiv und wurden deshalb für die Klassifizierung der ionotropen Glutamatrezeptoren herangezogen. Bei den Agonisten handelt es sich um -Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazol-4-propionat (AMPA), Kainat and N- Methyl-D-Aspartat (NMDA). Die ersten beiden Subtypen werden auch als non-NMDA- Rezeptoren zusammengefasst. Die Aktivierung und Desensitivierung der non-NMDA Rezeptoren ist schneller als die der NMDA-Rezeptoren. Aus molekularbiologischer Sicht (siehe Kapitel 1.3.2.) zeigen die drei Klassen der ionotropen Glutamatrezeptoren eine beträchliche Diversität. So gibt es vier verschiedene Unterheiten vom AMPA-Subtyp, nämlich GluR-A, GluR-B, GluR-C und GluR-B. In dieser Arbeit steht die Strukturanalyse eines aus GluR-B Untereinheiten bestehenden AMPA-Rezeptors im Vordergrund. (Die weitere Unterteilung der NMDA- und Kainatrezeptoren kann dem Kapitel 1.3.2. auf Seite 6 entnommen werden.) Bestimmte Abschnitte der Aminosäurensequenz von Glutamatrezeptoren sind durch hydrophobe Bereiche gekennzeichnet ((M1-M4) in Abbildung 6.1.A (A.)). Das durch verschiedene Untersuchungen etablierte Modell der Glutamatrezeptor-Topologie zeigt 3 Transmembrandomänen (M1, M3 und M4) und eine Membranschleife (M2) (Hollmann et al., 1994), (Kuner et al., 1996). Der Aminoterminus ist extrazellulär, der Carboxyterminus hingegen intrazellulär. Daraus ergibt sich die in Abbildung 6.1.A (B.) abgebildete Topologie (Paas, 1998). S1 und S2 kennzeichnen die Ligandbindungsdomäne. Glutamatrezeptoren (GluR) sind Oligomere, die sich mit grosser Wahrscheinlichkeit aus vier Untereinheiten (Rosenmund et al., 1998), (Ayalon and Stern-Bach, 2001) zusammensetzen (siehe Kapitel 1.3.3.). Die Zusammenlagerung verschiedener Untereinheiten zu einem funktionellen Kanal setzt voraus, dass die Untereinheiten zum gleichen Subtyp gehören, d.h. AMPA Untereinheiten können nur mit anderen AMPA Untereinheiten einen Ionenkanal bilden. Das gleiche gilt für die Zusammensetzung von NMDA und Kainat-Rezeptoren. Das Modell eines tetrameren Glutamatrezeptors ist im Bild C. der Abbildung 6.1.A zu sehen. Die Bestimmung der Quartärstruktur eines vollständigen Glutamatrezeptors ist bislang nicht veröffentlicht. Die strukturelle Analyse von Proteinen erfordert die Isolierung von reinem und funktionellem Protein. Im Vergleich zu den meisten löslichen Proteinen erfordert die Isolierung von Membranproteinen oft besonderer Optimierung. Falls das Vorkommen des Proteins in natürlichem Gewebe gering ist, so kann die strukturelle Analyse durch rekombinante Expression in einem geeigneten Wirtsorganismus zugänglich gemacht werden. Die Isolierung von Milligramm-Mengen eines rekombinanten homomeren GluR-B Rezeptors aus dem entsprechenden Baculovirusexpressionssystem (Keinänen et al., 1994) wurde in unserem Labor etabliert (Safferling et al., 2001) und wurde im ersten Jahr dieses Projektes fortgeführt. Durch zonale Ultrazentrifugation konnte gezeigt werden, dass die molekulare Masse des GluR-B Proteinkomplexes ca. 495 kD beträgt. Dieser Wert liegt in der Nähe des theoretischen Molekulargewichts eines tetrameren Ionenkanals, dessen Molmasse sich aus vier GluR-B Untereinheiten (104 kD) und einer Detergenzmizelle von ca. 63-97 kD zusammensetzt (Safferling et al., 2001). Die elektronenmikroskopische Analyse des Proteinkomplexes von W. Tichelaar aus unserer Gruppe erfolgte 1999 durch Negativfärbung. Für die Strukturanalyse mit Hilfe der Software IMAGIC wurden 10 000 Proteinteilchen selektiert. Das Ergebnis der