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Language and transnationalism : language discourse in transnational Salsa communities of practice
(2013)
Language ideologies in contemporary Western societies are characterised by a strong influence of the idea that one language ‘pertains’ to one culture. Yet, cultural developments of globalisation, such as migration, the construction of transnational networks or global mass media, question national frameworks of culture and language.
In this thesis, after reviewing the field of language ideology and discussing historical examples of the development of national language discourse, language ideologies in a transnational context are examined. Using ethnographic research methods and a discursive approach to interview data, concepts and ideas revolving around language of transnational Communities of Practice constituted through Salsa dancing are analysed. Due to its connections to the Latin American cultural space, the practice of Salsa dancing in non-Latin contexts intrinsically constructs transnational ties. Different Salsa Communities of Practice are studied in Sydney, Australia, and Frankfurt, Germany. Interestingly, different local communities show very different ideologies concerning the role of language, multilingualism, concepts of authenticity or influences of capitalist discourse. The cross-national approach allows studying the influence of different national discourses on the formation of local ideologies in transnational contexts.
Thus, next to scrutinising the traditional concept of a ‘language’ and its relevance in a transnational age, the theoretical aim of this study is to analyse the interaction of discourses from different realms – local, regional, national, transnational – in the formation of contemporary discourses on language. These construct new symbolic meanings of language that co-exist next to the national concept of the relationship of language and culture, so that a multiplication of language boundaries can be considered to be a characteristic trait of contemporary language discourse.
This dissertation is concerned with the role of prosody and, specifically, linguistic rhythm for the syntactic processing of written text. My aim is to put forward, provide evidence for, and defend the following claims:
1. While processing written sentences, readers make use of their phonological knowledge and generate a mental prosodic-phonological representation of the printed text.
2. The mental prosodic representation is constructed in accordance with a syntactic description of the written string. Constraints at the interface of syntax and phonology provide for the compatibility of the syntactic analysis and the (mental) prosodic rendition of the sentence.
3. The implicit prosodic structure readers impose on the written string entails phonological phrasing and accentuation, but also lower level prosodic features such as linguistic rhythm which emerges from the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables.
4. Phonological well-formedness conditions accompany and influence the process of syntactic parsing in reading from the very beginning, i.e. already at the level of recognizing lexical categories. At points of underspecified syntactic structure, syntactic parsing decisions may be made on the basis of phonological constraints alone.
5. In reading, the implicit local lexical-prosodic information may be more readily available to the processing mechanism than higher-level discourse structural representations and consequently may have more immediate influence on sentence processing.
6. The process of sentence comprehension in reading is conditioned by factors that are geared towards sentence production.
7. The interplay of syntactic and phonological processes in reading can be explained with recourse to a performance-compatible competence grammar.
The evidence from three reading experiments supports these points and suggests a model of grammatical competence in which constraints from various domains (syntax, semantics, pragmatics, discourse structure, and phonology) interact in providing the possible structural, i.e. grammatical descriptions.
Während der nationalsozialistischen Zeit und beginnend schon die Jahrzehnte davor, beobachtet man eine auffallende Zunahme von Jugendschriften aller Art, die auf altnordischer Literatur basierten. Es waren Adaptionen von Isländer- und Königssagas sowie der Snorra- und Lieder-Edda. Die Arbeit versucht Ursachen dafür zu finden und beschreibt dazu auch das Umfeld der Jugendlichen und die Strategien und Ziele, die man in der Erziehung im völkischen und nationalsozialistischen Sinn anhand der behandelten Literatur verfolgte.
