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One of the known apoptotic pathways in mammalian cells involves release of mitochondrial Cytochrome c into the cytosol. Cyt c then together with ATP or dATP induces a conformational change in the adaptator protein Apaf-1 (a homologue of the C. elegans CED4 protein) (Zou, Henzel et al. 1997), leading to its oligomerization and the recruitment of several pro-Casp-9 molecules. This protein complex assembly called "apoptosome" leads to the activation of Casp-9 which then initiates or amplifies the caspase cascade. The cell death program can be stalled at several points and we were interested in identifying new proteins inhibiting cell death downstream of Cyt c release. This thesis describes how I have screened a cDNA library derived from a pool of human breast carcinomas in a yeast-based survival screen, using the S. pombe yeast strain HC4 containing an inducible CED4 construct(James, Gschmeissner et al. 1997). The screen resulted in the identification of six proteins displaying cell death-inhibiting activity in S. pombe as well as anti-apoptotic potential in mammalian cells. Those six molecules were RoRet (Ruddy, Kronmal et al. 1997), Aven (Chau, Cheng et al. 2000), Fte-1/S3a (Kho, Wang et al. 1996), PGC2 (Padilla, Kaur et al. 2000; Goetze, Eilers et al. 2002), SAA1-2ß (Moriguchi, Terai et al. 2001) and FBP (Brockstedt, Rickers et al. 1998) of which I selected RoRet, Aven and Fte-1/S3a for further analysis. RoRet is a new anti-apoptotic molecule that can inhibit the mitochondrial pathway via its PRY-SPRY domain. RoRet does not seem to bind to Apaf-1, and does not co-localize with the activated Apaf-1/Caspase-9 complex. Aven was published to act as an anti-apoptotic protein and suggested to function via the recruitment of Bcl-XL to Apaf-1. This work shows that its C-terminal domain can bind to Apaf-1 and has a strong anti-apoptotic activity by itself. Moreover, Aven co-localizes with the activated Apaf-1/Caspase-9 complex suggesting that it is a component of the apoptosome. Furthermore, the expression of Aven is regulated in mammary glands during the pregnancy cycle. Fte-1/S3a has been already implicated in increased transformation capacity of v-Fos in fibroblasts (Kho and Zarbl 1992; Kho, Wang et al. 1996). This work shows that it has anti-apoptotic activity and can protect against Bak- and Apaf-1-induced apoptosis. It can bind directly to activated Apaf-1 at the linker domain between the WD40 repeats and the CED4-like domain, suggesting that it may protect by sequestering the activated Apaf-1 to some organelles whose nature remains to be determined. Moreover, expression studies on mRNA and protein level showed upregulation of Fte-1/S3a in colon, lung and kidney carcinoma. Hmgb1 (Flohr, Rogalla et al. 2001; Pasheva, Ugrinova et al. 2002; Stros, Ozaki et al. 2002) was identified during a survival screen performed with a NIH 3T3 mouse fibroblast cDNA library in a Bak-expressing yeast S. pombe strain. HMGB1 can protect against Bak-, UV-, FasL- and TRAIL-induced apoptosis. Significant overexpression of HMGB1 was found in breast and colon carcinoma, and elevated mRNA amounts were detected in uterus, colon and stomach carcinoma, suggesting that it may be a tumour marker (Brezniceanu et al., 2003).
