Refine
Year of publication
- 2010 (15) (remove)
Document Type
- Doctoral Thesis (15) (remove)
Language
- English (15) (remove)
Has Fulltext
- yes (15)
Is part of the Bibliography
- no (15) (remove)
Keywords
- Amyloid (1)
- Amyloidkern (1)
- Endothelin (1)
- Endothelin-Rezeptor (1)
- Fibrillen (1)
- Fibrils (1)
- Flugzeitmassenspektrometrie (1)
- G-Protein gekoppelte Rezeptoren (1)
- Harnstoff (1)
- Heterologe Genexpression (1)
Institute
- Biochemie und Chemie (15) (remove)
The display of foreign polypeptides and proteins on the surface of viruses or cells provides an important tool for the engineering of biomolecules and the analysis of their interactions with binding partners. The most extensively used display platform is the coat protein of the filamentous bacteriophage (Smith, 1985). Phage display libraries have often been selected for polypeptides, e.g. single chain (sc) antibodies that bind to a protein of interest, but in vivo selection could only be demonstrated for peptides so far. An alternative display platform is the retrovirus murine leukemia virus (MLV). Here, polypeptides are displayed at the N-terminus of the viral envelope glycoprotein. Proof of principle for this platform was demonstrated for protease substrate libraries, which can be selected through coupling proteolytic activation with viral infectivity (Buchholz et al., 1998). Selection of the library CX4A on living cells resulted in viruses with more than three orders of magnitude improved spreading efficiency through tumor cells (Hartl et al., 2005). Also scAb libraries have recently been displayed and selected using retroviruses (Urban et al., 2005). The library scFvlibxMo displays the repertoire of phage display preselected sc antibodies for laminin-1 binding. The retrovirus based selection process resulted in laminin-specific sc antibodies with improved expression levels in mammalian cells.
This thesis describes the in vivo (i.e. in mouse tumor models) selection of the C-X4-A and scFvlibxMo for tumor homing upon systemic delivery.
For selection of the protease substrate library C-X4-A a subcutaneous tumor was induced in SCID mice followed by three systemic injections of the library. The selection process was monitored over a period of 34 days. After the incubation period mice were sacrificed and virus load in organs and tumor determined. PCR analysis after 34 days showed that virus from the library had preferentially infected the tumor. Sequence analysis showed the selection of protease substrates with the most prominent one with a frequency of over 65%. The four most prominent protease substrate variants where reconstituted into the original viral backbone for further investigation (C-SK-A, C-HI-A, C-HM-A and C-HS-A). Interestingly, these viruses exhibited a reduced spreading capacity in vitro on HT1080 cells as compared to the C-AK-A virus, which had previously been selected on HT1080 cells. When assayed for tumor homing, however, viruses C-HI-A and C-HS-A had clearly improved in comparison to C-AK-A. Tumor tissue had been infected at rates of over 55% while virus load of extratumoral organs was very low (infection rates <0.7 for C-HS-A and <0.02 for C-HI-A). Tumor targeting capacity had thus been improved over 10-fold by the in vivo selection of the C-X4-A library.
The experimental set up for the in vivo selection of the scFvlibxMo library was performed according to that of the C-X4-A library. Fingerprint analysis of the selected viruses that infected tumor tissue resulted in the identification of seven antibody variants showing unique CDR3 sequences. Two prominent clones (M49T-A and M49T-B) were cloned back into the MoMLV genome for further analysis of the reconstituted viruses. While variant B bound laminin-1 efficiently, variant A was unable to do so, although it was selected at highest frequency (76%). Both reconstituted viruses were equally well infectious and spread through HT1080rec1 cells at a similar efficiency as MoMLV. In an in vivo competition experiment the selected viruses clearly out-competed a laminin-1 binding reference virus L36xMo for tumor homing. To understand the molecular driving forces behind the in vivo selection process the epitope of the selected scFv M49T-A was identified using a phage peptide library approach. In silico analysis led to the identification of a small group of possible antigens, including tenascin, fibronectin and collagen.
The data described in this thesis demonstrate that the retrovirus display platform is capable of allowing the in vivo selection of protease substrates and scFvs. Notably, the replication competence of the system introduced an additional level of complexity to the library. The performed in vivo selections significantly enhanced tumor tropism. Selective infection of tumor cells combined with transfer of anti-tumoral genes is an attractive strategy for cancer therapy being in focus of current research. The viruses selected in this thesis build prime candidates for targeted retrovirus based tumor therapy.