Hinsichtlich der Politischen Romane erscheint das allgemein schwer zu bestimmende Verhältnis von Gattungstheorie und Gattungsgeschichte als geradezu widersprüchlich: In unmittelbarer zeitlicher Nähe zu einer Anweisungspoetik entsteht eine ganze Reihe von Texten, die sich ostentativ auf diese Poetik beziehen, aber nur selten deren Anweisungen folgen. Die vorliegende gattungsgeschichtliche Untersuchung „Die Politischen Romane, eine populäre Gattung des 17. Jahrhunderts“ von Andrea Wicke legt deshalb eine rekursive Bestimmung der Gattung zugrunde: Erstmals werden grundsätzlich alle Texte herangezogen, die durch ihre paratextuelle Präsentation einen Gattungszusammenhang evozieren. Ebenfalls zum ersten Mal werden die Paratexte in umfassender Weise für eine dichte Beschreibung des historischen Gattungsdiskurses ausgewertet. Folgende Forschungsergebnisse lassen sich resümieren:
Das Phänomen der Politischen Romane ist besser zu verstehen, wenn man den literarischen Gattungsbegriff konsequent historisiert und die Politischen Romane wie Moden und Bewegungen als Ausdruck eines kulturellen Wandels begreift. Der wie eine epidemische Kurve zunächst langsam, nach 1680 stark ansteigende, nach 1684 wieder abfallende Publikationsverlauf der Politischen Romane indiziert eine besonders geartete Kommunikationssituation, als deren Produkt die populäre literarische Gattung erscheint.
Die allgemeine Frage, wie unbekannte Bücher zu Bestsellern werden, lässt sich hinsichtlich der Politischen Romane wie folgt beantworten: Mit der Adaption der satirischen Romane Christian Weises durch Johannes Riemer erreicht dessen satirische Erzählung "Der Politische Maul-Affe" Anfang des Jahres 1680 eine außergewöhnlich große Öffentlichkeit. Dafür sind außerliterarische Umstände maßgeblich, insofern die im Schüler- und Studentenmilieu angesiedelte Erzählung einen Skandal verursacht. Riemer referiert als Erster im Rahmen gattungsgenerierender imitatio auf zwei Romane Weises. Sein Verfahren, Weises Werke gegen dessen Intentionen als legitimierte Praetexte für eine satirische Schlüsselerzählung mit politischen Implikationen zu nutzen, etabliert sich und Weises Versuch, mit dem "Bericht" das Schreiben lustiger Bücher unter rhetorischen Prämissen als propädeutische Gattung für zukünftige Politici zu normieren, befördert gegen dessen Intentionen die spezifische Dynamik der Politischen Romane: Von 1680 bis 1684 erlangen die Politischen Romane durch ihr dauerndes Changieren zwischen anspielungsreicher, angriffiger Satire, kurzweiligem Schwank und prudentistischem Ratgeber eine große Wirkung. Die erstmalige Synopse aller Politischen Romane lässt erkennen, wie extensiv populäres wie elitäres Material in die Erzählungen integriert wird: Viele Episoden und Geschichten der Politischen Romane leben vom Kontrast zwischen der Vermittlung politischen Wissens mit gesellschaftsethischem Anspruch und grobianischen Sequenzen, anstößigen Motiven und vulgärem Sprachgebrauch. Die satirische Perspektive gilt meist dem traditionalen Verhalten bildungsferner Schichten; die Erzählungen thematisieren insbesondere die spezifische Zukunftserwartung junger Akademiker. Mit größerer zeitlicher Distanz zum Weißenfelser Skandal werden die Texte tendenziell stärker folklorisiert. Es scheint eine Öffentlichkeit für milieuspezifische Unterhaltungsliteratur zu entstehen, in der Autoren und Leser zur gleichen –studentischen – Ingroup gehören. Die außerliterarischen Bezüge der Texte bilden indes auch einen destabilisierenden Faktor des Gattungszusammenhangs: Skandale sind kurzlebig und 1684 hat die Popularität der Gattung ihren Scheitelpunkt erreicht. Christian Weises Stellungnahme in der Vorrede zum "Neu=erleuterten Politischen Redner" wider die Politischen Romane verstärkt den Niedergang der Gattung maßgeblich und Johannes Riemer sieht sich gezwungen, Weise in seiner abweisenden Haltung zu folgen. Mit diesen beiden Widerrufen verlieren das schillernde Epitheton politisch, der satirische Impetus und die versteckten Anspielungen auf eine gelehrte Autorschaft quasi ihren Resonanzboden. Zwar entsteht nun auch der nötige Spielraum, um den gattungsspezifischen Rahmen der Politischen Romane zu verändern und – wie Kuhnau und Ettner es tun – positiv an Weises Vorgaben anzuknüpfen. Doch bleibt es bei einzelnen Versuchen, Alternativen zu der provozierenden Performanz zu entwickeln, die den Erfolg der Gattung zu Beginn der 80er Jahre des 17. Jahrhunderts geprägt hat.
