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The NS5B protein of the hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, which is the key enzyme for viral replication. It is recognized as one of the promising targets for antiviral intervention within the new HCV treatment approach of direct-acting antivirals (DAA). However, several of the known non-nucleoside HCV polymerase inhibitors (NNIs) identified by screening approaches show limitations in the coverage of all six major HCV genotypes (GT). Genotypic profiling therefore has to be implemented early in the screening cascade to discover new broadly active NNIs. This implies knowledge of the specific individual biochemical properties of polymerases from all GTs which is to date limited to GT 1 only. The work submitted here gives a comprehensive overview of the biochemical properties of HCV polymerases derived from all major GTs 1 - 6. Biochemical analysis of polymerases from 38 individual sequences revealed that the optima for monovalent cations, pH and temperature were similar between the GTs, whereas significant differences concerning concentration of the preferred cofactor Mg2+ were identified. Implementing the optimal requirements for the polymerases from each individual GT led to significant improvements in their enzymatic activities. However, the specific activity was distributed unequally across the GTs and could be ranked in the following descending order: 1b, 6a > 2a, 3a, 4a, 5a > 1a. Furthermore, the optimized assay conditions for GT profiling were confirmed by testing the inhibitory activity of four known prototype NNIs, each addressing one of the four NNI binding sites. Additionally, a novel NNI chemotype - identified by screening - is described, the substituted N-phenyl-benzenesulphonamides (SPBS). This inhibitor class showed reversible inhibition of NS5B from HCV 1b Con1 with IC50 values up to 39 nM. Based on the decreased inhibitory activity against a recombinant NS5B protein carrying the mutation L419M, it was assumed that the SPBS inhibitors bound to the thumb site II as it has been described for the carboxy thiophene inhibitors. The postulated binding site was consequently confirmed by analysing a provided co-crystal structure of NS5B in complex with a SPBS analogue. Notably, the two SPBS analogues SPBS-1 and SPBS-2 reported here revealed significant differences in addressing the NH-group of the main chain Y477 by hydrogen-bonds, watermediated or directly, which provoked a shift of the carboxyphenyl group of the inhibitors towards the H475 position for the water-mediated binding mode. Interestingly, the differences observed in the binding mode led to a different cross resistance profile at positions M423 and I482. Using the previously optimized biochemical primer-dependent transcription assay, inhibitory activity of the SPBS could be demonstrated against polymerases from HCV GTs 1a and 1b whereas the inhibitor class failed to inhibit any of the non-GT 1 polymerases. Furthermore, initial antiviral activity for SPBS was demonstrated against the subgenomic replicons of HCV GTs 1a and 1b, respectively, and no considerable cytotoxic potential against a panel of ten different cell types. Finally, concerning a possible future treatment without PEG-IFN α or ribavirin, the SPBS analogues were found to display additive to synergistic effects in combination with the benzothiadiazine, the benzofuran and the indole - representative inhibitors for the binding sites palm I, palm II and thumb I, repectively - in the biochemical assay. Within the same binding site as the SPBS, the reference compound hydroxydihydropyranone displayed additive interactions only with the benzothiadiazine (palm I) in the biochemical assay as well as in cell culture. Hence it could be concluded that, having characterized one individual NNI, no universal predication is possible concerning the combinatory behaviour of NNIs binding to the same binding site. As synergistic, antagonistic or additive interactions are inhibitor-dependent (not binding sitedependent) each novel NNI has to be characterized individually in one-to-one combinations.
Decorin, a small leucine rich proteoglycan (SLRP) of the extracellular matrix (ECM) is a biologically active molecule with signaling capabilities modulating diverse cellular functions 1. In this report, we explore the role of the matrix proteoglycan decorin in the regulation of inflammation and apoptosis and the resultant biological significance in cancer and diabetic nephropathy. The mechanisms linking immunity and inflammation with tumor development are not well defined. Here we report a novel finding that the soluble form of decorin could autonomously trigger the synthesis of TNFα and IL-12 in macrophages through TLR2 and TLR4 in a p44/42- and p38-dependent manner. In the presence of LPS, decorin enhanced the effects of LPS by signaling additionally via TLR2. Further, decorin could enhance PDCD4 protein expression with subsequent inhibition of LPS-mediated IL-10 protein synthesis by two mechanisms: i) by TLR2/TLR4-dependent stimulation of PDCD4 synthesis and ii) by inhibition of the TGFβ1-induced increase of miR-21, a posttranscriptional suppressor of PDCD4 protein synthesis. Enhanced PDCD4, a translational inhibitor of IL-10, downregulated this anti-inflammatory cytokine, thereby further driving the cytokine profile towards a proinflammatory phenotype.