The mechanism of peptide transport has been studied on two different ABC transporters of S. cerevisiae. Thereby, the aim of this PhD thesis was to characterise the transporter function on molecular level and shed light on the physiological role of these transporters. The ABC gene YLL048 encodes a novel intracellular transporter translocating peptides from the cytosol to the lumen of the ER. Deletion of the gene resulted in loss of peptide transport activity. The transport activity was fully restored after transformation of the deletion mutant by plasmid-encoded YLL048. Studying the substrate specificity using randomized peptide libraries it was demonstrated that peptides of the size from 6 to 56 amino acids are recognized. So far, no upper limit of the substrate size was obtained. Introduction of D-amino acids in various positions of a nonamer peptide did not impair transport activity. The physiological function of YLL048p is not well understood. The gene product is not essential for cell viability as the deletion mutant did not show any growth phenotype. To examine the possibility that YLL048 encoded protein is part of a quality control of yeast cells involved in the unfolded protein response (UPR), upregulation of YLL048 transcription by heat shock and stress conditions were investigated. We could not observe an influence of stress factors on YLL048 mRNA level. Upregulation of gene expression by the transcription factors Pdr1p and Pdr3p was excluded. The ABC transporter Mdl1p has been identified as peptide transporter of the inner mitochondrial membrane. This protein is required for the export of peptides with the size of 6 to 21 amino acids from the matrix into the intermembrane space. These peptides are generated by m-AAA proteases degrading non-assembled or missfolded membrane proteins. In order to understand the transport mechanism in detail, Mdl1p was expressed in S. cerevisiae and E. coli. Partially enriched protein was reconstituted into liposomes and was active in ATP binding. The association of the NBDs has been described as a central step of the ATPase cycle of ABC transporters, but it is still controversial how both motor domains cooperate and coordinate ATP hydrolysis. To address this question, the Mdl1p-NBD was overexpressed in E. coli and purified to homogeneity. The isolated NBD was active in ATP binding and hydrolysis with a turnover of 0.5 ATP per min and a Km value of 0.2 mM. Isolated NBDs did not show cooperativity in ATPase activity. However, the ATPase activity was observed to be non-linearly dependent on protein concentration suggesting the active form of this enzyme is not a monomer. Very importantly, for the first time an ATP-induced dimer was observed after trapping the NBD by ortho-vanadate or BeFx. The nucleotide composition of the trapped intermediate state was determined and two ADP molecules were simultaneously bound per dimer. An ATP-induced dimer of the ATPase inactive mutant (E559Q) was observed already in the absence of ATPase inhibitor. The E599Q dimer contained two ATP molecules in the absence of Mg2+ at 4°C. Prolonged incubation at 30°C in the presence of Mg2+ induced a stable dimer in which one ATP and ADP molecule were trapped at the same time. Based on these experiments, a new cycle for ATPase activity of ABC transporters was proposed. Binding of ATP to two NBD monomers induces dimerization. Both nucleotides are hydrolysed sequentially. During the hydrolysis cycle the nucleotides cannot be released from the dimer. After hydrolysis of two ATP molecules the domains dissociate and start a new cycle.
For palaeotropical regions, only a few anecdotal reports had been published on the existence of 'ant-gardens' before this study started. As opposed to this, 'ant-house epiphytes' (i.e. domatiabearing epiphytes) were reported to be highly abundant in Southeast Asia and were presumed to be a second type of ant-epiphyte interaction. In the much better studied neotropical regions the situation seemed to be the reverse: Many reports on AGs in contrast to very few reports on anthouse epiphytes. In this study, I have presented extensive data which may help towards a better understanding of the 'Southeast Asian part' of this 'ant-epiphyte puzzle'. In Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo, Java, and Southern Thailand, a great variety of formerly unknown AG systems were discovered. 18 ant species (from 5 genera, 4 subfamilies) were identified as true AG ants, i.e. these ants actively retrieved seeds of certain epiphyte species into their carton nests. Another 49 ant species inhabited AGs as secondary, opportunistic settlers. On the epiphyte side, 84 plant species were found growing on AGs, 51 (19 genera, 12 families) of which were probably true AG epiphytes, i.e. ants retrieved the seeds to their arboreal carton nests, on which the epiphytes were then cultivated. Most of the epiphyte flora of lowland forests in Peninsular Malaysia (except for ferns, orchids and facultative epiphytes) seemed to be totally dependent on ants for their establishment in the canopy. Together with the high number of opportunistic AG inhabitants (ants, epiphytes, and many arthropod guests), these facts suggest that AGs function as pioneers in the canopy of Southeast Asian rain forests. Moreover, AG-associations might even have accounted for the unusual species richness in the epiphyte genera Dischidia, Hoya (Asclepiadaceae), Myrmecodia, and Hydnophytum (Rubiaceae). The definition of the term ant-garden only describes the basic interactions. In the ant-garden associations investigated in this study, interactions going beyond these basic ones varied depending on ant and epiphyte species. Ant-gardens