Bildrekonstruktion ist in der folgenden Abbildung 6.1.B gezeigt. Die projezierten Dimensionen des Models entsprechen einem Molekül mit den Dimensionen 17 nm × 11 nm × 14 nm. Das Model zeigt keine ausgezeichnete Symmetrie, die auf die Stöchiometrie des GluR hinweisen könnte. Das Molekül zeigt mit Färbemittel gefüllte Vertiefungen und innere Strukturen, die vielleicht an der Ionenleitung beteiligt sind. 6.2. Funktionelle und strukturelle Charakterisierung des GluR-B Ionenkanals In der Fortsetzung des oben beschriebenen Projektes wurden für die rekombinante Expression desselben Rezeptors (GluR-B homomer) stabil transformierte Insektenzellen eingesetzt. Dazu wurde die für die GluR-B Untereinheit kodierende und in Plasmiden enthaltene DNA in Insektenzellen transformiert (siehe APPENDIX A.2.2.). Im Vergleich zu dieser auf Dauerhaftigkeit angelegten Integration der Rezeptor DNA wird die Proteinexpression beim Baculovirusexpressionssystem durch Infektion mit rekombinanten Baculoviren initiiert. Der Vergleich zeigte, dass die mit Baculoviren erzielten Ausbeuten bei GluR-B etwa doppelt so hoch waren als bei stabil transformierten Zellen. Allerdings fallen bei stabil transformierten Zellen die eventuellen Nachteile der viralen Belastung auf die zellulären Sekretionsprozesse weg. Im Verlauf der elektronenmikroskopischen Analyse von baculoviral erzeugtem GluR-B Protein hat sich gezeigt, dass Proteine viralen Ursprungs unter Umständen selbst doppelt aufgereinigte GluR-B Proben verunreinigen können (siehe APPENDIX A.2.1.). Dieser Punkt ist bei einer Einzelbildverarbeitung von grosser Relevanz, falls die virusspezifischen Proteinverunreinigungen eine ähnliche Grösse haben wie das eigentliche Zielprotein. Das Hauptziel dieser Arbeit war es, das Potenzial stabil transformierter Insektenzellen für die Expression von homomeren GluR-B Ionenkanälen zu bewerten und dabei die Stöchiometrie der Untereinheiten in diesem Ionenkanal aufzuklären. Zu diesem Zweck wurden biochemische und elektronenmikrosopische Techniken eingesetzt. Zur Isolierung des GluR-B Ionenkanals aus stabil transformierten Insektenzellen wurde das bestehende Aufreinigungsprotokoll für die Affinitätchromatographie an immobilisierten Metallionen (IMAC) (Safferling et al., 2001) optimiert, indem das Chargenverfahren durch das Durchflussverfahren ersetzt wurde (zur genaueren Erklärung der Optimierung siehe RESULTS 4.1.2.). Abbildung 6.C zeigt ein silbergefärbtes Gel mit den Eluaten der IMAC und Eluaten der abschliessenden Affinitätschromatographie mit immobilisiertem M1-Antikörper. Die auf den Bahnen 5-8 aufgetragen GluR-B Proben wurden auch für die Einzelteilchenanalyse mittels Elektronenmikroskopie verwendet. Die Ligandbindungsaktivität von GluR-B wurde durch Filterbindungsexperimente mit dem Radioliganden [3H]-AMPA vor und nach der Isolierung aus den Membranfragmenten bestimmt. Die KD-Werte sind für beide Proben ähnlich gross. Der Bmax-Werte ist für die aufgereinigte Probe wie erwartet sehr viel (mehr als 200×) höher. Die Ergebnisse der Ligandbindungsexperimente sind im Kapitel 4.2.1 tabellarisch zusammengefasst. Die oligomere Struktur des isolierten Ionenkanals wurde durch Quervernetzungsexperimente (Cross-linking) und Einzelteilchenanalyse von negativ gefärbten Proteinmolekülen bewertet. Die Quervernetzungsexerimente selbst erbrachten kein eindeutiges Ergebnis im Hinblick auf oligomere Struktur des komplett zusammengesetzten Rezeptors. Kontrollexperimente mit dem Lysat vom Rattenhippocampus