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Institute
A version of this paper was originally written for a plenary session about "The Futures of Ethnography" at the 1998 EASA conference in Frankfurt/Main. In the preparation of the paper, I sent out some questions to my former fellow researchers by e-mail. I thank Douglas Anthony, Jan-Patrick Heiß, Alaine Hutson, Matthias Krings, and Brian Larkin for their answers.
During the past decade, processes associated with what is popularly though perhaps misleadingly known as globalization have come within the purview of anthropology. Migration and mobility ‐ and the footloose or even rootless social groups that they produce ‐ as well as the worldwide diffusion of commodities, media images, political ideas and practices, technologies and scientific knowledge today are on anthropology's research agenda. As a consequence, received notions about the ways in which culture relates to territory have been abandoned. The term transnationalisation captures cultural processes that stream across the borders of nation states. Anthropologists have been forced to revise the notion that transnationalisation would inevitably bring about a culturally homogenized world. Instead, we are witnessing a surge of greatly increasing cultural diversity. New cultural forms grow out of historically situated articulations of the local and the global. Rather than left-over relics from traditional orders, these are decidedly modern, yet far from uniform. The essay engages the idea of the pluralization of modernities, explores its potential for interdisciplinary research agendas, and also inquires into problematic assumptions underlying this new theoretical concept.
We study the returns the venture capital and private equity investment from 221 venture capital and private equity funds that are part of 72 venture capital and private equity firms, 5040 entrepreneurial firms (3826 venture capital and 1214 private equity), and spanning 32 years (1971 - 2003) and 39 countries from North and South America, Europe and Asia. We make use of four main categories of variables to proxy for value-added activities and risks that explain venture capital and private equity returns: market and legal environment, VC characteristics, entrepreneurial firm characteristics, and the characteristics and structure of the investment. We show Heckman sample selection issues in regards to both unrealized and partially realized investments are important to consider for analysing the determinants of realized returns. We further compare the actual unrealized returns, as reported to investment managers, to the predicted unrealized returns based on the estimates of realized returns from the sample selection models. We show there exists significant systematic biases in the reporting of unrealized investments to institutional investors depending on the level of the earnings aggressiveness and disclosure indices in a country, as well as proxies for the degree of information asymmetry between investment managers and venture capital and private equity fund managers. Klassifikation: G24, G28, G31, G32, G35
Im Rahmen des Value Based Managements sollen alle Manahmen der Unternehmensfhrung auf die Steigerung des intrinsischen Marktwertes des Eigenkapitals ausgerichtet werden. Hauptanwendungsbereiche des Value Based Managements sind die Planung, Performancemessung, Managemententlohnung sowie die Bereichssteuerung. Eine konsequente shareholder-orientierte Steuerung beinhaltet eine adquate Ermittlung von Wertbeitrgen in den einzelnen Anwendungsbereichen. Hierzu dienen insbesondere absolute Wertbeitragskennzahlen in Form von Residualgewinnen. Residualgewinne sind dadurch gekennzeichnet, dass der Gewinn um eine auf das Gesamtkapital bezogene Capital bzw. Interest Charge reduziert wird. Der magebliche Gewinn sowie das Gesamtkapital ergeben sich, indem die handelsrechtlichen Gren durch mehr oder minder weitreichende Modifikationen angepasst werden. Die Berechnung der Interest Charge erfolgt entweder auf Basis eines risikoangepassten Zinssatzes oder auf Basis eines risikofreien Zinssatzes. In der Praxis finden sich zahlreiche unterschiedliche Residualgewinnkonzepte, die sich insbesondere durch die jeweils charakteristischen Modifikationen und durch den verwendeten Zinssatz zur Berechnung der Kapitalkosten unterscheiden.1) Herkmmliche Konzepte zeichnen sich dadurch aus, dass die Interest Charge auf Basis eines risikoangepassten Zinssatzes berechnet wird. Das in Velthuis (2003c) theoretisch entworfene und von der KPMG in der Praxis umgesetzte Konzept Earnings less Riskfree Interest Charge, ERIC , ist hingegen dadurch charakterisiert, dass zur Berechnung der Interest Charge ein risikofreier Zinssatz verwendet wird. Ferner werden Modifikationen nur insofern vorgenommen, als dass eine vollstndige Bercksichtigung aller Erfolgskomponenten gewhrleistet wird. Glaubt man den Vertretern herkmmlicher Konzepte, basieren diese Konzepte auf einer hinreichenden theoretischen Fundierung. Diesem