Der 1723 in Schottland geborene und 1794 in Princeton, New Jersey, verstorbene John Witherspoon hat eine Sonderstellung in der amerikanischen Kulturgeschichte, denn er gilt als Urheber der "ersten umfassenden amerikanischen Rhetorik". Diese konstituiert sich im Wesentlichen in seinen Lectures on Eloquence, seinen Lectures on Moral Philosophy sowie seiner politischen und homiletischen Redepraxis im Kontext der amerikanischen Revolution (1763-1789). Die vorliegende Studie untersucht die historiographisch-kulturwissenschaftliche Bedeutung dieses einflussreichen, fast vergessenen Gründervaters und seiner produktiven Rezeption (imitatio atque aemulatio) ciceronianisch-republikanischer Rhetorik.
Im Zentrum steht die Frage nach Witherspoons imitatio Ciceronis und inwieweit diese für den Calvinisten mit der imitatio Christi im revolutionären Prozess vereinbar war. Tatsächlich zeigt sich bei der Untersuchung ein fundamentaler Habitus-Konflikt zwischen dem ursprünglich polytheistisch und republikanisch orientierten Ciceronianus und dem monotheistischen zur Monarchie tendierenden Christianus. Dieser Konflikt erklärt zum Teil die erheblichen Diskrepanzen zwischen Witherspoons rhetorischer Praxis und Lehre. Diese beziehen sich insbesondere auf die rhetorische inventio, die Witherspoon in seinen Vorlesungen als der Lehre nicht würdig erachtet. In seinen Reden nutzt er jedoch inventive Techniken wie die Status- und Chrienlehre zur effektiven Strukturierung. Dies wird anhand von drei bedeutsamen Reden verdeutlicht (The Dominion of Providence Over the Passions of Men, "Speech on the Convention with Burgoyne" und "Sermon Delivered at a Public Thanksgiving After Peace").
Von großer Bedeutung ist die dezidierte Hochschätzung des agonistischen ciceronianischen Rednerideals. Dieses Leitbild spielt im Prozess der Konstituierung der jungen amerikanischen Republik eine vitale Rolle und taucht insbesondere als republikanische Leidenschaft auf, die Witherspoons Anverwandlung der Catilinarien Ciceros zugrunde liegt. Andererseits findet sich das Festhalten an streng konservativ-calvinistischen Prinzipien. Auch im Bereich der Rhetorik bestätigt sich daher das als "doppelköpfig" erkannte Antlitz Amerikas, insofern heidnische und christliche Tradition eine besondere Verbindung eingehen. Witherspoon konnte, als erster akademischer Vertreter des Common-Sense-Realismus in Amerika, die sich ergebenden Spannungen zwar nicht lösen, aber offenbar mit seiner proto-pragmatistischen Philosophie verdecken.
Um ein besseres Verständnis der Stellung der ciceronianischen Rhetorik bei Witherspoon zu ermöglichen, wird sie auf dem Hintergrund tiefgreifender neuzeitlicher Humanismen wie des christlichen Humanismus und des Bürgerhumanismus rekonstruiert und im Bildungshorizont der "Neuen Rhetorik" des 18. Jahrhunderts gesehen. Mit diesen Paradigmen lässt sich die Rhetorik des Princetoner Professors als zivistisch-theistische Variante gegenüber der belletristisch-theistischen Ausprägung des Schotten Hugh Blair und der zivistisch-deistischen Entwicklung Thomas Jeffersons abgrenzen.