Employing NMR spectroscopy, it is not only possible to calculate the three dimensional structures of single proteins, but also to study dynamics and conformational changes of protein-complexes. In fact that is an important aspect, since the protein function depends on dynamics and interactions with other molecules. Therefore the study of protein-protein interactions is of highest importance for a better understanding of biological processes. Based on NMR methods, in this thesis we were able to determine protein-protein interactions within the enterobacterial Rcs signalling complex which is regulated via a phosphorelay. Originally identified as regulator of capsule synthesis, the Rcs phosphorelay is now considered to be implicated in stress response caused by disturbances in the peptidoglycan layer. Beyond that the Rcs system is involved in multiplex transcriptional networks including cell division, motility, biofilm formation and virulence. Because of such global nature and its extraordinary structural organisation involving membrane integrated sensor proteins (RcsC, RcsD), coactivators (RcsF, RcsA) and a transcription factor (RcsB), the Rcs system is one of the most remarkable phosphorelays in the family of enterobacteriacaea. During the complex phosphotransfer the histidine phosphotransferase (HPt) domain of the intermediary RcsD protein mediates the phosphotransfer between RcsC and RcsB, and probably modulates the phosphorylation state of the response regulator RcsB. Therefore the present work has been focused on the interface between RcsD and RcsB in more detail. In the first part of the thesis a new domain within the RcsD protein has been identified and structurally analysed by liquid NMR spectroscopy. RcsD is an inner membrane bound hybrid sensor like-kinase composed of a periplasmic sensor domain and a cytoplasmic portion. The cytoplasmic part contains the histidine like-kinase (HK) domain and the histidine phosphotransferase (HPt) domain. By analysis of the secondary structure in more detail, it was shown here that the two domains are intermitted by an additional 13.3 kDa domain. Corresponding to the position of the ABL (α−β−loop) domain of RcsC, located C-terminal to the RcsC-HK domain, the new identified domain was named RcsD-ABL. The central structural element of RcsD-ABL is a β-sheet composed of six strands with a β1−β2−β3−β4−β6−β5 topology and surrounded by two α-helices α1 and α2. In the second part of the thesis, RcsD-ABL is identified as a binding domain for the response regulator RcsB by NMR titration experiments. Such a binding domain for a response regulator has so far only been described for the histidine kinase CheA. In reportergene assays with β-galactosidase and ONPG as substrate it was shown that overexpression of RcsD-ABL in high amounts inhibited binding of RcsB to its target promoter. The β-galactosidase activity was reduced by 80 % with respect to cells carrying no plasmid encoding RcsD-ABL. The mapping of the binding interface was successfully achieved by chemical shift perturbations, a fast mapping protocol and selective labelling. It was shown that the interaction between RcsD-ABL and RcsB takes place via a binding interface comprising mainly the two α-helices of RcsD-ABL and the α-helices α7, α8 and α10 in the effector domain of RcsB. In the third part of the thesis, the interaction of RcsB with RcsD-ABL was related to that with RcsD-HPt. Using NMR titration experiments and ITC measurements, a comparison of the binding constants (Kd) of RcsB interacting either with the isolated RcsD-ABL (2 PM) or the isolated RcsDHPt domain (40 PM) revealed a higher affinity of RcsD-ABL to RcsB. A conjugate of RcsD-ABL-HPt interacting with RcsB decreased the Kd in the one-site fitting mode to 10 PM. However, the two-site fitting mode applied for RcsD-ABL-HPt/RcsB interaction resulted in a Kd (RcsD-ABL) of 2 PM and a Kd (RcsD-HPt) of 8 PM, indicating that RcsD-ABL enhances the binding of RcsD-HPt to RcsB. In the last part of the thesis, it was partly possible together with the data obtained from NMR titration experiments, PRE measurements and a HADDOCK protocol to develop a geometrical model for the interaction of RcsD with RcsB. In this model the receiver domain of RcsB interacts with the RcsD-HPt domain and the RcsB effector domain interacts with the RcsD-ABL domain. These results lead to surprising insights on the regulation of phosphorelays, since normally the effector domain binds to DNA. Here the effector domain is recognized by the newly identified RcsD-ABL domain. Prospectively, further investigations of phosphorylation affects and mutational studies will be of great interest.