Anspruch gengen solche Konzepte tatschlich jedoch nicht, sie zeichnen sich gerade durch eine mangelnde theoretische Fundierung aus.2) In Velthuis (2003c) wird verdeutlicht, dass die in der Praxis verbreitete Vorgehensweise gerade zum Ausweis von Wertbeitrgen fhrt, die inkonsistent mit der Zielsetzung der Shareholder sind. In allen Anwendungsbereichen des VBM zeigt sich nmlich aus theoretischer Sicht die Problematik der VerIm Rahmen des Value Based Managements sollen alle Maßnahmen der Unternehmensführung auf die Steigerung des intrinsischen Marktwertes des Eigenkapitals ausgerichtet werden. Hauptanwendungsbereiche des Value Based Managements sind die Planung, Performancemessung, Managemententlohnung sowie die Bereichssteuerung. Eine konsequente shareholder-orientierte Steuerung beinhaltet eine adäquate Ermittlung von Wertbeiträgen in den einzelnen Anwendungsbereichen. Hierzu dienen insbesondere absolute Wertbeitragskennzahlen in Form von Residualgewinnen. Residualgewinne sind dadurch gekennzeichnet, dass der Gewinn um eine auf das Gesamtkapital bezogene Capital bzw. Interest Charge reduziert wird. Der maßgebliche Gewinn sowie das Gesamtkapital ergeben sich, indem die handelsrechtlichen Größen durch mehr oder minder weitreichende Modifikationen angepasst werden. Die Berechnung der Interest Charge erfolgt entweder auf Basis eines risikoangepassten Zinssatzes oder auf Basis eines risikofreien Zinssatzes. In der Praxis finden sich zahlreiche unterschiedliche Residualgewinnkonzepte, die sich insbesondere durch die jeweils charakteristischen Modifikationen und durch den verwendeten Zinssatz zur Berechnung der Kapitalkosten unterscheiden.1) Herkömmliche Konzepte zeichnen sich dadurch aus, dass die Interest Charge auf Basis eines risikoangepassten Zinssatzes berechnet wird. Das in Velthuis (2003c) theoretisch entworfene und von der KPMG in der Praxis umgesetzte Konzept Earnings less Riskfree Interest Charge, ERIC Ò , ist hingegen dadurch charakterisiert, dass zur Berechnung der Interest Charge ein risikofreier Zinssatz verwendet wird. Ferner werden Modifikationen nur insofern vorgenommen, als dass eine vollständige Berücksichtigung aller Erfolgskomponenten gewährleistet wird. Glaubt man den Vertretern herkömmlicher Konzepte, basieren diese Konzepte auf einer hinreichenden theoretischen Fundierung. Diesem Anspruch genügen solche Konzepte tatsächlich jedoch nicht, sie zeichnen sich gerade durch eine mangelnde theoretische Fundierung aus.2) In Velthuis (2003c) wird verdeutlicht, dass die in der Praxis verbreitete Vorgehensweise gerade zum Ausweis von Wertbeiträgen führt, die inkonsistent mit der Zielsetzung der Shareholder sind. In allen Anwendungsbereichen des VBM zeigt sich nämlich aus theoretischer Sicht die Problematik der Verwendung eines risikoangepassten Zinssatzes zur Berechnung von Kapitalkosten: Schon die Verwendung eines risikoangepassten Kapitalkostensatzes im Rahmen der Planung kann problematisch sein. Die Verwendung risikoangepasster Kapitalkosten als Benchmark bei der Performancemessung ist sogar ganz abzulehnen, und bei der Managemententlohnung ist die Verrechnung von risikoangepassten Kapitalkosten zwingend mit Fehlanreizen verbunden. Aber auch praxisübliche Modifikationen erweisen sich als problematisch, da Erfolgskomponenten nicht bzw. nicht vollständig berücksichtigt werden. Im Gegensatz zu herkömmlichen Konzepten weist das VBM-Konzept ERIC eine tatsächliche theoretische Fundierung auf. In Velthuis (2003c) werden grundlegende theoretische und praktische Anforderungen für die einzelnen Anwendungsbereiche herausgearbeitet und es wird gezeigt, dass ein integriertes VBM-Konzept auf Basis des Residualgewinns ERIC diese Anforderungen stets erfüllt. Ziel dieses Aufsatzes ist es, die Grundkonzeption von ERIC theoretisch weiter zu entwickeln. Während in Velthuis (2003c) stets von einer sehr einfachen Idealwelt ausgegangen wird, soll hier zum einen verdeutlicht werden, wie ein erfolgreiches Value Based Management auf Basis von ERIC in komplexeren und realitätsnäheren Situationen erfolgen kann. Zum anderen gilt es, zusätzliche praktische Problembereiche zu erkennen und Lösungsmöglichkeiten aufzuzeigen. Der Aufsatz ist wie folgt aufgebaut: Zunächst wird gezeigt, wie der Residualgewinn ERIC zu berechnen ist, und es wird ein Überblick über die Anwendungsbereiche gegeben. Anschließend wird die grundlegende Entscheidungssituation für die späteren Darstellungen erörtert und es werden fundamentale Prinzipien des Value Based Managements und ihre Bedeutung für die einzelnen Anwendungsbereichen erläutert. Sodann wird für die einzelnen Bereichen des Value Based Managements, der Planung, Performancemessung, Managemententlohnung und der Bereichssteuerung gezeigt, wie ERIC anzuwenden ist, damit eine tatsächliche Shareholder-Orientierung gewährleistet wird. Die Darstellungen erfolgen dabei jeweils zunächst vor dem Hintergrund einer Idealwelt. In einem zweiten Schritt wird die Entscheidungssituation jeweils modifiziert, um der Realität ein Stück näher zu kommen.