This dissertation investigated the development of the complementiser that from the demonstrative pronoun in the Germanic languages; each chapter dealt with a different aspect. In the introduction, the terms ‘reanalysis’ and ‘analogy’ and their relevance for grammaticalisation were explained, and the issues of the chapters were presented. The second chapter introduced some information about the Germanic language family and the languages which were relevant for this investigation, namely Gothic, Old English, Old Icelandic, Old Saxon and Old High German. Previous assumptions about the diachrony of that were presented and discussed. One of these proposals which mainly draws on evidence from West Germanic involves the idea that the source construction contained two independent main clauses with a demonstrative pronoun (that) at the end of the first clause (cf. e.g. Paul 1962, § 248). In contrast to this, the Gothic evidence showed that the source construction of the reanalysis of ϸatei was not a proper paratactic construction (at least in Gothic) but already a complex construction which contained a complementiser (ei) in the appositional subordinate clause (cf. also e.g. Longobardi 1994 for the diachrony of ϸatei). This contradiction raised the question whether the analysis of the Gothic that-complementiser also applies to the diachrony of that in West Germanic. This issue was taken up in the third chapter which presented an overview of subordination and complementisers in Northwest Germanic. The aim was to show that the Northwest Germanic languages also show a subordinating particle, which functions like the Gothic ei, namely ϸe (OE), er/es (OI), the (OHG, OS). As a result, the subordinating particle could be observed in relative and adverbial clauses in all Northwest Germanic languages. In complement clauses, which are most crucial for the argumentation, the subordinating particle is found in Old English and Old Icelandic but not in Old Saxon. In Old High German, there are only combinations of the with a following pronoun, theih and theiz, in ‘Otfrids Evangelienbuch’ (see Wunder 1965). Consequently, the presence of a subordinating particle is confirmed in North and West Germanic. The fact that the patterns of subordination are quite similar in all Germanic languages suggested a unitary analysis of the development of that in Germanic was appropriate. In chapter four, the similarities and differences between the Germanic languages with respect to the development of that were explained. It was argued that the preconditions of the reanalysis were the same, whereas the consequences of the reanalysis are realised differently in each language. The most important precondition was that the appositional source construction (explained in more detail below) was generally available in Germanic. Since the demonstrative pronoun at the end of the matrix clause and the subordinating particle of the subordinate clause were adjacent, phonological combination might have been crucial for the subsequent reanalysis to take place. After reanalysis, however, different changes can be observed in the different languages. For instance, it appears that during the Old English period the final syllable of the form ϸætte was deleted (see chapter 4 for references), whereas the final –ei is still present in the Gothic ϸatei, and completely absent in Old High German and Old Saxon. The source structure of the reanalysis was discussed in detail in a separate subsection. The appositional source construction, which was already assumed for the reanalysis of Gothic ϸatei, was compared with analyses of clitic left dislocation which propose that two constituents with the same theta-role derive from a Big DP (see e.g. Grewendorf 2009, Belletti 2005). Based on the Big DP analysis of Grewendorf (2009), it was claimed that the appositional clause, introduced by the subordinating particle, is generated in the Spec of a DP, and adjoined to this DP on the surface. It was argued that this whole complement DP-node occurred in an extraposed position in OV-languages so that the verb, when it stays in-situ, does not appear between the demonstrative pronoun and the subordinating particle. The structure in (1) illustrates the syntactic source structure which is assumed to apply to the development of the complementiser that in Germanic. ...
Whether minorities such as the Māori in Aotearoa New Zealand, the San across Southern Africa and the Métis in Canada, or native majority peoples such as the Aymara and Quechua in South America: indigenous peoples" lifeworlds have been transfigured by the difficulties originating from a history of conquest, settlement and suppression. The imperialist strife of European empires and the atrocities committed by their gang of "explorers" – including "this person Cook" in the South Pacific, Columbus in North America, Cortéz in Mexico, Gomes in West Africa, or van Riebeeck in South Africa – was aimed at enforcing European values and institutions, destroying, silencing or marginalizing indigenous cultures and societies as inferior "others." Unsurprisingly, the disruption of formal colonialism in the second half of the 20th century held no inherent improvement for the concerns of formerly colonized peoples. ...