zeigten, dass mit DTSSP ein geeigneter Cross-Linker verwendet wurde (siehe RESULTS 4.3.2.). Neben einem aus 4 Banden bestehenden Muster (siehe RESULTS 4.3.1.) lieferten die Quervernetzungsexperimente mit isoliertem GluR-B aber einen deutlichen Hinweis auf die Stabilität von dimeren GluR-B Strukturen, die im Einklang mit einer jüngst veröffentlichten Arbeit stehen (Ayalon and Stern-Bach, 2001). Diese Veröffentlichung liefert zusätzliche (Armstrong et al., 1998) Hinweise auf die Bedeutung von Dimeren in der Glutamatrezeptorstruktur und postuliert, dass sich ein kompletter Glutamaterezeptor aus einem Dimer-Paar zusmmensetzt, wobei die Dimere zuerst gebildet werden. Die nachfolgende Abbildung 6.2.B zeigt negativ gefärbte GluR-B Ionenkanäle bei einer 46000× Vergrösserung. Die Aufnahme stammt von einem Philips EM 400 Elektronenmikroskop. Für die 3D Rekonstruktion wurden 500 der in Abbildung 6.2.B gezeigten Rezeptormoleküle ausgewählt. Dieser relativ kleine Datensatz besteht aus GluR-B Ionenkanälen deren Präservierung in Uranylacetat als besonderes vielversprechend eingeschätzt wurde. Dieser positive Effekt wurde auf die Verwendung frisch von einer Wasseroberfläche aufgefischter Kohlefilme zurückgeführt (siehe RESULTS 4.4.3.3.). Während der Klassifizierung dieses Datensatzes fiel auf, dass die beim Band-Pass-Filtern für die niedrigen Frequenzen gesetzten Cut-offs einen deutlichen Einfluss auf die erste Klassifizierung der unterschiedlichen zweidimensionalen Ansichten des Proteinkomplexes haben (siehe RESULTS 4.4.3.4.). Aus diesem Grund wurde der gleiche Datensatz mit 5 verschiedenen low-frequency cut-offs (LFCO) gefiltert (siehe Table 4.4.3.4.) und getrennt klassifiziert. Von den 5 resultierenden Klassifikationen wurden 3 (LFCO 0,005, 0,03 und 0,05) für die weiterführende 3D Rekonstruktion ausgewählt. Die Evaluierung der resultiernden 3D Modelle ergab, dass der mit einem LFCO von 0,03 gefilterte Datensatz eine Klassifikationen erlaubte, die zu einem 3D Modell (Modell GluR-BII/a siehe RESULTS Figure 4.4.3.4.H) führte, das im Vergleich zu den beiden anderen Rekonstruktionen konsistenter war. Am stärksten spricht für dieses Modell die Übereinstimmung der Input-Projektionen mit den Reprojektionen der 3D Rekonstruktion (siehe siehe RESULTS Figure 4.4.3.4.H). Zur Verfeinerung des Modells GluR-BII/a wurden die beiden Projektionen mit der höchsten Standardabweichung vom Klassendurchschnitt (class average) eliminiert. Die verbleibenden 11 Projektionen bildeten die Input-Projektionen für die Berechung eines verfeinerten Modells, GluR-BII/b, das auf einer neuen Zuordnung der Euler-Winkel beruht. Das Ergebnis dieser Berechung ist in der nachfolgenden Abbildung gezeigt. Das Modell in Abbildung 6.2.C zeigt einen zentralen Kanal und hat die Dimensionen 18 nm × 14 nm × 11 nm. Die Stöchiometrie der Untereinheiten ist aus dem Modell, das mit grosser Wahrscheinlichkeit einen komplett zusammengesetzten GluR darstellt, nicht ablesbar. Ebensowenig zeigt das Modell eine eindeutig vierzählige oder fünfzählige Symmetrie. Allerdings ist die erkennbare zweizählige Symmetrie im Einklang mit dem vorgeschlagenen Pair-of-Dimer Modell (Ayalon and Stern-Bach, 2001), das auf eine teramere Struktur des oligomeren Ionenkanals schliessen lässt. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit zeigen, dass stabil transifzierte Insektenzellen eine durchaus geeignete Quelle für GluR-B Ionenkanäle sind. Nachteilig sind die geringen Ausbeuten. Allerdings kann durch weitere Selektion der Zellen die GluR Expression noch gesteigert werden (siehe APPENDIX A.2.2.). Bei höheren GluR-B Ausbeuten könnte zukünftig auch die Detektion des Rezeptors in vitrifizierten Proben in Verbindung mit Kryo-Elektronen- mikroskopie und auch die 2D-Kristallisation gelingen. Die während dieses Projekts gemachten Kristallisationsexperimente (siehe APPENDIX A.3.) und Kryo-Experimente mit GluR-B Protein aus dem Baculovirusexpressionssystem (siehe RESULTS 4.4.1. und 4.4.2.) ergaben negative Ergebnisse. Das Potential der Kryo-Methode konnte allerdings in Kontrollexperimenten mit Tabak-Mosaik-Virus (TMV) gezeigt werden. Kryo-Daten von GluR-B würden die Berechnung eines genaueren Strukurmodells erlauben. Die Reprojektionen des hier besprochenen Strukturmodells GluR-BII/b aus der Abbildung 6.2.C könnten als Referenzen für das Alignment der vitrifizierten GluR Ionenkanäle dienen. Für das langfristige Ziel der Rekonstituition des Rezeptors in Liposomen sollte die Delipidierung des Membranproteins während der Aufreinigung möglichst reduziert werden. Hier erscheinen zwei Ansätze sinnvoll. Die Aufreinigung des Proteins in einem Schritt durch die Erweiterung des tags am Carboxyterminus von nur 6 auf 10 Histidin-Reste. Ausserdem gibt es Hinweise, dass die Anwesenheit von Lipiden während der Aufreinigung für seine Rekonstituierbarkeit förderlich ist (Huganir and Racker, 1982).
Human epidermal-type fatty acid binding protein (E-FABP) belongs to a family of intracellular non-enzymatic 14-15 kDa lipid binding proteins (LBP) that specifically bind and facilitate the transport of fatty acids, bile acids or retinoids. Their functions have also been associated with fatty acid signalling, cell growth, regulation and differentiation. As a contribution to better understand the structure-function relationship of this protein, the features of its solution structure determined by NMR spectroscopy are reported here. Both unlabeled and 15N-enriched samples of recombinant human E-FABP were used for multidimensional high-resolution NMR. The sequential backbone as well as side-chain resonance assignments have been completed. They are reported here and are also available at the BioMagResBank under the accession number BMRB-5083. The presence of six cysteines in the amino acid sequence of human E-FABP is highly unusual for LBPs. Four of the six cysteines are unique to the E-FABPs: C43, C47, C67 and C87. In the three-dimensional structure of E-FABP, two cysteine pairs (C67/C87 and C120/C127) were identified by X-ray analysis to be close enough to allow disulfide bridge formation, but a S-S bond was actually found only between C120 and C127 [Hohoff et al., 1999]. Since the exclusion of a disulfide bridge between C67 and C87 improved the Rfree factor of the crystallographic model, the existence of a covalent bond between these two side- chains was considered unlikely. This agrees with the NMR data, where SCH resonances have been observed for the cysteine residues C43, C67 (tentative assignment) and C87, thus excluding the possibility of a second disulfide bridge in solution. Based on the NOE and hydrogen exchange data, an ensemble of 20 energy-minimized conformers representing the solution structure of human E-FABP complexed with stearic acid has been obtained. The analysis of homonuclear 2D NOESY and 15N-edited 3D NOESY spectra led to a total of 2926 NOE-derived distance constraints. Furthermore, 37 slow- exchanging backbone amide protons were identified to be part of the