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According to the standard account, IPRs allocate objects to owners, just like ownership allocates real property. In this paper, I explain that this simplistic paradigm operates on the basis of three fictions: The first – truly Polanyian – fiction concerns IP subject matter that was originally not produced for sale but created for other purposes, e.g. private pleasure. The second fiction is that IP is treated as a marketable good whereas much IP, in particular works and signs, are embedded in communication. Finally, IP is a fictitious concept in that we speak of works, inventions, and other IP objects as of tangible commodities, where in fact IP objects only exist insofar and because we speak and regulate as if they exist as abstract “goods” of value.
The "Suma de tratos y contratos" (1569-1571) by Tomás de Mercado is the first legal treatise on trade that explicitly takes into account the specificities of Spanish trade with the Indias. Tomás de Mercado was faced with very profound changes in trade: long distances, large convoy sizes, the need for large amounts of funding, high risk, variations in prices and the value of money...
From a theological-legal point of view, these upheavals posed new and complex questions.
Mercado, advisor to the merchants of Seville and an excellent knowledge of New Spain, analyses the sudden transformation of economic and juridical practice with finesse and realism. The 'Suma' is thus an extraordinary real-time testimony to the profound transformations taking place in 16th century commerce.
Moreover, faced with fundamental questions of moral order and juridical legitimacy, Mercado proposes legal solutions of high equilibrium in which theological imperatives are masterfully reconciled with the needs of transatlantic commercial practice.
The purpose of this chapter is to analyze the concept of solidarity and distinguish various conceptions of solidarity that differ depending on social and normative contexts. The analysis helps to clarify both the different meanings of the term “solidarity” (and the different normative conceptions) and to avoid some of its pitfalls. The latter stem from making false connections between these conceptions, such as the assumption that solidarity must always be of an ethical or nationalist nature, that it is categorially different from justice or is always supererogatory. Solidarity as a virtue comes in many forms and with many justifications and grounds, and one must not reduce this plurality, but instead describe it properly. As already indicated, this opens up the possibility of conflicts between these contexts and dimensions of solidarity. The (as argued) “normatively dependent” concept of solidarity does not tell us to which form we ought to accord priority.
The Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan (SUMP) is a concept of the European Union. The non-binding guidelines formulated within this framework aim to help municipalities and cities to strategically define a local and long term transport and mobility plan. From the European Union's point of view, citizen participation plays a pivotal role during all phases – from the development of the plan until its implementation. This intends to achieve greater support and acceptance from the community for the plan, and to facilitate its implementation.
This paper investigates whether the planning and political SUMP approach guarantees successful participatory processes, and what conclusions can be drawn to amend the SUMP process and general transport planning practice. It discusses how citizen participation is defined in the SUMP guidelines and how these elements are reflected in the SUMP guidelines of 2013 and 2019. In a second step, this paper shows how successful citizen participation is defined in an academic context and to what extent the SUMP reflects these findings. The findings derived from the academic context are then applied to the case studies of Ghent and Limburg in order to evaluate how successfully participation procedures were implemented in these SUMP processes. Finally, the question - what conclusions can be drawn from this to improve the SUMP process and general transport planning practice - is assessed.
Six species of lichens are described as new from Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil): Astrothelium aureoirregulare Aptroot & Gumboski, Bogoriella xantholateralis Aptroot, Lecanora umbilicatimmersa Aptroot & Spielmann, Lepra lichexanthonorstictica Aptroot, Megalaria flavosorediata Aptroot and Vainionora sorediata Aptroot. Moreover, 28 further species are reported which are first records for Brazil; and a further 166 are first records for Santa Catarina and 104 for Rio Grande do Sul.
Ten species of the lichen family Graphidaceae are treated in the ninth contribution to this series. Four species are new to science: Allographa cameroonensis Kalb & Schumm from Cameroon differs from A. grandis in having larger ascospores and in the lack of secondary lichen products. Allographa kuetchangiana Kalb & Schumm from Thailand differs from A. mexicana in having a permanent thalline cover of the ascomata and in having a whitish pruina on their top. Cruentotrema siamense Lücking & Kalb from Thailand differs from C. amazonum in having smaller ascomata and smaller ascospores. Ocellularia striata Kalb & Schumm from Thailand differs from O. jutaratiae in having smaller ascospores and in lacking the purplish, K+ greenish pigment which covers the remnants of the split proper exciple. Rhabdodiscus exutus (Hale) Kalb & Schumm is a new combination (Bas.: Ocellularia exuta Hale). Photographs of Allographa mexicana (Hale) Lücking & Kalb (including an isotype) show the variation of the ascomata and the differences to A. kuetchangiana. Allographa isidiata (Hale) Lücking & Kalb is reported from Ecuador, which is a new addition to the lichenobiota of this country and the second finding of this species after its description. Allographa plagiocarpa (Fée) Lücking & Kalb, before misidentified as A. mexicana, from Cartago Province is the second report of this species from Costa Rica. The chemistry of Ocellularia kohphanganensis Papong, Mangold & Lücking and the exact spelling of the specific epithet are corrected. Ocellularia macrocrocea Kalb is a new addition to the lichenobiota of Thailand where it is sometimes growing together with O. striata. The intraspecific variation of Ocellularia thelotremoides (Leight.) Hale ist discussed and the name is put on the correct place of the amended key to Thai Ocellularia species. Cochromatography of some Ocellularia species with a deep orange-yellow pigment together with a pure sample of skyrin in solvents A, B' and C showed identical Rf-values in all three solvent systems.