The analysis of biomolecular macrocomplexes requires certain preconditions to be fulfilled. The preparation of biomolecular samples usually results in low yields. Due to this constraint of low availability any method should provide a sufficient sensitivity to cope with typical sample amounts. Biomolecules also often show a reduced stability, i.e. a propensity for fragmentation upon ionisation, which requires reasonable soft methods for the investigation. Furthermore macromolecular complexes usually are composed by means of non-covalent interactions presenting additional demands on the softness. This holds true for specific complexes like protein-ligand or DNA double strand binding. For the formation of non-covalent, specific complexes the biomolecules’ native structure and environment are a basic prerequisite and hence crucial. Therefore it is desirable during analysis to keep the biomolecules in a native environment to preserve their structure and weak interactions. One suitable method for analysing biomolecules is mass spectrometry. Mass spectrometry is capable of high throughput screening as well as determining masses with high accuracy and high sensitivity. Especially since the availability of MALDI-MS and ESI-MS mass spectrometry evolved to a versatile tool to investigate biomolecular complexes. Both, MALDI- and ESI-MS are sufficiently soft methods to observe fragile biomolecules. Yet both methods have their advantages and disadvantages. During the recent years an alternative mass spectrometric approach has been developed in our group, termed LILBID-MS (Laser Induced Liquid Bead Ionisation/Desorption). In LILBID microdroplets of aqueous solution containing buffer, salt and further additives among the analyte molecules are injected into vacuum and irradiated one-by-one by mid-IR laser pulses. The absorption of the energy by the water leads to a rapid ablation of the preformed analyte ions. LILBID is highly tolerant for the addition of salts and detergents allowing to study biomolecular complexes in a native environment. As LILBID-MS is soft enough to avoid fragmentation, specific non-covalent complexes can be analysed directly from their native environment by this method. In addition dissociation can be induced on demand by increasing the laser intensity which allows for the study of subunit compositions. A further prominent property of LILBID is the possibility to study hydrophobic membrane proteins due to the tolerated use of detergents. During the course of this work, several instrumental improvements mostly concerning ion focussing and beam steering were introduced. Together with refinements of different modes of measurement the result is a significantly improved signal-to-noise ratio as well as a further improvement in sensitivity. In addition the accessible m/z range for a given flight time has been vastly increased. The new possibilities that LILBID now offers for the study of biomolecular complexes were investigated. The ability to detect specific binding in LILBID-MS was investigated by means of nucleic acids and their interaction with proteins. It could be shown that the stability of a 16bp dsDNA corresponds to that in solution phase regarding the dependency on concentration and type of the salts used. In addition a competitive experiment with the well-known transcription factor p50 was used to demonstrate the detection of sequence-specific binding with LILBID. The improved sensitivity allowed to detect single stranded DNA at nanomolar concentrations and even the 2686bp plasmid pUC19 could be easily detected without fragmentation using a concentration of only 80nM. In case of the transcription factor p63 the mass spectrometric analysis could help to identify a new model of activation and inhibition. For the first time known quarternary structures of membrane proteins like the light-driven proton pump bacteriorhodopsin and the potassium channel KcsA could be detected with mass spectrometry. For the light-driven proton pump proteorhodopsin the type and the concentration of the used detergents significantly influenced the stability of this protein as well as the preferred quarternary structure.
Der L-Carnitin/gamma-Butyrobetain Antiporter CaiT ist ein Mitglied der Betain/Carnitin/Cholin Transporter (BCCT) Familie. Sekundärtransporter der BCCT Familie transportieren Substrate, die eine positiv-geladene quartäre Ammoniumgruppe besitzen. CaiT besteht aus 504 Amiosäuren und besitzt ein moleculares Gewicht von etwa 56 kDa. In Enterobakterien wie Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis und Salmonella typhimurium wird die Expression des caiTABCDE Operons unter anaeroben Bedingungen induziert. Unter diesen Bedinungen ist CaiT der Haupttransporter des Betain-Derivates L-Carnitin. In Enterobakterien wird L-Carnitin unter anaeroben Bedingungen aufgenommen und dehydratisiert wobei Crotonobetain ensteht. Crotonobetain wird anschließend zum Endprodukt gamma-Butyrobetain reduziert. Gamma-Butyrobetain ist das Gegensubstrat, das aus der Zelle hinaustransportiert wird, wenn L-Carnitin in die Zelle aufgenommen wird. Der Austauschmechanismus von LCarnitin gegen gamma-Butyrobetain geschieht ohne das Vorhandensein eines elektrochemischen Gradients, d.h. CaiT ist sowohl H+- als auch Na+-unabhängig. Ein Ziel dieser Arbeit war es die drei-dimensionale (3D) Struktur von CaiT mittels Röntgenstrukturanalyse zu lösen. Weiterhin sollten mit Hilfe der 3D-Struktur und funktionellen Studien detailiertere Erkenntnisse über den kationenunabhängigen Antiportmechanismus von CaiT ermittelt werden. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden die 3D-Röntgenkristallstrukturen von drei CaiT-Homologen der Enterobakterien P. mirabilis (PmCaiT), E. coli (EcCaiT) und S. typhimurium (StCaiT) mittels molekularem Ersatz (engl.: molecular replacement, MR) mit einem Alanin-Model des CaiT verwandten Na+/Glycinbetain Symporters BetP gelöst. PmCaiT konnte mit einer Auflösung von 2.3 Å gelöst werden. Das Protein kristallisierte in der Kristallraumgruppe H3, mit drei Molekülen in der asymmetrischen Einheit (engl.: asymmetric unit, AU). Die drei PmCaiT-Moleküle ordneten sich innerhalb der AU um eine kristallographische dreifach Symmetrieachse an. EcCaiT wurde mittels MR mit einem Alanin-Model von PmCaiT bei einer Auflösung von 3.5 Å gelöst. EcCaiT kristallisierte in der Kristallraumgruppe P32, ebenfalls mit drei Molekülen in der AU, jedoch ohne kristallographische Symmetry. Während der Verfeinerung des EcCaiT-Models wurde eine strenge dreifache nichtkristallographische Symmetry (engl.: non-crystallographic symmetry, NCS) angewandt. StCaiT, das ebenfalls mittels MR mit einem Alanin-Model von PmCaiT, aber bei einer Auflösung von 4.0 Å gelöst wurde, kristallisierte in der Kristallraumgruppe P65, ebenfalls mit drei StCaiT-Molekülen in der AU, ohne kristallographische Symmetry. Bei der Verfeinerung des StCaiT-Modells wurde wie bei EcCaiT eine strenge NCS angewandt. Da die Auflösung von 4.0 Å bei StCaiT zu niedrig ist um detailierte moleculare Erkenntnisse zu gewinnen, wurden Protein- sowie Substratinteraktionen nur an den Strukturen von PmCaiT und EcCaiT analysiert. Alle drei CaiT-Homologe weisen jedoch einen ähnlichen strukturellen Aufbau auf. In der Röntgenkristallstruktur bildet CaiT ein symmetrisches Trimer, das über ionische und polare Wechselwirkungen zwischen den Protomeren stabilisiert wird. Der trimere Oligomerisierungszustand von CaiT in Detergenzlösung sowie in zweidimensionalen Lipidmembrankristallen wurde bereits in früheren Arbeiten gezeigt. Jedes der drei CaiT-Protomere besteht aus zwölf Transmembranhelices (TMH), die N- und C-terminalen Domänen des Proteins befinden sich auf der cytoplasmatischen Seite. Zehn der TMH bilden zwei invertierte Wiederholungseinheiten aus jeweils fünf TMH. Die erste Einheit besteht aus den TMH 3 – 7, die invertierte zweite Einheit besteht aus den TMH 8 – 12. Beide Wiederholungseinheiten sind strukturell nahezu identisch und lassen sich fast vollständig übereinanderlegen, jedoch weisen die Aminosäuren der beiden Einheiten keine signifikante Sequenzidentität auf. Die ersten beiden Helices der Wiederholungseinheiten, die TMH 3 – 4 und die TMH 8 – 9, bilden ein antiparalleles vier-Helix-Bündel, in dem in CaiT zwei Substratbindestellen lokalisiert sind. Eine derartige Transporterarchitektur wurde erstmals in der Struktur des Na+/Alanin Symporters LeuTAa des thermophilen Bakteriums Aquifex aeolicus gezeigt. Bislang wurden, inklusive CaiT, sieben Sekundärtransporterstrukturen gelöst, die diese LeuT-Transporterarchitektur aufweisen. Ungewöhnlich dabei ist, dass diese sieben Sekundärtransporter fünf verschiedenen Transporterfamilien angehören und eine Verwandschaft auf Basis der Aminosäuren nicht zu finden ist. Da jedoch die tertiäre Struktur dieser Tansporter konserviert ist, kann davon ausgegangen werden, dass sie alle von einem Urprotein entstanden sind, welches zunächst aus fünf TMH bestanden haben muss. Im Laufe der Evolution hat sich das Urgen des Urproteins zunächst dupliziert und die weitere Evolution hat zwar die Aminosäuresequenz verändert und den Umweltbedingungen angepasst, jedoch ist die tertiäre Struktur erhalten geblieben. Da sich die tertiäre Struktur der sieben Sekundärtransporter so stark ähnelt, ist zu vermuten, dass auch der Transportmechanismus ähnlich, jedoch nicht identisch ist. Nach dem strukturellen Aufbau der Transporter, der Lage der Substratbindestellen in den jeweiligen Transportern und der Tatsache, dass es sich bei diesen Proteinen um Membranproteine handelt, wurde ein Transportmechanismus aufgestellt, in dem die Bindestelle des zu transportierende Substrats alternierend zu beiden Seiten der Membran zugänglich ist, ohne jedoch jemals den Substratweg innerhalb des Proteins vollständig zu öffnen. Dieser Mechanismus wurde als “alternating access mechanism” beschrieben. Anhand der unterschiedlichen Zustände, in denen einige der Transporter kristallisierten, kann abgeleitet werden, welche Konformationsänderungen erforderlich sind um das Substrat von einer Seiter der Membran auf die andere zu transportieren. Bisher kristallisierten einzelne der sechs Transporter in der nach außen gerichteten offenen Form, der nach außen gerichteten Form, in der die Substratbindestelle jedoch nicht mehr zugänglich ist, in einer Form, die keine Öffnungspräferenz der Substratbindestelle zu einer Seite der Membran hat und in der nach innen gerichteten Form, in der die Substratbindestelle jedoch nicht geöffnet ist. CaiT kristallisierte in der noch fehlenden Konformation, der nach innen gerichteten Form, in der die Substratbindestelle zugänglich ist. Mit dieser noch fehlenend Konformation kann der Transportzyklus des “alternating access mechanism” vollständig beschrieben werden. Alle drei CaiT-Homologe kristallisierten in der nach innen gerichteten, offenen Konformation. Im Gegensatz zur EcCaiT-Struktur kristallisierte PmCaiT in der substratungebundenen Form. In der StCaiT-Struktur konnte aufgrund der niedrigen Auflösung kein Substrat nachgewiesen werden. In der EcCaiT-Struktur sind zwei gamma-Butyrobetain-Moleküle gebunden. Das erste Molekül wurde in der zentralen Substratbindestelle, der sogenannten Tryptophan-Box bestehend aus vier Tryptophanen, im Zentrum des Protein lokalisiert. Das zweite gamma-Butyrobetain-Molekül wurde in einer Vertiefung an der extrazellulären Proteinoberfläche gefunden. Beide Substrate werden hauptsächlich über Kation-Pi-Interaktionen zwischen der positiv geladenen quatären Ammoniumgruppe des Substrats und des Pi-Elektronensystems der Tryptophane in den jeweiligen Bindestellen