Much has been written on the success of the Indian software industry, enumerating systemic factors like first-class higher education and research institutions, both public and private; low labour costs, stimulating (state) policies etc. However, although most studies analyzing the 'Indian' software industry cover essentially the South (and West) Indian clusters, this issue has not been tackled explicitly. This paper supplements the economic geography explanations mentioned above with the additional factor social capital, which is not only important within the region, but also in transnational (ethnic) networks linking Indian software clusters with the Silicon Valley. In other words, spatial proximity is complemented with cultural proximity, thereby, extending the system of innovation. The main hypothesis is that some Indian regions are more apt to economic development and innovation due to their higher affinity to education and learning, as well as, their more general openness, which has been a main finding of my interviews. In addition, the transnational networks of Silicon Valley Indians seem to be dominated by South Indians, thus, corroborating the regional clustering of the Indian software industry. JEL Classifications: O30, R12, Z13, L86
This paper aims to analyze the impact of different types of venture capitalists on the performance of their portfolio firms around and after the IPO. We thereby investigate the hypothesis that different governance structures, objectives and track record of different types of VCs have a significant impact on their respective IPOs. We explore this hypothesis by using a data set embracing all IPOs which occurred on Germany's Neuer Markt. Our main finding is that significant differences among the different VCs exist. Firms backed by independent VCs perform significantly better two years after the IPO compared to all other IPOs and their share prices fluctuate less than those of their counterparts in this period of time. Obviously, independent VCs, which concentrated mainly on growth stocks (low book-to-market ratio) and large firms (high market value), were able to add value by leading to less post-IPO idiosyncratic risk and more return (after controlling for all other effects). On the contrary, firms backed by public VCs (being small and having a high book-to-market ratio) showed relative underperformance. Klassifikation: G10, G14, G24 . 29th January 2004 .
This paper sets out to analyze the influence of different types of venture capitalists on the performance of their portfolio firms around and after IPO. We investigate the hypothesis that different governance structures, objectives, and track records of different types of VCs have a significant impact on their respective IPOs. We explore this hypothesis using a data set embracing all IPOs that have occurred on Germany's Neuer Markt. Our main finding is that significant differences among the different VCs exist. Firms backed by independent VCs perform significantly better two years after IPO as compared to all other IPOs, and their share prices fluctuate less than those of their counterparts in this period of time. On the contrary, firms backed by public VCs show relative underperformance. The fact that this could occur implies that market participants did not correctly assess the role played by different types of VCs.
The paper explains the absence of resultative secondary predication in Russian as arising from a conflict of inferential interpretations. It formalises the framework necessary to express this proposal in terms of abductive reasoning with Poole systems in Gricean contexts. The conflict is shown to arise for default rules regulating alternative realisation of verb-internally specified consequent states. The paper thus indicates that typological variation may be due not only to different parameter values but to general inferential properties of the syntax-semantics mapping. The proposed theory also contradicts some widespread proposals that the absence of resultative secondary predication is due to the absence of some particular language feature.