Four new Astrothelium species and a Mazaediothecium from Várzea areas in Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil
(2020)
Five species of lichens are described as new from Várzea areas in Mato Grosso do Sul (Brazil): Astrothelium fernandae, A. pseudodermatodes, A. septoconicum, A. xanthopseudocyphellatum, and Mazaediothecium serendipiticum, the latter being deviating from all other species in its order by the at least morphologically chlorococcoid photobiont. Further, we found 226 identifiable species in the Várzea reserve near Jateí and 47 on a farm near Naviraí. Of these, 15 are new records for Brazil and a further 88 are first reports from the state.
The Pantanal is a wetland biome in the interior of Brazil. It is known for its rich macrofauna. Botanically, it is relatively species poor, although the marshes have trees and shrubs throughout and there are occasional forested, even somewhat rocky hills. Lichens have received only scant attention so far, but the area is not very species rich (Canêz et al. 2020). We visited the Pantanal several times and collected in different areas. Here we describe four new species, one of which is locally the most common macrolichen, which was found on places elsewhere in the state and in the bordering state of Mato Grosso as well.
Since 2015, 90 taxa of lichens and 18 lichenicolous fungi have been recorded from Turkey for the first time. Further 707 taxa are new to one or more provinces. In this paper 2 species are new to Turkey. A list of 82 published papers is also provided as a supplement to the bibliography of the 2017 Checklist (John & Türk (2017) of Turkish Lichens.
We show that financial advisors recommend more costly products to female clients, based on minutes from about 27,000 real-world advisory meetings and client portfolio data. Funds recommended to women have higher expense ratios controlling for risk, and women less often receive rebates on upfront fees for any given fund. We develop a model relating these findings to client stereotyping, and empirically verify an additional prediction: Women (but not men) with higher financial aptitude reject recommendations more frequently. Women state a preference for delegating financial decisions, but appear unaware of associated higher costs. Evidence of stereotyping is stronger for male advisors.
Eight new lichen species are described from South America, Malaysia and Thailand, viz. Chapsa canaimae from Venezuela, which differs from C. alborosella in having distictly smaller ascospores with less septa, Dirinaria hypoleuca from Thailand, which differs from the isidiate D. papillulifera in having a whitish lower surface, Myriotrema robertianum from Brazil, which differs from M. viride in having an inspersed hymenium, Myriotrema subzollingeri from Brazil, which differs from M. glauculum in having brown ascospores, Ocellularia jutaratiae from Brazil, which differs from O. crocea in having ascomata with a fissured margin, Ocellularia subnatashae from Brazil, which differs from O. natashae in lacking hirtifructic and conhirtifructic acids and in having smaller and less sepatate ascospores, Redingeria uniseptata from Brazil, which differs from R. vulcani in having smaller and 1-septate ascospores, Thalloloma intermedium from Brazil, which differs from T. anguiniforme in having smaller ascospores. Chapsa pulchella from Malaysia is a new record for Borneo and the first finding after its description, and Redonographa parvispora from Brasil is a new addition to the lichen biota of this country. All species mentioned are described and illustrated with close-up photographs.
Eleven species of lichens are described as new from the Serra do Bodoquena in Mato Grosso do Sul (Brazil): Alyxoria cyanea, Astrothelium ochraceum, Chiodecton xanthonosorediatum, Gyalecta perithecioidea, Gyalecta uniseptata, Pyrenula rubroacutispora, Ramonia xylophila, Synarthonia xanthosarcographoides, Trypethelium aureornatum, Trypethelium endoflavum, and Trypethelium xanthostiolornatum. Around 400 further species are reported, of which 27 are first records for Brazil and 265 are first records for the state.
Nine species of Graphidaceae are described as new to science from South and Central Brazil, in 7 different genera: Acanthothecis normuralis, A. psoromica, Acanthotrema minus, Aggregatorygma submuriforme, Allographa medioinspersa, Diorygma isidiolichexanthonicum, Fissurina excavatisorediosa, Graphis norsorediata, and Graphis tricolor.