gebunden. Eine besondere Eigenschaft von CaiT ist der H+- bzw. Na+-unabhängige Substrattransport. Die CaiT-Struktur erklärt warum kein zusätzliches Kation benötigt wird um Substrat zu binden oder zu transportieren. In der EcCaiT-Struktur ist eine wichtige polare nicht-bindende Interaktion zwischen der Carboxylgruppe des gamma-Butyrobetains und dem Schwefelatom eines Methionins in der zentrale Bindestelle zu erkennen. Dieses Methionin ist konserviert in den prokaryotischen CaiTs und in den Na+-unabhängigen eukaryotischen L-Carnitin Transportern (OCTN), jedoch ist es nicht konserviert im Na+-abhängigen verwandten Glycinbetain Transporter BetP. In BetP ist diese Position des Methionins durch ein Valin ersetzt. Die Mutation des Methionins in CaiT zu Valin ermöglicht zwar immernoch die H+- bzw. Na+-unabhängige Bindung des Substrates durch die Tryptophan-Box, jedoch ist der Substrattransport nahezu vollständig zerstört. Eine derart wichtige Substratkoordinierende Funktion des Schwefelatoms eines Methionins wurde bisher nicht beschrieben. Eine weitere Stelle, die in H+- bzw. Na+-abhängigen Transporter mit H+ bzw. Na+ besetzt ist, ist in CaiT von einem positiv geladenen Arginin eingenommen. Eine positive Ladung an dieser Stelle stabilisiert den Bereich im Protein in der Nähe der zentralen Substratbindestelle. Die Mutation des Arginins zu Glutamat in CaiT erzielt eine vollständige Inaktivierung des Substrattansports. Durch Zugabe von Na+ im Transportansatz kann die Substrattransportaktivität der Glutamat-Mutante jedoch teilweise zurückerlangt werden. Diese eben beschriebenen Aminosäurereste in den beiden Stellen des Proteins erklären die Kationenunabhängigkeit von CaiT. Die Aktivierung des Antiportmechanismus in CaiT wurde mit Hilfe von Bindungsstudien an rekonstituiertem Protein ermittelt. Diese Messungen ergaben für das Wildtypprotein ein sigmoidales Substratbindungsverhalten, was auf ein positiv-kooperatives Bindungsverhalten hindeutet. Die beiden Substratbindestellen im Protein sowie die beiden unterschiedlichen Substrate, L-Carnitin und gamma-Butyrobetain, lassen auf einen heterotropen positiv-kooperativen Bindungs- und einen allosterisch regulierten Transportmechanismus schließen. Bei diesem Mechanismus erhöht die Bindung eines Substrats in der regulatorischen Bindestelle durch induzierte Konformationsänderungen die Affinität eines anderen Substrats in einer weiteren Substratbindestelle. Die regulatorische Bindestelle in CaiT befindet sich an der extrazellulären Proteinoberfläche. Eine Schwächung der Substrataffinität in dieser Bindestelle durch Einführung einer Mutation, verstärkt das sigmoidale Substratbindungsverhalten und hat einen negativen Einfluss auf den Substrattransport. Durch die in dieser Arbeit gelösten 3D-Röntgenkristallstrukturen der zwei CaiT-Homologen, PmCaiT und EcCaiT, sowie den durchgeführten funktionellen Studien sowohl an Wildtypprotein wie auch an Mutanten konnte ein L-Carnitin/gamma-Butyrobetain Antiport-Mechanismus für CaiT vorzuschlagen werden.
In this thesis, the structure of the C-terminal domain of presenilin-1, the catalytic component of the y-secretase complex, is investigated by NMR spectroscopy. The ysecretase complex has a definitive role in the pathogenic development of Alzheimer's disease, in that it mediates the cleavage of aprecursor to create the amyloid ß peptide. Aggregates of amyloid ß which form amyloid plaques are the most overt clinieal feature observed in the post-mortem brains of Alzheimer's patient. In addition, many of the mutations found in the aggressive early onset familial Alzheimer's disease have been linked to presenilin-1, highlighting its importance in disease progression and deeming it an important target for investigation. One of the greatest challenges for the structural investigation of the y-secretase components is their low expression yields in cell-based systems. We therefore applied continuous-exchange cell-free expression to obtain sufficient amounts of protein for our structural studies. An added benefit of the cell-free expression system is the freedom to incorporate any desired combination of stable-isotope labels directly into sampies. We were therefore able to develop a labeling scheme which targets the amino acid composition of transmembrane a-helices, allowing us to simplify an assignment procedure whieh tends to be cumbersome and diffieult for most a-helical transmembrane proteins. The y-secretase complex is a member of the intramembrane cleaving proteases which, as their name implies, cleave their transmembrane substrates within the bilayer. Single particle analysis of the y-secretase (1) as weil as crystal structures of rhomboid (2) and S2P (3) have revealed the presence of hydrophilie po res within the membrane where catalysis occurs. In light of evidence that certain elements of CTF reside in close proximity or even contribute to the formation of the hydrophilic pore, we chose to study the structure of CTF in mieelles, whieh may be better suited to accommodate CTF in isolation as compared with solid membranes in the absence of the other y-secretase components. The structure of CTF was solved to 1.7 A (backbone r.m.s.d) and revealed the presence of unusual features, including a partially membrane-spanning helix which situates the catalytic asparte at its N-terminus in what would be the center of the membrane where catalysis is proposed to occur, as weil as a severely kinked