initiated by Diacamma spKfmA111 were regarded as the 'most primitive' type, because this ponerine was totally dependent on preformed cavities for nest establishment, did not tend any trophobionts, and was the least selective in its seed-retrieving behavior. On the other end of the scale, Crematogaster spKfmA18 and Camponotus spKfmA9 were rated as 'most advanced' because both lived in free (i.e. cavityindependent) AGs, tended trophobionts underneath their nests, were associated with a couple of other organisms, and were highly selective in their seed-retrieving behavior. Moreover, Camponotus spKfmA9 occurred preferentially with one single epiphyte species, Hoya elliptica (Asclepiadaceae), and Crematogaster spKfmA18 was specialized on some species of giant bamboo as phorophyte. Philidris spKfmA160, which occupied a medium position in relation to the other AGs was particularly interesting for several reasons. This ant species was mainly associated with ant- house epiphytes and occurred in the heath forests of Borneo. However, the major part of the colonies, including the queen, was located underneath carton structures near the surface of the host tree and not inside the domatia of the associated plants. Moreover, very young Philidris spKfmA160 colonies had only small seedlings growing on their carton nests. The ant workers actively retrieved the seeds of their epiphyte partners into the nests. These results indicate that associations with ant-house epiphytes must be regarded as a special case of ant-gardens. I therefore suggest using the term 'ant-house' only to describe the epiphytes, but not to describe the association, and to include this type of association in the group of AGs. Strict species-specificity never occurred, but some epiphytes showed great preference for growing on the nests of certain ant species, while others occurred over a wider range. Vice versa, most ant species had several epiphytes growing on their nests, while others were mostly found with one or very few epiphyte species. These patterns were shown to be the effect of different factors, including common microclimatic preferences of ants and epiphytes, interspecific competition of epiphytes, and selective seed retrieval of AG ants. The main behavioral trait responsible for the establishment of AGs was the selectivity shown by the ants in the epiphyte seeds they carried. However, details of the mechanisms, i.e. what characteristics of the seeds are important and what motivates the ants to retrieve them, varied widely. In many cases, seed compounds located on the surface triggered carrying behavior. Detailed experimental investigations combined with literature data from the two other known 'myrmecochory systems', terricolous myrmecochores and neotropical AGs, suggested that myrmecochory is frequently triggered by a two-stage system. One relatively unspecific compound (or a combination of such compounds) constitutes the basic attractiveness for a number of ant species. Other seed characteristics (elaiosomes, mechanical properties, other surface-compounds) modulate this basic signal, accounting for species-specific preferences of ants towards certain plant species. A comparison of AGs in Southeast Asia and the neotropics shows that the numbers of AG ant and epiphyte species in each case are almost equal. Southeast Asian AG epiphytes might even turn out to outnumber the neotropical ones. Thus, not only was it possible to break down the distinction between ant-house and AG associations, but also to show that AGs in Southeast Asia are present in such high diversity and abundance as to diminish the apparent contrast between the two biogeographical regions yet further. These data help to solve at least the Southeast Asian part of the 'ant-epiphyte puzzle'.
One of the most species-rich ant-plant mutualisms worldwide is the palaeotropical Crematogaster-Macaranga system. The pioneer-tree genus Macaranga (Euphorbiaceae) is mainly inhabited by at least nine specific species of Crematogaster (Myrmicinae), of which eight belong to the subgenus Decacrema, as well as several species of Camponotus (Formicinae). Ant species are not randomly distributed among the Macaranga host plants but distinct patterns of associations have been found (Fiala et al., 1999 and references cited therein). The specificity of the associations is maintained in spite of common sympatric distribution of several host-plant species. Associations are, however, usually not species-specific and especially the Decacrema ants, that are the focus of this study, usually colonize several host plant species each. In this study I used a combined approach of ecological data as well as phylogenetic data based on mitochondrial DNA sequences in order to elucidate the factors determining the patterns found in the associations and the evolution of this mutualistic system between the specific Decacrema ant partners and their Macaranga host plants. Life history traits of seven different morphospecies found on the most common Macaranga host plants were compared and colony development was followed from colony founding on saplings to adult trees. Temporal variability of the associations between Decacrema ants and their respective host plants was also examined. Associations between Crematogaster ants of the subgenus Decacrema and their Macaranga host plants were found to be stable over periods of time, long enough to enable reproduction of the ant colony and (in most cases) the host plants, too. Life-expectancy of the ant colony seems to be shorter than that of the host plant in general. All adult trees still provide nesting space as well as food for the ants. Colonies from different morphospecies differed in