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Biological ageing is a degenerative and irreversible process, ultimately leading to death of the organism. The process is complex and under the control of genetic, environmental and stochastic traits. Although many theories have been established during the last decades, none of these are able to fully describe the complex mechanisms, which lead to ageing. Generally, biological processes and environmental factors lead to molecular damage and an accumulation of impaired cellular components. In contrast, counteracting surveillance systems are effective, including repair, remodelling and degradation of damaged or impaired components, respectively. Nevertheless, at some point these systems are no longer effective, either because the increasing amount of molecular damages can not longer be removed efficiently or because the repairing and removing mechanisms themselves become affected by impairing effects. The organism finally declines and dies. To investigate and to understand these counteracting mechanisms and the complex interplay of decline and maintenance, holistic and systems biological investigations are required. Hence, the processes which lead to ageing in the fungal model organism Podospora anserina, had been analysed using different advanced bioinformatics methods. In contrast to many other ageing models, P. anserina exhibits a short lifespan, a less biochemical complexity and it provides a good accessibility for genetic manipulations.
To achieve a general overview on the different biochemical processes, which are affected during ageing in P. anserina, an initial comprehensive investigation was applied, which aimed to reveal genes significantly regulated and expressed in an age-dependent manner. This investigation was based on an age-dependent transcriptome analysis. Sophisticated and comprehensive analyses revealed different age-related pathways and indicated that especially autophagy may play a crucial role during ageing. For example, it was found that the expression of autophagy-associated genes increases in the course of ageing.
Subsequently, to investigate and to characterise the autophagy pathway, its associated single components and their interactions, Path2PPI, a new bioinformatics approach, was developed. Path2PPI enables the prediction of protein-protein interaction networks of particular pathways by means of a homology comparison approach and was applied to construct the protein-protein interaction network of autophagy in P. anserina.
The predicted network was extended by experimental data, comprising the transcriptome data as well as newly generated protein-protein interaction data achieved from a yeast two-hybrid analysis. Using different mathematical and statistical methods the topological properties of the constructed network had been compared with those of randomly generated networks to approve its biological significance. In addition, based on this topological and functional analysis, the most important proteins were determined and functional modules were identified, which correspond to the different sub-pathways of autophagy. Due to the integrated transcriptome data the autophagy network could be linked to the ageing process. For example, different proteins had been identified, which genes are continuously up- or down-regulated during ageing and it was shown for the first time that autophagy-associated genes are significantly often co-expressed during ageing.
The presented biological network provides a systems biological view on autophagy and enables further studies, which aim to analyse the relationship of autophagy and ageing. Furthermore, it allows the investigation of potential methods for intervention into the ageing process and to extend the healthy lifespan of P. anserina as well as of other eukaryotic organisms, in particular humans.
Construction and commissioning of a setup to study ageing phenomena in high rate gas detectors
(2014)
In high-rate heavy-ion experiments, gaseous detectors encounter big challenges in terms of degradation of their performance due to a phenomenon dubbed ageing. In this thesis, a setup for high precision ageing studies has been constructed and commissioned at the GSI detector laboratory. The main objective is the study of ageing phenomena evoked by materials used to build gaseous detectors for the Compressed Baryonic Matter (CBM) experiment at the future Facility for Antiproton and Ion Research (FAIR).
The precision of the measurement, e.g., of the gain of a gaseous detector, is a key element in ageing studies: it allows to perform the measurement at realistic rates in an acceptable time span. It is well known the accelerating ageing employing high intensity sources might produce misleading results. The primary objective is to build an apparatus which allows very accurate measurements and is thus sensitive to minute degradations in detector performance. The construction and commissioning of the
setup has been carried out in two steps. During the first step of this work, a simpler setup which already existed in the detector laboratory of GSI had been utilised to define all conditions related to ageing studies. The outcome of these studies defined the properties and characteristics that must be met to build and operate a new, sophisticated and precise setup. The already existing setup consisted of two identical Multi Wire Proportional Chambers (MWPCs), a gas mixing station, an 55Fe source, an x-ray generator, an outgassing box and stainless steel tubing. In a first step, the gain and electric field configuration of the MWPCs were simulated by a combination of a gas simulation (Magboltz) and electric field simulation program (Garfield). The performance and operating conditions of the chambers have been thoroughly characterised before utilising them in first preparatory ageing test. The main diagnostic parameter in ageing studies is the detector gain, thus it is mandatory for precise ageing studies to minimise the systematic and statistical variation of the pressure and temperature corrected gain. To achieve the required accuracy, several improvements of the chamber design and the gas system have been implemented. In addition, the temperature measurement has been optimised. During the preparatory tests, several ageing studies have been carried out. The ageing effect of seven materials and gases have been carried out during these tests: RTV-3145, Ar/CO2 gas, Durostone flushed with Ar/Isobutane gas, Vetronit G11, Vetronit G11 contaminated with Micro 3000 and Gerband 705. The results of these studies went into the design of the new sophisticated ageing setup. For example some tests revealed that there was, even after cleaning, a certain level of contamination with "ageing agents" in the existing setup, which made it imperative to ensure a very high level cleanness of all components during the construction of the setup. The curing period of some testing samples like glues or the gas flow rate were found to be very important factors that must be taken into account to obtain comparable results. Very important changes in the chamber design have been made, i.e., the aluminium-Kapton cathodes used in MWPCs have been replaced with multi-wire planes and the fibreglass housing of the chamber has been changed to metal. The second step started with building the new setup which was designed based on the findings from the first step. The new ageing setup consists of three MWPCs, two moving platforms, an 55Fe source, a copper-anode x-ray generator, two outgassing boxes, both flexible and rigid stainless steel tubes. Before fabrication of the chambers, simulations of their electric field and the gain have been done using Magboltz and Garfield programs. After that, the chambers were installed and tested. A 0.3% peak-to-peak residual variation of the corrected gain has been achieved. Finally, the complete setup has been operated with full functionality in no-ageing conditions during one week. This test revealed very stable gain in all three chambers. After that two materials (Gerban 705 and RTV-3145) have been inserted in the two outgassing boxes and tested. They revealed an ageing rate of about 0.3%/mC/cm and 3%/mC/cm respectively. The final test proves the stability and accuracy of the ageing measurements carried out with the ageing setup at the detector laboratory at GSI which is ready to conduct the envisaged systematic ageing studies.