helix which is partially embedded beneath the surface of the membrane (P6). Interestingly, similar features have been observed in the crystal structure of the GlpG rhomboid. In addition, a soluble helix was found in the long N-terminal loop of CTF which until now has been described as unstructured. The first part of the thesis is designed to provide an introduction to Alzheimer's disease, the role of y-secretase and its presenilin-l catalytic component in disease progression, as weil as cell-free expression and liquid-state NMR techniques involved in the structural investigation of membrane proteins. In chapter 2, the reader is familiarized with the history, the clinical manifestation, and biochemical features of Alzheimer's disease. The chapter goes further to describe the role of the y-secretase complex and its individual components in disease progression and substrate processing. Chapter 3 focuses more specifically on presenilin-l in the context of the newly emerging class of intramembrane proteases. In chapter 4, attention is shifted to the cell-free expression system with special focus on the expression of membrane proteins, and chapter 5 explores the various liquid-state NMR techniques that were required for the characterization of CTF. The second part of the thesis is cumulative and contains original research, method, and review articles that were produced during the course of study. Chapter 6 explores the various techniques and innovations used to study membrane proteins using continuous exchange cell-free expression coupled with NMR spectroscopy. In chapter 7, a new technique, transmembrane segment targeted labeling, is described as a tool that facilitates the backbone assignment of transmembrane proteins which display severe overlap in NMR spectra. Chapter 8 presents the novel NMR structure of the C-terminal fragment of presenilin-l solved in SOS micelles.
ABCB9 is a peptide transporter belonging to the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter subfamily B. Due to its high sequence identity to the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) the protein was named TAP-like (TAPL). The primary aim of this PhD thesis was the functional characterization of the TAPL transport complex. Despite the lack of TAPL function in the classical MHC class I pathway an involvement of TAPL in antigen presentation was still suggested. Apart from the crucial role of TAP for peptide delivery into the ER, TAP-independent translocation pathways in professional antigen presenting cells (pAPC) have been proposed, but not identified so far. Remarkably, TAPL mRNA and protein expression is strongly induced during differentiation of monocytes to immature and mature dendritic cells. This result was confirmed in the promonocytic cell line THP-1, which was used as a model system for monocyte to macrophage differentiation. By using quantitative immunofluorescence microscopy and subcellular fractionation, TAPL was detected in the lysosomal compartment co-localizing with the lysosome associated membrane protein 2 (LAMP-2) thus excluding the ER-localization formerly reported. Furthermore, by in vitro assays, a TAPL-specific and ATPdependent translocation of peptides into isolated lysosomes was demonstrated. Hence, TAPL is a candidate mediating peptide transport in alternative antigen presentation pathways in pAPCs. The presence of an extra N-terminal transmembrane domain (TMD0) lacking sequence homology to any known protein distinguishes TAPL from most other ABC transporters of its subfamily. By dissecting the TAPL translocation complex into its four putative transmembrane helices containing TMD0 and the core complex, distinct functions to the core complex and TMD0 were assigned. The core-TAPL complex composed of six predicted transmembrane helices and the nucleotide-binding domain (NBD) was expressed transiently in HeLa or stably in Raji cells. Crude membranes containing core-TAPL showed the same peptide transport activity as wt-TAPL demonstrating that the six core helices and the NBD are sufficient for peptide transport. This result also shows that the core transport complex is correctly targeted to and assembled in the membrane. Strikingly, in contrast to the wt transporter, the core complex localizes only partially to lysosomes and is mistargeted to the plasma membrane as observed by immunofluorescence microscopy and confirmed biochemically by cell surface biotinylation. Thus, a crucial role for TMD0 in proper subcellular targeting can be postulated. The vast majority of biological processes are mediated by protein complexes, hence characterization of such protein-protein-interactions is essential for understanding protein function on the cellular level. To identify interaction partners of TAPL, the transporter was isolated by tandem affinity purification. By tandem mass spectrometry the membrane proteins LAMP-1 and LAMP-2 were deciphered as specific proteins interacting with wt-TAPL. Notably, core-TAPL lacks these interactions indicating a role for TMD0 in recruiting other proteins. These results were verified for endogenous TAPL by co-immunoprecipitation. Using cells deficient in LAMP-1 and/or in LAMP-2 an escort function for the LAMP proteins was excluded. Very importantly, the physiological function of the LAMP-1and LAMP-2 interaction with TAPL is an increase in stability, since in their absence half-life of TAPL is drastically reduced.