The relation between reality and language, the instability of language as a signification system, the representation crisis, and the borders of interpretation are the controversial issues that have engaged not only philosophers, but also many authors, translators, and literary critics. Some philosophers like Derrida accuse Western thinking of being obsessed with binary oppositions. In Derrida's view, Western tradition resorts to external references as God, truth, origin, center and reason to stabilize the signification system. Since these concepts lack an internal sense and there is no transcendental signified that can fix these signifiers, language turns to an instable system by means of which no fixed meaning can be created. Many authors like Beckett, Stoppard, and Caryl Churchill also noticed this impossibility of language. While Derrida's deconstructive approach to this crisis has an epistemological nature, these playwrights present an aesthetic solution by turning the deconstructive potential of language against itself in text and performance. This dissertation aims at exploring their performing methods and dramatic texts to demonstrate how their delogocentric strategies work. By analyzing their plays, I will examine if their use of signifiers that have no references in reality, intentional misconceptions, disintegrated subjectivities, decentered narratives, and experimental performances can help them undermine the prevailing logocentrism of Western thought. The examination of the change in aesthetic strategies from Beckett, who belongs to earlier stages of post modernism, to Caryl Churchill, who should perform in a globalized world with increasing dominance of speed and information, is another aim of this research. In my view,Beckett's obsession with unspeakable, absurdity, and disintegration of subjectivity develops to Stoppard's language games, metadrama, and anti-representation and culminates in Churchill's anti-narrative texts and pluralistic performances. The monophony of Beckett's dramatic texts is replaced by the polyphony of Churchill's performances, which are a mixture of theater, dance and music. However, all explored dramatic texts in this dissertation have something in common: they are language games, which have no claim on a faithful representation of reality or transcendental truth.
If we want to develop a semantic analysis for explicit performatives such as I promise you to free Willy, we are faced with the following puzzle: In order to account for the speech act expressed by the performative verb, one can assume that the so-called performative clause is purely performative and provides the illocutionary force of the speech act whose content is given by the semantic object denoted by the complement clause. Yet under this perspective, the performative clause that is, next to the performative verb, the indexicals I and you that refer to the speaker and to the addressee of the utterance context is semantically invisible and does not contribute compositionally its meaning to the meaning of the entire explicit performative sentence. Conversely, if we account for the truth conditional contribution of the performative clause and deny that the meaning of the performative verb is purely performative, then we have to find a way to account for the speech act expressed by the performative verb. Of course, there is already the widely accepted and very appealing indirectness account for explicit performative utterances developed by Bach & Harnish (1979). Roughly, Bach and Harnish solve this puzzle in deriving the performativity by means of a pragmatic inference process. According to them, the important speech act performed by means of the utterance of the explicit performative sentence is a kind of the conventionalized indirect speech act. However, the boundary between semantics and pragmatics can be drawn in many various ways. Therefore, I think there could be other perspectives regarding the interface between the truth-functional treatment of the declarative explicit performative sentences and the speech acts performed with their utterances and which are expressed by the performative verbs. Hence, this thesis consists in the experiment to develop a further analysis and to check out its consequences with respect to the semantics and pragmatics of explicit performative utterances and the new interface emerged. Briefly, the experiment runs as follows: First, I develop an analysis for explicit performative sentences framed by parenthetical structures such as in (1)(a). In a second step, this parenthetical analysis is applied to the proper Austinian explicit performative sentences in (1)(b). (1) a. Tomorrow, I promise you this, I will teach them Tyrolean songs. b. I promise you that I will teach them Tyrolean songs. To analyze at first explicit performatives framed by parenthetical structures bears the convenience that we are faced with two utterances of two main clauses. In (1)(a) there is the utterance of the host sentence Tomorrow I will teach them Tyrolean songs, and the utterance of the explicit parenthetical