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Europäische Bankkonzerne sind nicht nur verpflichtet, konsolidierte Jahresabschlüsse zu erstellen, sie müssen seit Mitte der achtziger Jahre darüber hinaus ihr gesamtes regulatives Eigenkapital im Wege eines weiteren Konsolidierungsverfahrens ermitteln. Dieses Verfahren hat der deutsche Gesetzgeber im Kreditwesengesetz kodifiziert. Der folgende Beitrag erörtert offene Fragen, die sich bei Anwendung der kreditwesenrechtlichen Vorschriften über die Kapitalkonsolidierung stellen, und zeigt die Konsequenzen auf, die das Konsolidierungsverfahren auf die Geschäftsentfaltungsmöglickeiten der Konzernunternehmen hat. Die anschließende Analyse der Zweckmäßigkeit des Verfahrens soll belegen, dass sich die Pflicht zur Durchführung einer besonderen bankaufsichtsrechtlichen Kapitalkonsolidierung kaum rechtfertigen lässt. Der Autor plädiert daher für deren Abschaffung und für die Einführung einer generellen Pflicht zur Unterlegung von Bank-an-Bank Beteiligungen mit Haftungsmitteln.
Financial theory creates a puzzle. Some authors argue that high-risk entrepreneurs choose debt contracts instead of equity contracts since risky but high returns are of relatively more value for a loan-financed firm. On the contrary, authors who focus explicitly on start-up finance predict that entrepreneurs are the more likely to seek equity-like venture capital contracts, the more risky their projects are. Our paper makes a first step to resolve this puzzle empirically. We present microeconometric evidence on the determinants of debt and equity financing in young and innovative SMEs. We pay special attention to the role of risk for the choice of the financing method. Since risk is not directly observable we use different indicators for financial and project risk. It turns out that our data generally confirms the hypothesis that the probability that a young high-tech firm receives equity financing is an increasing function of the financial risk. With regard to the intrinsic project risk, our results are less conclusive, as some of our indicators of a risky project are found to have a negative effect on the likelihood to be financed by private equity.
This paper proves correctness of Nocker s method of strictness analysis, implemented for Clean, which is an e ective way for strictness analysis in lazy functional languages based on their operational semantics. We improve upon the work of Clark, Hankin and Hunt, which addresses correctness of the abstract reduction rules. Our method also addresses the cycle detection rules, which are the main strength of Nocker s strictness analysis. We reformulate Nocker s strictness analysis algorithm in a higherorder lambda-calculus with case, constructors, letrec, and a nondeterministic choice operator used as a union operator. Furthermore, the calculus is expressive enough to represent abstract constants like Top or Inf. The operational semantics is a small-step semantics and equality of expressions is defined by a contextual semantics that observes termination of expressions. The correctness of several reductions is proved using a context lemma and complete sets of forking and commuting diagrams. The proof is based mainly on an exact analysis of the lengths of normal order reductions. However, there remains a small gap: Currently, the proof for correctness of strictness analysis requires the conjecture that our behavioral preorder is contained in the contextual preorder. The proof is valid without referring to the conjecture, if no abstract constants are used in the analysis.
The paper is a follow-up to an article published in Technique Financière et Developpement in 2000 (see the appendix to the hardcopy version), which portrayed the first results of a new strategy in the field of development finance implemented in South-East Europe. This strategy consists in creating microfinance banks as greenfield investments, that is, of building up new banks which specialise in providing credit and other financial services to micro and small enterprises, instead of transforming existing credit-granting NGOs into formal banks, which had been the dominant approach in the 1990s. The present paper shows that this strategy has, in the course of the last five years, led to the emergence of a network of microfinance banks operating in several parts of the world. After discussing why financial sector development is a crucial determinant of general social and economic development and contrasting the new strategy to former approaches in the area of development finance, the paper provides information about the shareholder composition and the investment portfolio of what is at present the world's largest and most successful network of microfinance banks. This network is a good example of a well-functioning "private public partnership". The paper then provides performance figures and discusses why the creation of such a network seems to be a particularly promising approach to the creation of financially self-sustaining financial institutions with a clear developmental objective.
We investigate the connection between corporate governance system configurations and the role of intermediaries in the respective systems from a informational perspective. Building on the economics of information we show that it is meaningful to distinguish between internalisation and externalisation as two fundamentally different ways of dealing with information in corporate governance systems. This lays the groundwork for a description of two types of corporate governance systems, i.e. insider control system and outsider control system, in which we focus on the distinctive role of intermediaries in the production and use of information. It will be argued that internalisation is the prevailing mode of information processing in insider control system while externalisation dominates in outsider control system. We also discuss shortly the interrelations between the prevailing corporate governance system and types of activities or industry structures supported.