G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the key players in signal perception and transduction and one of the currently most important class of drug targets. An example of high pharmacological relevance is the human endothelin (ET) system comprising two rhodopsin-like GPCRs, the endothelin A (ETA) and the endothelin B (ETB) receptor. Both receptors are major modulators in cardiovascular regulation and show striking diversities in biological responses affecting vasoconstriction and blood pressure regulation as well as many other physiological processes. Numerous disorders are associated with ET dysfunction and ET antagonism is considered an efficient treatment of diseases like heart failure, hypertension, diabetes, artherosclerosis and even cancer. This study exemplifies strategies and approaches for the preparative scale synthesis of GPCRs in individual cell-free (CF) systems based on E. coli, a newly emerging and promising technique for the production of even very difficult membrane proteins. The preparation of high quality samples in sufficient amounts is still a major bottleneck for the structural determination of the ET receptors. Heterologous overexpression has been a challenge now for decades but extensive studies with conventional cell-based systems had only limited success. A central milestone of this study was the development of efficient preparative scale expression protocols of the ETA receptor in qualities sufficient for structural analysis by using individual CF systems. Newly designed optimization strategies, the implementation of a variety of CF expression modes and the development of specific quality control assays finally resulted in the production of several milligrams of ETA receptor per one millilitre of reaction mixture. The versatility of CF expression was extensively used to modulate GPCR sample quality by modification of the solubilization environment with detergents and lipids in a variety of combinations at different stages of the production process. Downstream processing procedures of CF synthesized GPCRs were systematically optimized and sample properties were analysed with respect to homogeneity, protein stability and receptor ligand binding competence. Evaluation was accomplished by an array of complementary and specifically modified techniques. Depending on its hydrophobic environment, CF production of the ETA receptor resulted in non-aggregated, monodisperse forms with sufficient long-term stability and high degrees of secondary structure thermostability. The obtained results document the CF production of the ETA receptor in two different modes as an example of a class A GPCR in ligand-binding competent and non-aggregated form in quantities sufficient for structural approaches. The presented strategy could serve as basic guideline for the production of related receptors in similar systems.
Succinate:quinone oxidoreductases (SQORs) are integral membrane protein complexes, which couple the two-electron oxidation of succinate to fumarate (succinate → fumarate + 2H+ + 2e-) to the two-electron reduction of quinone to quinol (quinone + 2H+ + 2e- → quinol) as well as catalyzing the opposite reaction, the reduction of fumarate by quinol. In mitochondria and some aerobic bacteria, succinate:ubiquinone reductase, also known as complex II of the aerobic respiratory chain or as succinate dehydrogenase from the tricarboxylic acid (TCA or Krebs) cycle, catalyzes the oxidation of succinate by ubiquinone, which is mildly exergonic under standart conditions and not directly associated with energy storage in the form of a transmembrane electrochemical proton potential (Δp). Gram-positive bacteria do not contain ubiquinone but rather menaquinone, a quinone with significantly lower oxidation-reduction (“redox”) midpoint potential. In these cases, the catalyzed oxidation of succinate by quinone is endergonic under standard conditions. Consequently, these bacteria face a thermodynamic problem in supporting the catalysis of this reaction in vivo. Based on experimental evidence obtained on whole cells and purified membranes, it had previously been proposed that the SQR from Gram-positive bacteria supports this reaction at the expense of the protonmotive force, Δp. Nonetheless, it has been argued that the observed Δp dependence is not associated specifically with the activity of SQR because the occurrence of artifacts in experiments with bacterial membranes and whole cells can not be fully excluded. Clearly, definitive insight into the mechanism of catalysis of this intriguing reaction required a corresponding functional characterization of an isolated, membranebound SQR from a Gram-positive bacterium. The first aim of the present work addresses the question if the general feasibility of the energetically uphill electron transfer from succinate to menaquinone is associated specifically to a single enzyme complex, the SQR. The prerequisite to achieve this goal was stable preparation of this enzyme.
The glycine receptor (GlyR) is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter receptor in spinal cord and brainstem. Heteropentameric GlyRs are clustered and anchored at inhibitory postsynaptic sites by the binding of the large intracellular loop between transmembrane domains 3 and 4 of the GlyRbeta subunit (GlyRbeta-loop) to the cytoplasmic scaffolding protein gephyrin. GlyRs are also cotransported with gephyrin along microtubules in the anterograde and retrograde direction due to the binding of gephyrin to microtubule-associated motor proteins. Additionally, GlyRs undergo lateral diffusion in the plasma membrane from extrasynaptic to synaptic sites and vice versa. Since its discovery, gephyrin has remained for many years the only binding partner interacting directly with the GlyRbeta subunit. In an attempt to elucidate further mechanisms involved in GlyR function and regulation at inhibitory postsynaptic sites, a proteomic screen for putative binding partners to the GlyRbeta loop was performed. Three proteins were identified as putative interactors. In this thesis, the interaction between these putative binding proteins and the GlyRbeta subunit was analyzed and characterized. Binding studies with glutathione-S-transferase fusion proteins revealed that all putative binding proteins, Syndapin (Sdp), Vacuolar Protein Sorting 35 (Vps35) and Neurobeachin (Nbea), interact specifically with the GlyRbeta loop. The Sdp family of proteins are F-BAR and SH3 domain containing proteins. Inmmunocytochemical