Untersuchungen zur molekularen Kontrolle der Kupferhomöostase in dem Ascomyceten Podospora anserina
(2007)
Das essentielle Spurenelement Kupfer ist Co-Faktor mehrerer Schlüsselenzyme (z B. Cu/Zn-SOD, Cytochrom c Oxidase). Da Kupfer leicht Elektronen aufnehmen und abgeben kann, eignet es sich besonders gut für Redox-Reaktionen. Wenn Kupfer jedoch mit Sauerstoff reagiert, entstehen hoch cytotoxische reaktive Sauerstoffspezies (ROS), die nach der „freien Radikaltheorie des Alterns“ (nach D. Harman 1956) ursächlich für Alterung und Zelltod sind. Um deren Bildung zu vermeiden, erfolgen alle Aspekte des Kupferstoffwechsels – Aufnahme, Transport und Speicherung - stets proteingebunden. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass sich bis auf drei Ausnahmen die gesamte bislang bekannte Maschinerie der molekularen Kupferhomöostase aus anderen Modellorganismen (z.B. S. cerevisiae oder H. sapiens) auch im Genom des Ascomyceten Podospora anserina mit Homologen bzw. Orthologen wiederfindet. Die drei Ausnahmen betreffen jeweils Proteine, für die in anderen Organismen mehrere Isoformen existieren und P. anserina nur jeweils ein Homolog/Ortholog besitzt. Für mehrere der neu vorhergesagten Gene (PaAtx1, PaCcc2, PaCcs1, PaCox11, PaCox19, PaCox23, PaSco1) konnte eine Expression im Wildstamm nachgewiesen werden. Dazu wurden Standardtechniken (Northern Blot Analyse, RT-PCR) und auch neu etablierte eGFP-Reporterkonstrukte verwendet. In Podospora anserina scheint Kupfer auf zwei verschiedene Arten Einfluss auf die Lebensspanne zu nehmen: Zum einen mittelbar darüber, dass die Verfügbarkeit von Kupfer über die in der mitochondrialen Atmung verwendete Endoxidase entscheidet. Bei Kupfermangel wird eine Eisen-abhängige alternative Oxidase (AOX) induziert. Durch Atmung über die AOX entstehen weniger ROS, was die Lebensspanne verlängert. Anhand einer Vielzahl langlebiger Mutanten konnte dieser Zusammenhang bereits mehrfach demonstriert werden. Zum anderen scheint Kupfer auch eine unmittelbare Rolle in der Seneszenz von P. anserina zu spielen. In früheren Arbeiten konnten mehrere indirekte Hinweise (Transkript- und Aktivitätsanalysen) gesammelt werden, dass im Alter die cytoplasmatische Kupferkonzentration drastisch ansteigt. Durch Messung der Kupferkonzentration mittels einer direkten chemisch-analytische Methode (TXRF) in fraktionierten Zellbestandteilen (Cytoplasma und Mitchondrien) konnten in dieser Arbeit diese Hinweise weiter untermauert werden. Experimente mit in die mitochondriale Matrix geleitetem eGFP brachten zusätzliche Indizien dafür, dass das mitochondriale Kupfer-Reservoir die Quelle des sich in seneszenten Pilzstämmen im Cytoplasma wiederfindenden Kupfers ist. Durch einen Prozess, der größenabhängig reguliert und in anderen Organismen als „Mitochondrial Permeability Transition – MPT“ zu Beginn der Apoptose bekannt ist, ergiesst sich beim Eintritt in die Seneszenz der Inhalt der mitochondrialen Matrix in das Cytosol. Die Bedeutung dieses Vorgangs und v.a. die Folgen der Umverteilung von Kupfer innerhalb der Zelle bleiben im Detail weiter zu klären. Durch die durchgeführten Arbeiten konnte ein weiterer deutlicher Beweis für das Ablaufen apoptotischer Mechansimen im Alterungsprozeß des Ascomyceten P. anserina erbracht werden.