Importantly, these mechanisms appear to operate in a broad biological context linking pathogen-mediated with sterile inflammation as shown here for sepsis and growth retardation of established tumor xenografts. In sepsis, decorin is an early response gene evoked by inflammation and is markedly elevated in plasma of septic human patients and in plasma and tissues of septic mice. Our findings suggested that in vivo decorin alone mimics the effects of LPS by enhancing the plasma and tissue levels of pro-inflammatory TNFα, IL-12 and PDCD4 but when administered together with LPS, it potentiated the proinflammatory response of this PAMP by inhibiting active TGFβ1, miR-21 and hence the LPS mediated IL-10 production. In vivo, overexpression of decorin in tumor xenografts resulted in decorin/TLR2/4-driven synthesis of PDCD4, TNFα, IL-12 and decorin/TGFβ1/miR-21-mediated inhibition of PDCD4 suppression shifting the immune response to a pro-apoptotic and proinflammatory axis with strong anti-tumorigenic effects resulting in increased apoptosis and growth retardation of solid tumor. Thus, decorin signaling boosts inflammatory activity in sepsis and tumor. In contrast to the proinflammatory and proapoptotic role of decorin in tumor, decorin deficiency in diabetic kidneys led to enhanced apoptosis and increased mononuclear cell infiltration indicating that decorin might give rise to distinct biological outcomes depending on the cell type and biological context. Accordingly, in this study, we used a model of streptozotocin-induced diabetes type 1 in wild-type (Dcn+/+) and decorin-deficient- (Dcn-/-) mice to further elucidate the role of decorin in diabetic nephropathy. In this model, decorin was overexpressed in the mesangial matrix of the glomerulus and in the tubulointerstitium both at the mRNA and protein level in early stages of diabetic nephropathy which declined as the disease further progressed supporting the concept that decorin might act as a part of a natural response to hyperglycemia and to damage caused there from. These observations correlate with the data obtained in renal biopsies from patients at various stages of diabetic nephropathy 15, suggesting clinical relevance of our findings for the human disease. In the diabetic kidney, decorin deficiency was associated with: i) glomerular and tubular overexpression of p27Kip1 and enhanced proteinuria, ii) enhanced expression of TGFβ1 and CTGF resulting in increased accumulation of ECM, iii) overexpression of biglycan and elevated infiltration of mononuclear cells, iv) enhanced apoptosis of tubular epithelial cells despite overexpression of tubular IGF-IR. We further discovered that decorin binds to the IGF-IR in tubular epithelial cells and conveys protection against high glucose-mediated apoptosis providing evidence for a protective role of decorin during diabetic nephropathy development.
Thus, future therapeutic approaches that would either enhance the endogenous production of decorin or deliver exogenous decorin to the diseased solid tumors and/or diabetic kidney might improve the prognosis of these chronic diseases.
The present work comprises different projects within the scope of public health. In detail, they all aim at combating the high-burden diseases HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis more effectively. Since there was, and still is, no harmonization between the existing biowaiver guidelines, the biowaiver dissolution test conditions by WHO and FDA were compared against each other using drug products, which had already demonstrated BE to the comparator in vivo. Thereby it could be shown that the dissolution conditions proposed by the WHO are more appropriate for granting biowaivers than those of the FDA. Further, the applicability of the WHO dissolution test conditions was investigated using the APIs ethambutol, isoniazid and pyrazinamide (all BCS Class III) as model compounds. These investigations demonstrated that the concept of the biowaiver proved to work properly, i.e. leading to no false positive BE decision and an acceptable incidence of false negative BE decisions. In addition, four new biowaiver monographs were published addressing important APIs in the treatment of HIV/AIDS and malaria. Before these efforts, there were only a very few biowaiver monographs available for antiviral or antimalarial APIs, i.e. the database of biowaiver monographs has been clearly improved. The last part of the present work dealt with the extension of the biowaiver concept to related areas such as the WHO Prequalification of Medicines Programme. Investigations revealed that the biowaiver tools are generally eligible for prequalification of drug products containing ethambutol, isoniazid, pyrazinamide, or lamivudine to prove BE between an appropriate comparator and the test candidate. By contrast, some APIs are excluded from the biowaiver procedure. In conclusion, the implementation of the biowaiver tools for prequalification of biowaivable APIs is, along with BCS-based biowaiver approval of new generics, an important step towards making essential, high-quality drug products more cost-effective and, as a consequence, more accessible for a larger percentage of the population. In that way, the treatment conditions for those in need living in the developing countries can be improved enormously, so that those who are poor do not have to receive poor treatment. The quality standard of essential medicines will increase worldwide, thereby helping to combat the high-burden diseases better and, in turn, lead to an improvement of the global health status.