I promise you this, where the demonstrative this refers to the utterance of Tomorrow I will teach them Tyrolean songs. Since speakers perform speech acts with utterances of main clauses, I assume that the meaning of the explicit parenthetical I promise you this specifies that the actual illocutionary force of the utterance of Tomorrow I will teach them Tyrolean songs is the illocutionary force of a promise. Hence, instead of deriving an indirect illocutionary force by means of a pragmatic inference schema, we can deal with an ordinary direct speech act that is performed with the utterance of the host sentence. This kind of analysis stresses the particular discourse function of explicit performative utterances. Performative verbs are used whenever the contextual information is not sufficient to determine the illocutionary force of the corresponding implicit speech act. The resulting consequences of the parenthetical analysis are interesting since they cast a different light on performative verbs. Surprisingly, the performative verbs are not performative at all. They do not constitute the execution of a speech act, but are execution supporting. Instead of constituting the particular illocutionary force, they merely specify the illocutionary force of the utterance of the host sentence. For instance, the speaker utters the explicit parenthetical I promise you this for specifying what he is simultaneously doing. Hence the speaker does not succeed in performing the promise simply because he is uttering I promise you this. Rather, by means of the information conveyed by the utterance of I promise you this, the potential illocutionary forces of the utterance of the host sentence are disambiguated. Thus, it is not the case that explicit parentheticals are trivially true when uttered. Their function is more complex. Their self-verifying property (‘saying so makes it so’) is explained by means of disambiguation. Furthermore, according to the parenthetical analysis, instead of being purely performative, the performative verbs contribute compositionally their meanings to the truth conditions of the entire explicit performative sentence. Together with its consequences, this analysis is applied to the proper Austinian performatives, which display subordination. I assume that regardless of their structure, explicit performatives always semantically and pragmatically behave as the parenthetical analysis predicts.
This dissertation is concerned with the phenomenon of intervention effects, observed in three different domains: wh-questions, alternative questions (AltQ) and Negative Polarity Item (NPI) licensing. I propose that these three domains share some common properties, namely, they all involve focus-sensitive licensing, and are thus sensitive to an intervening focus phrase. The overview of the dissertation is as follows. In chapter 2, I discuss the phenomenon of intervention effects in wh-questions, brought to light in the discussion of German in Beck (1996), and Korean in Beck and Kim (1997). The basic idea of their analysis is that quantifiers block LF wh-movement. I show that intervention effects are observed in many other languages, too, suggesting that the intervention effect has a universal character. I then point out some problems with the analysis proposed by Beck (1996) and Beck and Kim (1997). In chapter 3, I propose a new generalization of the wh-intervention effects, namely that the core set of interveners, which is crosslinguistically stable, consists of focus phrases (and not quantifiers in general). Furthermore, I argue that the wh-intervention effect is actually an instance of the more general intervention effect, the "Focus Intervention Effect", which says that in a focus-sensitive licensing construction, no independent focus phrase may intervene between the licensor Op and the licensee XP. The underlying idea is that the Q operator is a focus-sensitive operator and that wh-phrases in-situ are dependent (i.e., semantically deficient) focus elements, which must be associated with the Q operator in order to be interpreted. An intervening independent focus operator precisely blocks that association. I further propose that the domain of focus-sensitive licensing includes not only wh-licensing, but also AltQ-licensing and NPI-licensing. In chapter 4, I show that alternative questions are also subject to the focus intervention effect, just like wh-questions. I provide evidence that the intervention effect in wh-questions and in alternative questions should receive a parallel analysis, in terms of focus-sensitivity. In chapter 5, I discuss a third construction which is sensitive to the focus intervention effect: the licensing of Negative Polarity Items (NPIs). I show that focus consistently blocks NPI licensing, with data from German and Korean. I propose that NPIs are also semantically deficient focus elements, which need to be associated with a NEG operator. Finally, chapter 6 summarizes the intervention effects and suggests some topics for future research into the precise nature of the intervention effect.