hydrogen-bonding network in the >-sheet and subsequently converted into 74 additional distance constraints. Finally, the disulfide bridge between C120 and C127 was defined by 3 upper and 3 lower distance bounds. The structure calculation program DYANA regarded 998 of these constraints as irrelevant, i.e., they did not restrict the distance between two protons. Out of the remaining 2008 non-trivial distance constraints, 371 were intraresidual (i = j), 508 sequential (|i - j| = 1), 233 medium-range (1 < |i - j| £ 4), and 896 long-range (|i - j| > 4) NOEs. The protein mainly consists of 10 antiparallel -strands forming a >-barrel structure with a large internal cavity. The three-dimensional solution structure of human E-FABP has been determined with a root-mean-square deviation of 0.92 ± 0.11 Å and 1.46 ± 0.10 Å for the backbone and heavy atoms, respectively, excluding the terminal residues. Without the portal region (i.e., for residues 4-26, 40-56, 63-75 and 83-134; the portal region apparently represents the only opening in the protein surface through which the fatty acid ligand can enter and exit the internal binding cavity), an average backbone RMSD of 0.85 ± 0.10 Å was obtained, thus reflecting the higher conformational dispersion in the portal region. Superposition with the X-ray structure of human E-FABP (excluding the terminal residues) yielded average backbone RMSD values of 1.00 ± 0.07 Å for the entire residue range and 0.98 ± 0.06 Å without the portal region. This indicates a close similarity of the crystallographic and the solution structures. The structure coordinates have been deposited at the RCSB data bank under PDB ID code 1JJJ. The measurement of 15N relaxation experiments (T1, T2 and heteronuclear NOE) at three different fields (500, 600 and 800 MHz) provided information on the internal dynamics of the protein backbone. Nearly all non-terminal backbone amide groups showed order parameters S2 > 0.8, with an average value of 0.88 ± 0.04, suggesting a uniformly low backbone mobility in the nanosecond-to-picosecond time range throughout the entire protein sequence. Moreover, hydrogen/deuterium exchange experiments indicated a direct correlation between the stability of the hydrogen-bonding network in the >-sheet structure and the conformational exchange (Rex) in the millisecond-to-microsecond time range. The features of E-FABP backbone dynamics elaborated here differ from those of the phylogenetically closely related heart-type FABP and the more distantly related ileal lipid binding protein. The results on protein dynamics obtained in this work allow to conclude that the different LBP family members E-FABP, H-FABP and ILBP are characterized by varying stabilities in the protein backbone structures. Hydrogen/deuterium exchange experiments displayed significant differences in the chemical exchange with the solvent for the backbone amide protons belonging to the hydrogen-bonding network in the >-sheets. The >-barrel structure of H- FABP appears to be the most rigid, with exchange processes presumably slower than the millisecond-to-microsecond time range. ILBP, on the other hand, shows the fastest hydrogen exchange as well as a significant number of exchange parameters (Rex), implying a decreased stability in the >-sheet structure. E-FABP, finally, appears to rank between these two proteins based on the hydrogen/deuterium exchange, with Rex terms in the >-strands indicating millisecond-to-microsecond exchange processes like in ILBP.