experiments showed that SdpI as well as the isoforms SdpII-S and SdpIIL colocalize with the full-length GlyRbeta subunit in a mammalian cell expression system. In cultured spinal cord neurons, a partial colocalization of endogenous SdpI with several excitatory and inhibitory synaptic markers was demonstrated. Mapping experiments using deletion mutants narrowed the SdpI binding site down to 22 amino acids. Peptide competition experiments confirmed the specificity of the interaction between SdpI and this sequence of the GlyRbeta subunit. Point mutation analysis revealed a SH3-proline rich domain dependent interaction between SdpI and the GlyRbeta subunit, respectively. In addition, binding studies in mammalian cells showed that both splice variants of SdpII as well as SdpI interact with the GlyR scaffolding protein gephyrin. Although the SdpI and gephyrin binding sites do not overlap, protein competition studies revealed that interaction of the E-domain of gephyrin with the GlyRbeta loop interferes with SdpI binding. Since SdpI is a dynamin binding protein involved in vesicle endocytosis and recycling pathways, a possible function of SdpI in the regulation of GlyR synaptic distribution was investigated. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments confirmed a SdpI-GlyR association in the vesicle-enriched fraction of rat spinal cord tissue. Immunocytochemical studies of SdpI knock out mice showed that the clustering and distribution of GlyRs in the brain stem is unchanged. However, acute down-regulation of SdpI in rat spinal cord neurons by viral shRNA expression led to a reduction in the number and size of GlyR clusters, an effect that could be rescued upon shRNA-resistant SdpI overexpression. Further immunocytochemical analysis of the localization of gephyrin, the gamma2 subunit of the type A gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor (GABAARgamma2 subunit) and the vesicular inhibitory amino acid transporter (VIAAT) under SdpI knock-down conditions showed that both the number and average size of the gamma2-subunit containing GABAA receptor clusters were significantly reduced in spinal cord neurons. In contrast to GlyR and GABAARgamma2 immunoreactivity, the number and average size of gephyrin and VIAAT clusters were barely reduced upon SdpI downregulation. These results suggest that SdpI has a role in GlyR trafficking that can be compensated by other syndapin isoforms or other trafficking pathways. Furthermore, SdpI might be required for the clusters of GlyRs and gamma2-subunit containing GABAARs in spinal cord and brainstem. Vps35 is the core protein of the retromer complex, which mediates the endosome to Golgi apparatus retrieval of different types of receptors in mammals and yeast. Here, protein-protein interaction assays revealed for the first time that Vps35 interacts directly with the GlyRbeta loop as well as with gephyrin. The generation of specific Vps35 antibodies allowed to determine the distribution of this protein in the central nervous system. Immunocytochemical analyses revealed the presence of Vps35 in the somata and neurites of spinal cord neurons, suggesting a possible interaction of Vps35 with the GlyR under physiological conditions. Nbea is a BEACH domain containing, neuron-specific protein. Binding studies revealed a direct interaction between two regions of Nbea and the GlyRbeta loop. Immunocytochemical experiments confirmed a somatic and synaptic distribution of Nbea in primary cultures. In spinal cord neurons, a partial colocalization of Nbea with excitatory and inhibitory synaptic markers suggests a possible interaction of Nbea with the GlyR at inhibitory synaptic sites.
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a chronic T cell-mediated autoimmune disorder that results in the destruction of insulin-producing pancreatic ß cells leading to life-long dependence on exogenous insulin. Attraction, activation and transmigration of inflammatory cells to the site of ß-cell injury depend on two major molecular interactions. First, interactions between chemokines and their receptors expressed on leukocytes result in the recruitment of circulating inflammatory cells to the site of injury. In this context, it has been demonstrated in various studies that the interaction of the chemokine CXCL10 with its receptor CXCR3 expressed on circulating cells plays a key role in the development of T1D. Second, once arrived at the site of inflammation adhesion molecules promote the extravasation of arrested cells through the endothelial cell layer to penetrate the site of injury. Here, the junctional adhesion molecule (JAM) JAM-C expressed on endothelial cells is involved in the process of leukocyte diabedesis. It was recently demonstrated that blocking of JAM-C efficiently attenuated cerulein-induced pancreatitis in mice. In my thesis I studied the influence of the CXCL10/CXCR3 interaction on the one hand, and of the adhesion molecule JAM-C on the other hand, on trafficking and transmigration of antigen-specific, autoaggressive T cells in the RIP-LCMV mouse model. RIP-LCMV mice express the glycoprotein (GP) or the nucleoprotein (NP) of the lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) as a target autoantigen specifically in the ß cells of the islets of Langerhans and turn diabetic after LCMV-infection. In my first project I found that pharmacologic blockade of CXCR3 during development of virus-induced T1D results in a significant delay but not in an abrogation of overt disease. However, neither the frequency nor the migratory properties of islet-specific T cells was significantly changed during CXCR3 blockade. In the second project I was able to demonstrate that JAM-C was upregulated around the islets in RIP-LCMV mice after LCMV infection and its expression correlated with islet infiltration and functional ß-cell impairment. Blockade with a neutralizing anti-JAM-C antibody slightly reduced T1D incidence, whereas overexpression of JAM-C on endothelial cells did not accelerate virus-induced diabetes. In summary, our data suggest that both CXCR3 as well as JAM-C are involved in trafficking and transmigration of antigen-specific autoaggressive T cells to the islets of Langerhans. However, the detection of only a moderate influence on the onset of clinical disease during CXCR3 or JAM-C blockade reflects the complex pathogenesis of T1D and indicates that several different inflammatory factors need to be neutralized in order to achieve a stable and persistent protection from disease.