New or otherwise interesting lichens. VII, including a world key to the lichen genus Heiomasia
(2020)
Eight species new to science are described, Allographa grandis from Cameroon which is distinguished by its very large ascomata, richly muriform, large ascospores and an inspersed hymenium (type B); Bapalmuia microspora from Malaysia which differs from B. consanguinea in having shorter and broader ascospores and a granular thallus; Diorygma cameroonense from Cameroon which differs from D. sticticum in having larger ascospores with more septa; Glyphis frischiana which is similar to G. atrofusca but differs in producing secondary lichen compounds, the first species in Glyphis in doing so. Two new species are added to the genus Heiomasia, viz. H. annamariae from Malaysia, which differs from H. sipmanii in producing the stictic acid aggr. and H. siamensis from Thailand, distinguished from H. sipmanii in containing hypoprotocetraric acid as a major metabolite. The published chemistry of several species of Heiomasia is revised and a new substance, heiomaseic acid, with relative Rf-values 5/19/8, is demonstrated for H. seaveyorum, H. siamensis and H. sipmanii. A world-wide key to the known species of Heiomasia is presented. Myriotrema squamiferum, a fertile species from Malaysia, is distinguished from M. frondosolucens by lacking lichexanthone. As there are conflicting literature data concerning Ocellularia crocea, the type specimen was investigated and the results are reported. Ocellularia macrocrocea, a related species from Malaysia, differs from O. rubropolydiscus in lacking the red pigment covering the disc of the ascomata and in having a broad stump-shaped columella. A revised chemistry for Ocellularia tanii, a new record for Sarawak, is also given. A table of Rfvalues and scans of relevant TLC runs facilitate the interpretation of the spots occurring on TLC plates of Graphidaceae.
Fascicle XVI of the exsiccate "K. KALB & A. APTROOT: LICHENES NEOTROPICI" (new name for "K. KALB: LICHENES NEOTROPIC" from fascicle XVI onwards) with 23 lichen specimens (No. 628–650) from Brazil, Chile, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Kenya, Peru and Venezuela is distributed. Three species are described as new, namely Lopadium subcoralloideum Aptroot & Kalb, Lecanactis caceresiana Kalb & Aptroot and Rhizocarpon sipmanianum Kalb & Aptroot. The holotypes of the new species are deposited at Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS). Range extensions are reported for Hypocenomyce tinderreyensis (new to the Neo-tropics; so far only known from Australia, but apparently austral), Ocellularia baorucensis (new to Brazil), Physcidia striata (recently described from Rondônia and the Venezuelean Amazon, and subsequently reported from Amapá and Brazilian Amazonas. The collection from Brazil/Mato Grosso do Sul represents a major range extension to the South), Tephromela campestricola (new to the Neotropics; not different in any way from European material) and Xanthoparmelia arvidssonii (new to Venezuela).
The recently observed disconnect between inflation and economic activity can be explained by the interplay between the zero lower bound (ZLB) and the costs of external financing. In normal times, credit spreads and the nominal interest rate balance out; factor costs dominate firms' marginal costs. When nominal rates are constrained, larger spreads can more than offset the effect of lower factor costs and induce only moderate inflation responses. The Phillips curve is hence flat at the ZLB, but features a positive slope in normal times and thus a hockey stick shape. Via this mechanism, forward guidance may induce deflationary effects.
We conducted a large-scale household survey in November 2020 to study how altering the time frame of a message (temporal framing) regarding an imminent positive income shock affects consumption plans. The income shock derives from the abolishment of the German solidarity surcharge on personal income taxes, effective in January 2021. We randomize across survey participants whether their extra disposable income is presented in Euros per month, Euros per year, or Euros per ten year-period. Our main findings are as follows: In General, we find our respondents’ intended Marginal Propensity to Consume (MPC) is 28.2%. Across all three treatments, the MPC is a positive function of age and being female while it is a negative function of the income increase’s size, self- control, and being unemployed. Temporal framing effects are statistically and economically highly significant as we find the monthly treatment groups’ average MPC 5.6 and 8.7 percentage points higher compared to the yearly and 10-yearly treatment groups. We will be able to analyze the real consumption behavior of households throughout 2021 based on re-surveying the participants as well as by using transaction-based bank data.
The authors examine the effectiveness of labor cost reductions as a means to stimulate economic activity and assesses the differences which may occur with the prevailing exchange rate regime. They develop a medium-scale three-region DSGE model and show that the impact of a cut in the employers’ social security contributions rate does not vary significantly under different exchange rate regimes. They find that both the interest rate and the exchange rate channel matters. Furthermore, the measure appears to be effective even if it comes along with a consumption tax increase to preserve long-term fiscal sustainability.
Finally, they assess whether obtained theoretical results hold up empirically by applying the local projection method. Regression results suggest that changes in employers’ social security contributions rates have statistically significant real effects – a one percentage point reduction leads to an average cumulative rise in output of around 1.3 percent in the medium term. Moreover, the outcome does not differ significantly across the different exchange rate regimes.