The paper explores factors that influence the design of financing contracts between venture capital investors and European venture capital funds. 122 Private Placement Memoranda and 46 Partnership Agreements are investigated in respect to the use of covenant restrictions and compensation schemes. The analysis focuses on the impact of two key factors: the reputation of VC-funds and changes in the overall demand for venture capital services. We find that established funds are more severely restricted by contractual covenants. This contradicts the conventional wisdom which assumes that established market participants care more about their reputation, have less incentive to behave opportunistically and therefore need less covenant restrictions. We also find that managers of established funds are more often obliged to invest own capital alongside with investors money. We interpret this as evidence that established funds have actually less reason to care about their reputation as compared to young funds. One reason for this surprising result could be that managers of established VC funds are older and closer to retirement and therefore put less weight on the effects of their actions on future business opportunities. We also explore the effects of venture capital supply on contract design. Gompers and Lerner (1996) show that VC-funds in the US are able to reduce the number of restrictive covenants in years with high supply of venture capital and interpret this as a result of increased bargaining power by VC-funds. We do not find similar evidence for Europe. Instead, we find that VC-funds receive less base compensation and higher performance related compensation in years with strong capital inflows into the VC industry. This may be interpreted as a signal of overconfidence: Strong investor demand seems to coincide with overoptimistic expectations by fund managers which make them willing to accept higher powered incentive schemes. JEL: G32 Keywords: Venture Capital, Contracting, Limited Partnership, Funds, Principal Agent, Compensation, Covenants, Reputation, Bargaining Power
In this article, we investigate risk return characteristics and diversification benefits when private equity is used as a portfolio component. We use a unique dataset describing 642 US-American portfolio companies with 3620 private equity investments. Information about precisely dated cash flows at the company level enables for the first time a cash flow equivalent and simultaneous investment simulation in stocks, as well as the construction of stock portfolios for benchmarking purposes. With respect to the methodology involved, we construct private equity, stock-benchmark and mixed-asset portfolios using bootstrap simulations. For the late 1990s we find a dramatic increase in the extent to which private equity outperforms stock investment. In earlier years private equity was underperforming its stock benchmarks. Within the overall class of private equity, returns on earlier private equity investment categories, like venture capital, show on average higher variations and even higher rates of failure. It is in this category in particular that high average portfolio returns are generated solely by the ability to select a few extremely well performing companies, thus compensating for lost investments. There is a high marginal diversifiable risk reduction of about 80% when the portfolio size is increased to include 15 investments. When the portfolio size is increased from 15 to 200 there are few marginal risk diversification effects on the one hand, but a large increase in managing expenditure on the other, so that an actual average portfolio size between 20 and 28 investments seems to be well balanced. We provide empirical evidence that the non-diversifiable risk that a constrained investor, who is exclusively investing in private equity, has to hold exceeds that of constrained stock investors and also the market risk. From the viewpoint of unconstrained investors with complete investment freedom, risk can be optimally reduced by constructing mixed asset portfolios. According to the various private equity subcategories analyzed, there are big differences in optimal allocations to this asset class for minimizing mixed-asset portfolio variance or maximizing performance ratios. We observe optimal portfolio weightings to be between 3% and 65%.
This paper is concerned with the tagging of spatial expressions in German newspaper articles, assigning a meaning to the expression and classifying the usages of the spatial expression and linking the derived referent to an event description. In our system, we implemented the activation of concepts in a very simple fashion, a concept is activated once (with a cost depending on the item that activated it) and is left activated thereafter. As an example, a city also activates the nodes for the region and the country it is part of, so that cities from one country are chosen over cities from different countries. A test corpus of 12 German newspaper articles was tested regarding several disambiguation strategies. Disambiguation was carried out via a beam search to find an approximately cost-optimal solution for the conflict set of potential grounding candidates for the tagged spatial expression. Test showed that the disambiguation strategies improved accuracy significantly.
As of today, estimating interest rate reaction functions for the Euro Area is hampered by the short time span since the conduct of a single monetary policy. In this paper we circumvent the common use of aggregated data before 1999 by estimating interest rate reaction functions based on a panel including actual EMU Member States. We find that exploiting the cross-section dimen- sion of a multi-country panel and accounting for cross-country heterogeneity in advance of the single monetary policy pays off with regard to the estimated reaction functions' ability to describe actual interest rate dynamics. We retrieve a panel reaction function which is demonstrated to be a valuable tool for evaluating episodes of monetary policy since 1999. JEL - Klassifikation: E43 , E58 , C33