longevity, the onset of alate production, queen number and mode of colony founding. The examined Decacrema species could be placed into two groups according to their life-history traits as well as on morphological grounds: The decamera-group and the captiosa-group, each named after one species that could be synonymized with one morphospecies included in the group. Members of the captiosa-group have larger colonies, presumably with a longer life-span, and a later onset of reproduction compared to the decamera-group. Additionally, queens of the captiosa-group found colonies on saplings as well as in the crown region of bigger trees, whereas queens of the decamera-group found colonies on saplings and small treelets only. Queens belonging to the captiosa-group are brown with relatively large eyes (= 1/3 of the head length), whereas queens from the decamera-group are smaller in size, are dark brown to black in colour and have smaller eyes (< 1/3 of the head length). On some of the host plants examined in this study lifespan of the host plant and their specific ant partners seemed to be well matched whereas on others an ontogenetic succession of specific Decacrema partner ants was found, when host plants were abandoned due to the death of comparatively short-lived ant colonies, usually from species belonging to the decamera-group. Ant-partners of saplings or young plants often differed from specific partner ants found on bigger trees. Only species belonging to the captiosa-group were found to re-colonize the crown region of adult trees, thus facilitating a change of ant species, when longlived host plant species were colonized by relatively short-lived species from the decamera-group first. When long -lived host plants were colonized by long-lived species from the captiosa-group associations were stabler: I did not find any temporal variation in ant-inhabitants then. Life-span of the ant colony as well colony founding behaviour of the different partner ant species therefore play an important role for these ontogenetic changes and the specificity of the associations over time. For the host plant the ontogenetic changes have a strong impact as uninhabited host plants that are not patrolled by workers of specific ant partners suffer higher herbivore damage. Uninhabited host plants may also be colonized by unspecific arboreal ants that only make use of the nesting space and/ or food offered by the plant but do not confer protection against herbivores. Stable associations with a specific ant partner are therefore most beneficial for the host plants. Usually ant colonies are monogynous, but changes in the colony structure were found locally in two Decacrema species. I found colonies that turned secondarily polygynous, possibly after the death of the original founding queen. Secondary polygyny therefore can prolong the life-span of the antcolony on its host plant, leading to a parallel life-history and stable association as it was the case in Macaranga bancana-Crematogaster captiosa. However, in the other association (Macaranga hypoleuca-Crematogaster cf. decamera) life-expectancy of the ant-colony is still much shorter than that of its host plant species, leading to a change in the specific ant partner at a later stage. Pleometrotic foundress associations that directly led to polygynous colonies in one species were also found locally, a phenomenon hardly ever reported from ants in general. Foundress associations were found to be more successful in establishing colonies than single queens. I found indications that this change in colony founding behaviour might be due to interspecific competition for the same host plant species with another Decacrema species specific to Macaranga. For the phylogenetic analysis partial mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I and II were sequenced and Neighbor-Joining, Maximum Parsimony, Maximum Likelihood as well as Bayesian analyses were performed. The four different analyses yielded phenetic as well as phylogenetic trees that all had a similar topology. Ants of the subgenus Decacrema formed a monophyletic clade, indicating a single colonization event at the beginning of the Macaranga-Decacrema symbiotic system. In the phylogenetic analysis the decamera-group as well as the captiosa-group were confirmed and clearly separated from each other. However, two species that would have been placed into the decamera-group, due to morphological as well as life-history traits, formed a third separate clade within the Decacrema. These two species (msp. 7- group) as well as the decamera-group came out as the basal groups in the phylogenetic analysis. Thus, life -history traits of these two groups (relatively small colonies, early onset of alate production, colony founding in ground region only) would be the ancestral state for Macarangaassociated ants of the subgenus Decacrema. Changes in colony structure, like secondary polygyny, were found in the captiosa- as well as the decamera-group and are therefore independent of the affiliation within the phylogeny. I did not find evidence for strict cocladogenesis between the subgenus Decacrema and their Macaranga host-plants, although ecological interactions between the two partner groups are close and associations can be rather specific. The phylogenies presented here, along with the known association patterns indicate that host-shifting of the ants is common in some of the species, opening the possibility of sympatric speciation as a result of increased host usage. Additionally, the considerable geographic substructuring found in the phylogenetic trees suggests that allopatric speciation has played a major role in diversification of the Decacrema ants.